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Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg Rodrigues Aryon D 1985 Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships In Klein Harriet E Mane-
lis amp Louisa R Stark (editoras) South American Indian languages retrospect and prospect Austin University of Texas Press
Permalink httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorgrodrigues_1985_evidence O material contido neste arquivo foi escaneado e disponibilizado online com o objetivo de tornar acessiacutevel uma obra de difiacutecil acesso e de ediccedilatildeo esgotada natildeo podendo ser modificado ou usado para fins comerciais Seu uacutenico propoacutesito eacute o uso individual para pesquisa e aprendizado Para o esclarecimento de possiacuteveis duacutevidas ou objeccedilotildees quanto ao uso e distribuiccedilatildeo deste material ou para comunicar problemas com sua legibilidade (paacuteginas defeituosas etc) entre em contato com os responsaacuteveis pela Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju no seguinte endereccedilo httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorgindexcontato O presente trabalho parte da Coleccedilatildeo Aryon Rodrigues foi digitalizado e disponibilizado pela equipe da Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju em julho de 2010
9 Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships
Aryon D Rodrigues
The purp ose of this paper is to present some evishy
d ( n r (of p r ( h i fi tmiddot () r i r 1 n cI h i fi t 0 r i r lt1 I r ( 1 a t ion s b e shy
tween the languages of the Tu pi stock and those of
the Carib family
I proposed the Tupi stock as comprising seven
faml1les--Tupl-Guaranl~ ~ Mun d uru ku J uruna A r1kem
Tupar1 Mond~ and Ramar~ma--and a linguistic isoshy
late Purubor-a (Rodrigues 195 8a) 1958b 1964
1970) There is thus far only sparse unelaborated
lexical evidence for the affiliation of some of -these fam il ies for others such as Tuparl Mundushy
ruk~ and TUrl-Guarani wt hav e airpady worked out
more extensive l exica l Clnd phonological corresponshy
dences (Rodrigues 1961 1980) At the moment I beshy
lieve that two languages previously included in the
Tup1-Guaran~ family Aweti and Satar~ should be
reclassified as two additional isolates (or one-
member families) in the Tupi
stock
The geographical distributi o n of the Tupi
stock
has the following main features
(a) It lies essentially south 01 the Amazon Rishy
ver (to the north of this boundary we find only the
T UP1- uaranlan 1a ect group Wayapl-Emerl on-- G - d 1 - 11
which reached the Oyapock river on the Brazilshy
French Guyana border in post-Colombian times (M~tshy
raux 192729-35) and the Amazonian Lingua Geral or NheengatU a creolized dialect of Tupi-Guaranian
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
372 Aryan D Rodrigues
Tllp 11llllhil III roellll ii AIIIIZ0Ili Igty lorllllIIr11 (()shy
Ionization and missionary activity)
(b) It is found mainly in the Amazon Basin the
only exceptioll to this is the Tupi-Guarani family
which although it has lIIany languages in that Bashy
sin also sprpad5 0vIr the PnrAn~ Basin in the
south and alon g most of the length o f the Brazilian
coast in the east (c) Five of the members of this stock--Tupari
Arik~m Mond~ Ramar~ma and Purubor6--are found in
the area betwe e n the Machado (Jipariln~) and the
Guapor~ Rivers in the highest part of the Madeira
Basin (in the Br az ilian State of Rond~nia) and a
sixth me mber Sa tar (Maw~) is spoken on the lower
Madeira
T h (gt C) r i h I all f IJ ltl C 5 C () 11 5 t I IJ I C () n I y () 11 C f1 m i 1 Y
w II i c II III n y Igt ( s hili v i e1 Ii i 11 I () I (~ n lic 1 I I Y d f fer c n shy
tiated subgroups These subgroups have not yetI
been clearly defined However the most likely
division is between languages spoken north and
south of the Ama z on River The latter group may be
further divided into two subgroups with one comshy
prised o f Ap i ak o f the Tocantins Ar~ra and Parirf
of the lower Xin g G and Txik~o of the upper XingG
The other would encompass Nahukw-Kal a p~lo-Kuik~ru shy
on the upp e r XJngu and lIakairi the southernmost
Ctlrih InllfII)F C on 1111 IIpp(r pound1115( 111(1 1Illovi
RivCrs (Xillgll Iill) 111(1011 lil e 1(gt1(gt5 Ii res ltlnd
Novo Rivers (T a paj6s Basin)
The northern Carib languages are numerous and
widespread extending from north of the Amazon
mouth to the Orino c o River and further along the
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 373
Vene7uelnfl c(lOsl ill lhe pllRt hllving reached the
Antilles After a geographical discontinuity we
find the westernmost and perhaps most divergent
subgroup of Carib languages (Opone Carare) in the
Madalena Valley of Colombia Another discontinuous
subgroup whose best known member is Hiankoto-Umshy
ua is located on the Caquet~ and Apaporis Rivers
(Yapur~ Basin) in southern Colombia but this is
linguistically very close to the Makiritare (Yekushy
ana) subgroup on the Ventuari River in Venezuela
(which in turn is more akin to the languages of 2
the Uraricuera such as Wayumara) Palmela a
Carib language once spoken on the Guapor~ River
south of the Amazon exhibits features typical of
the North Amazonian languages and was probably
dLsplaced to thnt re~i()n in i1 very late milration
(19th century) (cf Fonseca and Almeida 1899229shy
234) A Carib linguistic isolate is Pimenteira a
language which in the 18th and 19th centuries was
spoken far from Amazonia between the Gurgu~ia and
the Piaui ~
Rivers in the northeastern Brazilian
State of Piaui and by the end of the 17th century
had been farther in western Pernambuco near Cabroshy3
b6 on the left bank of the Sao Francisco River shy
Lexical similarities between Tupi and Carib lanshy
guages were pointed out in the past by various
scholars AS early as 1909 d( Goeje said that seshy
veral words which are not onomatopoetic appear to
pertain at once to the primitive (ie proto-) Cashy
rib language and to the primitive Tupi or to the
primitive Aruak would they be relics from a time 4
when these families were yet only one
I I
374 Aryon D Rodrigues
Our COIIIPflt ~()II () r ~ ()III (I I ltl n p 11l f ( S of t II ( Ill pi
stock with languages of the Carib family led to the
establishment of regular phonological correspondenshy
ces between both groups These correspondences
presented in Tables and 2 are based on over 100
lexical equations covering such domains as kinship
body and plant pltlrts nature l1on-cu ILural and culshy
tural items qualities ltl c ti o ns and stat e s In adshy
dition to some
perSOl1 markers
In List A are
In compiling
g rammatic a l morphemes including
[ h ( ( q U l l () n ~ wh i ( hill ( p r ( s ( n t e d
indi Cltive of genetic relationship
Tables and 2 only the Carib Lanshy
guages often recurring in List A were specified
the other laneuages of the same family appearing in
that list b e have in ~eneral similar to one of the
specified languRg(s
for List A only sOl11e languag e s of each group
were used selected from those for which more lexishy
cal and grammatical information was available to ~ b (me For th e Tupl stock I took Tuplnam a 16th and
17th century sources especially Anonymous 1952shy
19)] p h 0 n ( m i ( 7 ( rI 0 r I ( r Il (l d ri p I l( ~ 1C) S C) 111 d 1911 I)
as a repreSellLai ve of th e Tllpi
- (uarllli
f 1111 i 1 Y
(w o rds not attested for Tupinal11h~ were t ltlken from shy
Old Guarani R u i z d e ~1 0 n toy a ) 639) Tup a ri (Caspar
and Rodrigues ms) as il membCor
I Y il 11 d
memb e r
fam i ly
1962)
HUll d II r II k (c () r (s 1 9 7 ~
of thl MUllduruk~ fomily
I took bAsically Waiwai
Hishkary~na (Derbyshire
o f the Tupari famishy
d Ins) it S a
For the Carib
( [ a w kin s I 9 5 2 and
1979 and ms) and
Taulipang (Pemong) (Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) as represhy
senta t ives of the North Amazoniall Languages (but
Evidencepoundor Tupi-Carib Relationships 375
wordR from lomc (I t h ( Illngllilgls w(~rc llddcd mORt o( I
them taken from de Goeje 1909 and 1946) and Bakaishy
ri (Steinen 1892 and Weatley ms) as a representashy
tive of the South Amazonian languages (with a few
examples from Nahukw~ after Steinen 1894 and de I Goeje 1909) By taking into account such languages I we reduce the possibility of including in List A
sets of correspondences valid only for a particular
subgroup of languages
List B consists of correspondences found only
between the Tupi-Guarani family (excluding the
other Tupi families) and North Amazonian Carib lanshy
guages To the Carib languages used in List A were
added Way~na (Coudreau 1892 de Goeje 1946) as well
as other North Amazonian languages (after de Goeje
1909 and Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) These correspondenshy
ces include words for fauna flora and cultural
artifacts which are common to the whole Tupi-Guarashy
nl ~ family They probably reflect a contact either
~ b etween an ancestor of the present day TupI-Guaranl
languages and an ancestor of the north Amazonian Carib languages or between one of the Tupi-Guarani
longungeR And on( or L h ( North AmAzoniAIl Cilrib ll1nshy
guages with subsequent diffusion within the respecshy shytive family Bu t these strictly Tupi-GuaraniNorth
Amazonian Carib correspondences (which constitute
the bulk of the lexical similarities so far mentioshy
ned by previous authors) are Rurely not due to geshy
netic relationship and should therefore be clearly
distinguished from the cognate sets represented in 5
List A This point is mentioned here only in pas- I I
I ~ing but it deserves a more thorough examination
iI 1
I I I I
376 Aryan D Rodrigues
i nth c rut 1 I r 0 ] S W ( J C q 1 I r ( ( I ( r k 11 () W I ( d r ( t) f a
larger number of Carib languages It should also
be taken into account that many lexical items
included in List B are to be found as well In some 6
North IImazonin IIrawAk languages
r i q [ c p r ( ~ ( II S ( (l r r ( s P () 11 II ( II tmiddot ( S III () S I pro h i1 b I Y
d II ( I (l r ( t ( II ( (l 11 I ( IS II ( r C 11(IIIltI(lolllwords
of several Carib languages taken either from Lingua
Geral or from some other particular Tu p1-Guaranf
lan~uage C I loanwords f rom Llngua Ceral (Tateshy
vin 19 10 Stradelli 1929) in North Amazonian Carib
languages C 2 - loanwords from Wayapi
(Coudreau 7
1892) or Lingua Geral in Wayana I add also a
list of Carib loanwords in a Tupi-Guarani language 8
C 3 - loa n w 0 r d s fro m ~ a y a n a i n Way a pi
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 377
TAIlLE I Phonologic1 CorrospolldCl1ccs--Consonallts
(Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
Tb p Tr p elll i peV i Mu p 61 ie Ww p
h Hk h Jp Gl Wn p Ilk p x 7 20 29 33
353819 )5 ~)9 70 71 93 9 11 95 97 98
I 14 I 17
Tb p T r pI ftII Tp p 5111 Ww Hk Bk tIll
29 30 3 I 47
Tb6 Tr p Mu m Ww Hk G1 Wn w 8 82 91 114
T b ~ I II T r M u p I II Ww Hk mI II 2 I 67 69
92 106
Tb~1 II Tr Mu pi 1 Ww Hk Bk (w) 25 26
317377 107
Tb Tr t Mu t d Ww Hk Tp Gl Wn HU Bk t
4 I 5 3 3 3 6 9 5 I () J I 0 J 11
Tb s T r t e I i Mu r Ww t tl i Hk t el e
Tp ~n t 43 52 62 637379100102118
T b T r Huk Ww Hk T p G1 l~ n k B k k k x 5
13 1940414554616875768385
939498101 III 14 liS 116 117 18
121
Tb Tr k Mu Ww Hk Tp G1 ~n Bk k 24 49
50 80 108 110
Tb Tr Mu Ww Hk Tp Bk Ii 17 22 35 65 67
74 109
Tb Tr Mu m Ww Hk Gl Wn m ilk Jf 6 9 14 42
56 63 83 88 90 103a 116
Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379378 Aryan D Rodrigues
T a h 1 c I P h () n () I (I g j C J I C () r r ~ S P () n cI l 11 C l S - - C 0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2 Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels
(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
--- --- --~---
T b Tr M u i Ww T p B k i H k e 3 57 58 8 I
Th Tr 11 Ww Il k lp 11 Ilk II IIi e 7 ill 77 HI
Th m Tr Mk Hk 01 1 6
8 3 19
II () Th Tr i Ww Ilk I J 5 1
T b n T r ff ~ w 11 8 I 8 8 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Ww Hk Tp Ap Bk i 18 22 23
T b T r 1) T P ) -1 w II k B k 01 Z 0 n2 7 4 8 9 I I 9 32 33 3 4 43 52 59 66 76 80 82 99
Tb r Tr Mu r t I 1 JJ Hk Tp Hk r Wn 12 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Hk Tp Bk a 16 19 45 76 103a
16 17 19 3 0 3Z 37 38 4 5 16 49 SO 54 I 15
64879699 101 106 li Z 11 3 114 120 Tb 4 Tr i Ww Hk Tp e 13k i 17 23 24 59 60
Tb r l II Tr Mu tl II Ww Hk 13k Z 55 7275 79 95
Tb u Tr 0 Mu 0 i Ww Hkt Tp Bk u 2177
Tb r Tr h Ww Hk Tp y I 56
87
90
Th Tr Mu y Hk y 22 1 9 97 107 Tb u Tr Mu 0 Ww Hk Tp 0 39 110 113 i21
Tb y Tr MIl w Tp 11 -111 w Ww Ilk 1( (S 6( Tb Tr Mu C Ww Hk Tp Hk e 10 16243031
58 59 75 76 77 78 79 106 108 115
Th y III Tr Mu will Ww Hk T p( I 0 I deg5 I deg6
II 3 12 I
Tb Tr e Ww Tp Bk il II 28 55 6587
Tb V Hk Vm 2 2 39 57 Tb Tr Mu e ~w Hk Tp Bk a 2132094106
108
Mp t ltI th e s C s 9 3 2 J3 I 2 5 (J () 2 I R B () 8 1 8 5 Tb Tr Mu a Ww Hk Tp 13k a 14 15 25 27 33
H7 II ()I 9) ltj( ()7 I () 353738414243445052566063
656768707172747583848586- --- --__--_ 889192939495 III 112 114 116 117
120
Tb Mu a Ww Hk e 45 62 73 105
T b T r 0 N u 4 ~w Hk o u T p 13 k 0 I 8 9
15 29586971828997 100 109 118
Tb Tr 0 Hw Hk Hk a 26 47 68 96 101 N
T b T r V -Iw Hk T p B k V I 4 I 5 3 2 35 5 I 65
8 0 82 j
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
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I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
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1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
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24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
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tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
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quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
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I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
9 Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships
Aryon D Rodrigues
The purp ose of this paper is to present some evishy
d ( n r (of p r ( h i fi tmiddot () r i r 1 n cI h i fi t 0 r i r lt1 I r ( 1 a t ion s b e shy
tween the languages of the Tu pi stock and those of
the Carib family
I proposed the Tupi stock as comprising seven
faml1les--Tupl-Guaranl~ ~ Mun d uru ku J uruna A r1kem
Tupar1 Mond~ and Ramar~ma--and a linguistic isoshy
late Purubor-a (Rodrigues 195 8a) 1958b 1964
1970) There is thus far only sparse unelaborated
lexical evidence for the affiliation of some of -these fam il ies for others such as Tuparl Mundushy
ruk~ and TUrl-Guarani wt hav e airpady worked out
more extensive l exica l Clnd phonological corresponshy
dences (Rodrigues 1961 1980) At the moment I beshy
lieve that two languages previously included in the
Tup1-Guaran~ family Aweti and Satar~ should be
reclassified as two additional isolates (or one-
member families) in the Tupi
stock
The geographical distributi o n of the Tupi
stock
has the following main features
(a) It lies essentially south 01 the Amazon Rishy
ver (to the north of this boundary we find only the
T UP1- uaranlan 1a ect group Wayapl-Emerl on-- G - d 1 - 11
which reached the Oyapock river on the Brazilshy
French Guyana border in post-Colombian times (M~tshy
raux 192729-35) and the Amazonian Lingua Geral or NheengatU a creolized dialect of Tupi-Guaranian
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
372 Aryan D Rodrigues
Tllp 11llllhil III roellll ii AIIIIZ0Ili Igty lorllllIIr11 (()shy
Ionization and missionary activity)
(b) It is found mainly in the Amazon Basin the
only exceptioll to this is the Tupi-Guarani family
which although it has lIIany languages in that Bashy
sin also sprpad5 0vIr the PnrAn~ Basin in the
south and alon g most of the length o f the Brazilian
coast in the east (c) Five of the members of this stock--Tupari
Arik~m Mond~ Ramar~ma and Purubor6--are found in
the area betwe e n the Machado (Jipariln~) and the
Guapor~ Rivers in the highest part of the Madeira
Basin (in the Br az ilian State of Rond~nia) and a
sixth me mber Sa tar (Maw~) is spoken on the lower
Madeira
T h (gt C) r i h I all f IJ ltl C 5 C () 11 5 t I IJ I C () n I y () 11 C f1 m i 1 Y
w II i c II III n y Igt ( s hili v i e1 Ii i 11 I () I (~ n lic 1 I I Y d f fer c n shy
tiated subgroups These subgroups have not yetI
been clearly defined However the most likely
division is between languages spoken north and
south of the Ama z on River The latter group may be
further divided into two subgroups with one comshy
prised o f Ap i ak o f the Tocantins Ar~ra and Parirf
of the lower Xin g G and Txik~o of the upper XingG
The other would encompass Nahukw-Kal a p~lo-Kuik~ru shy
on the upp e r XJngu and lIakairi the southernmost
Ctlrih InllfII)F C on 1111 IIpp(r pound1115( 111(1 1Illovi
RivCrs (Xillgll Iill) 111(1011 lil e 1(gt1(gt5 Ii res ltlnd
Novo Rivers (T a paj6s Basin)
The northern Carib languages are numerous and
widespread extending from north of the Amazon
mouth to the Orino c o River and further along the
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 373
Vene7uelnfl c(lOsl ill lhe pllRt hllving reached the
Antilles After a geographical discontinuity we
find the westernmost and perhaps most divergent
subgroup of Carib languages (Opone Carare) in the
Madalena Valley of Colombia Another discontinuous
subgroup whose best known member is Hiankoto-Umshy
ua is located on the Caquet~ and Apaporis Rivers
(Yapur~ Basin) in southern Colombia but this is
linguistically very close to the Makiritare (Yekushy
ana) subgroup on the Ventuari River in Venezuela
(which in turn is more akin to the languages of 2
the Uraricuera such as Wayumara) Palmela a
Carib language once spoken on the Guapor~ River
south of the Amazon exhibits features typical of
the North Amazonian languages and was probably
dLsplaced to thnt re~i()n in i1 very late milration
(19th century) (cf Fonseca and Almeida 1899229shy
234) A Carib linguistic isolate is Pimenteira a
language which in the 18th and 19th centuries was
spoken far from Amazonia between the Gurgu~ia and
the Piaui ~
Rivers in the northeastern Brazilian
State of Piaui and by the end of the 17th century
had been farther in western Pernambuco near Cabroshy3
b6 on the left bank of the Sao Francisco River shy
Lexical similarities between Tupi and Carib lanshy
guages were pointed out in the past by various
scholars AS early as 1909 d( Goeje said that seshy
veral words which are not onomatopoetic appear to
pertain at once to the primitive (ie proto-) Cashy
rib language and to the primitive Tupi or to the
primitive Aruak would they be relics from a time 4
when these families were yet only one
I I
374 Aryon D Rodrigues
Our COIIIPflt ~()II () r ~ ()III (I I ltl n p 11l f ( S of t II ( Ill pi
stock with languages of the Carib family led to the
establishment of regular phonological correspondenshy
ces between both groups These correspondences
presented in Tables and 2 are based on over 100
lexical equations covering such domains as kinship
body and plant pltlrts nature l1on-cu ILural and culshy
tural items qualities ltl c ti o ns and stat e s In adshy
dition to some
perSOl1 markers
In List A are
In compiling
g rammatic a l morphemes including
[ h ( ( q U l l () n ~ wh i ( hill ( p r ( s ( n t e d
indi Cltive of genetic relationship
Tables and 2 only the Carib Lanshy
guages often recurring in List A were specified
the other laneuages of the same family appearing in
that list b e have in ~eneral similar to one of the
specified languRg(s
for List A only sOl11e languag e s of each group
were used selected from those for which more lexishy
cal and grammatical information was available to ~ b (me For th e Tupl stock I took Tuplnam a 16th and
17th century sources especially Anonymous 1952shy
19)] p h 0 n ( m i ( 7 ( rI 0 r I ( r Il (l d ri p I l( ~ 1C) S C) 111 d 1911 I)
as a repreSellLai ve of th e Tllpi
- (uarllli
f 1111 i 1 Y
(w o rds not attested for Tupinal11h~ were t ltlken from shy
Old Guarani R u i z d e ~1 0 n toy a ) 639) Tup a ri (Caspar
and Rodrigues ms) as il membCor
I Y il 11 d
memb e r
fam i ly
1962)
HUll d II r II k (c () r (s 1 9 7 ~
of thl MUllduruk~ fomily
I took bAsically Waiwai
Hishkary~na (Derbyshire
o f the Tupari famishy
d Ins) it S a
For the Carib
( [ a w kin s I 9 5 2 and
1979 and ms) and
Taulipang (Pemong) (Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) as represhy
senta t ives of the North Amazoniall Languages (but
Evidencepoundor Tupi-Carib Relationships 375
wordR from lomc (I t h ( Illngllilgls w(~rc llddcd mORt o( I
them taken from de Goeje 1909 and 1946) and Bakaishy
ri (Steinen 1892 and Weatley ms) as a representashy
tive of the South Amazonian languages (with a few
examples from Nahukw~ after Steinen 1894 and de I Goeje 1909) By taking into account such languages I we reduce the possibility of including in List A
sets of correspondences valid only for a particular
subgroup of languages
List B consists of correspondences found only
between the Tupi-Guarani family (excluding the
other Tupi families) and North Amazonian Carib lanshy
guages To the Carib languages used in List A were
added Way~na (Coudreau 1892 de Goeje 1946) as well
as other North Amazonian languages (after de Goeje
1909 and Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) These correspondenshy
ces include words for fauna flora and cultural
artifacts which are common to the whole Tupi-Guarashy
nl ~ family They probably reflect a contact either
~ b etween an ancestor of the present day TupI-Guaranl
languages and an ancestor of the north Amazonian Carib languages or between one of the Tupi-Guarani
longungeR And on( or L h ( North AmAzoniAIl Cilrib ll1nshy
guages with subsequent diffusion within the respecshy shytive family Bu t these strictly Tupi-GuaraniNorth
Amazonian Carib correspondences (which constitute
the bulk of the lexical similarities so far mentioshy
ned by previous authors) are Rurely not due to geshy
netic relationship and should therefore be clearly
distinguished from the cognate sets represented in 5
List A This point is mentioned here only in pas- I I
I ~ing but it deserves a more thorough examination
iI 1
I I I I
376 Aryan D Rodrigues
i nth c rut 1 I r 0 ] S W ( J C q 1 I r ( ( I ( r k 11 () W I ( d r ( t) f a
larger number of Carib languages It should also
be taken into account that many lexical items
included in List B are to be found as well In some 6
North IImazonin IIrawAk languages
r i q [ c p r ( ~ ( II S ( (l r r ( s P () 11 II ( II tmiddot ( S III () S I pro h i1 b I Y
d II ( I (l r ( t ( II ( (l 11 I ( IS II ( r C 11(IIIltI(lolllwords
of several Carib languages taken either from Lingua
Geral or from some other particular Tu p1-Guaranf
lan~uage C I loanwords f rom Llngua Ceral (Tateshy
vin 19 10 Stradelli 1929) in North Amazonian Carib
languages C 2 - loanwords from Wayapi
(Coudreau 7
1892) or Lingua Geral in Wayana I add also a
list of Carib loanwords in a Tupi-Guarani language 8
C 3 - loa n w 0 r d s fro m ~ a y a n a i n Way a pi
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 377
TAIlLE I Phonologic1 CorrospolldCl1ccs--Consonallts
(Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
Tb p Tr p elll i peV i Mu p 61 ie Ww p
h Hk h Jp Gl Wn p Ilk p x 7 20 29 33
353819 )5 ~)9 70 71 93 9 11 95 97 98
I 14 I 17
Tb p T r pI ftII Tp p 5111 Ww Hk Bk tIll
29 30 3 I 47
Tb6 Tr p Mu m Ww Hk G1 Wn w 8 82 91 114
T b ~ I II T r M u p I II Ww Hk mI II 2 I 67 69
92 106
Tb~1 II Tr Mu pi 1 Ww Hk Bk (w) 25 26
317377 107
Tb Tr t Mu t d Ww Hk Tp Gl Wn HU Bk t
4 I 5 3 3 3 6 9 5 I () J I 0 J 11
Tb s T r t e I i Mu r Ww t tl i Hk t el e
Tp ~n t 43 52 62 637379100102118
T b T r Huk Ww Hk T p G1 l~ n k B k k k x 5
13 1940414554616875768385
939498101 III 14 liS 116 117 18
121
Tb Tr k Mu Ww Hk Tp G1 ~n Bk k 24 49
50 80 108 110
Tb Tr Mu Ww Hk Tp Bk Ii 17 22 35 65 67
74 109
Tb Tr Mu m Ww Hk Gl Wn m ilk Jf 6 9 14 42
56 63 83 88 90 103a 116
Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379378 Aryan D Rodrigues
T a h 1 c I P h () n () I (I g j C J I C () r r ~ S P () n cI l 11 C l S - - C 0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2 Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels
(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
--- --- --~---
T b Tr M u i Ww T p B k i H k e 3 57 58 8 I
Th Tr 11 Ww Il k lp 11 Ilk II IIi e 7 ill 77 HI
Th m Tr Mk Hk 01 1 6
8 3 19
II () Th Tr i Ww Ilk I J 5 1
T b n T r ff ~ w 11 8 I 8 8 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Ww Hk Tp Ap Bk i 18 22 23
T b T r 1) T P ) -1 w II k B k 01 Z 0 n2 7 4 8 9 I I 9 32 33 3 4 43 52 59 66 76 80 82 99
Tb r Tr Mu r t I 1 JJ Hk Tp Hk r Wn 12 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Hk Tp Bk a 16 19 45 76 103a
16 17 19 3 0 3Z 37 38 4 5 16 49 SO 54 I 15
64879699 101 106 li Z 11 3 114 120 Tb 4 Tr i Ww Hk Tp e 13k i 17 23 24 59 60
Tb r l II Tr Mu tl II Ww Hk 13k Z 55 7275 79 95
Tb u Tr 0 Mu 0 i Ww Hkt Tp Bk u 2177
Tb r Tr h Ww Hk Tp y I 56
87
90
Th Tr Mu y Hk y 22 1 9 97 107 Tb u Tr Mu 0 Ww Hk Tp 0 39 110 113 i21
Tb y Tr MIl w Tp 11 -111 w Ww Ilk 1( (S 6( Tb Tr Mu C Ww Hk Tp Hk e 10 16243031
58 59 75 76 77 78 79 106 108 115
Th y III Tr Mu will Ww Hk T p( I 0 I deg5 I deg6
II 3 12 I
Tb Tr e Ww Tp Bk il II 28 55 6587
Tb V Hk Vm 2 2 39 57 Tb Tr Mu e ~w Hk Tp Bk a 2132094106
108
Mp t ltI th e s C s 9 3 2 J3 I 2 5 (J () 2 I R B () 8 1 8 5 Tb Tr Mu a Ww Hk Tp 13k a 14 15 25 27 33
H7 II ()I 9) ltj( ()7 I () 353738414243445052566063
656768707172747583848586- --- --__--_ 889192939495 III 112 114 116 117
120
Tb Mu a Ww Hk e 45 62 73 105
T b T r 0 N u 4 ~w Hk o u T p 13 k 0 I 8 9
15 29586971828997 100 109 118
Tb Tr 0 Hw Hk Hk a 26 47 68 96 101 N
T b T r V -Iw Hk T p B k V I 4 I 5 3 2 35 5 I 65
8 0 82 j
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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Anonymous
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Gl kal~pana mosquito)
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cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
372 Aryan D Rodrigues
Tllp 11llllhil III roellll ii AIIIIZ0Ili Igty lorllllIIr11 (()shy
Ionization and missionary activity)
(b) It is found mainly in the Amazon Basin the
only exceptioll to this is the Tupi-Guarani family
which although it has lIIany languages in that Bashy
sin also sprpad5 0vIr the PnrAn~ Basin in the
south and alon g most of the length o f the Brazilian
coast in the east (c) Five of the members of this stock--Tupari
Arik~m Mond~ Ramar~ma and Purubor6--are found in
the area betwe e n the Machado (Jipariln~) and the
Guapor~ Rivers in the highest part of the Madeira
Basin (in the Br az ilian State of Rond~nia) and a
sixth me mber Sa tar (Maw~) is spoken on the lower
Madeira
T h (gt C) r i h I all f IJ ltl C 5 C () 11 5 t I IJ I C () n I y () 11 C f1 m i 1 Y
w II i c II III n y Igt ( s hili v i e1 Ii i 11 I () I (~ n lic 1 I I Y d f fer c n shy
tiated subgroups These subgroups have not yetI
been clearly defined However the most likely
division is between languages spoken north and
south of the Ama z on River The latter group may be
further divided into two subgroups with one comshy
prised o f Ap i ak o f the Tocantins Ar~ra and Parirf
of the lower Xin g G and Txik~o of the upper XingG
The other would encompass Nahukw-Kal a p~lo-Kuik~ru shy
on the upp e r XJngu and lIakairi the southernmost
Ctlrih InllfII)F C on 1111 IIpp(r pound1115( 111(1 1Illovi
RivCrs (Xillgll Iill) 111(1011 lil e 1(gt1(gt5 Ii res ltlnd
Novo Rivers (T a paj6s Basin)
The northern Carib languages are numerous and
widespread extending from north of the Amazon
mouth to the Orino c o River and further along the
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 373
Vene7uelnfl c(lOsl ill lhe pllRt hllving reached the
Antilles After a geographical discontinuity we
find the westernmost and perhaps most divergent
subgroup of Carib languages (Opone Carare) in the
Madalena Valley of Colombia Another discontinuous
subgroup whose best known member is Hiankoto-Umshy
ua is located on the Caquet~ and Apaporis Rivers
(Yapur~ Basin) in southern Colombia but this is
linguistically very close to the Makiritare (Yekushy
ana) subgroup on the Ventuari River in Venezuela
(which in turn is more akin to the languages of 2
the Uraricuera such as Wayumara) Palmela a
Carib language once spoken on the Guapor~ River
south of the Amazon exhibits features typical of
the North Amazonian languages and was probably
dLsplaced to thnt re~i()n in i1 very late milration
(19th century) (cf Fonseca and Almeida 1899229shy
234) A Carib linguistic isolate is Pimenteira a
language which in the 18th and 19th centuries was
spoken far from Amazonia between the Gurgu~ia and
the Piaui ~
Rivers in the northeastern Brazilian
State of Piaui and by the end of the 17th century
had been farther in western Pernambuco near Cabroshy3
b6 on the left bank of the Sao Francisco River shy
Lexical similarities between Tupi and Carib lanshy
guages were pointed out in the past by various
scholars AS early as 1909 d( Goeje said that seshy
veral words which are not onomatopoetic appear to
pertain at once to the primitive (ie proto-) Cashy
rib language and to the primitive Tupi or to the
primitive Aruak would they be relics from a time 4
when these families were yet only one
I I
374 Aryon D Rodrigues
Our COIIIPflt ~()II () r ~ ()III (I I ltl n p 11l f ( S of t II ( Ill pi
stock with languages of the Carib family led to the
establishment of regular phonological correspondenshy
ces between both groups These correspondences
presented in Tables and 2 are based on over 100
lexical equations covering such domains as kinship
body and plant pltlrts nature l1on-cu ILural and culshy
tural items qualities ltl c ti o ns and stat e s In adshy
dition to some
perSOl1 markers
In List A are
In compiling
g rammatic a l morphemes including
[ h ( ( q U l l () n ~ wh i ( hill ( p r ( s ( n t e d
indi Cltive of genetic relationship
Tables and 2 only the Carib Lanshy
guages often recurring in List A were specified
the other laneuages of the same family appearing in
that list b e have in ~eneral similar to one of the
specified languRg(s
for List A only sOl11e languag e s of each group
were used selected from those for which more lexishy
cal and grammatical information was available to ~ b (me For th e Tupl stock I took Tuplnam a 16th and
17th century sources especially Anonymous 1952shy
19)] p h 0 n ( m i ( 7 ( rI 0 r I ( r Il (l d ri p I l( ~ 1C) S C) 111 d 1911 I)
as a repreSellLai ve of th e Tllpi
- (uarllli
f 1111 i 1 Y
(w o rds not attested for Tupinal11h~ were t ltlken from shy
Old Guarani R u i z d e ~1 0 n toy a ) 639) Tup a ri (Caspar
and Rodrigues ms) as il membCor
I Y il 11 d
memb e r
fam i ly
1962)
HUll d II r II k (c () r (s 1 9 7 ~
of thl MUllduruk~ fomily
I took bAsically Waiwai
Hishkary~na (Derbyshire
o f the Tupari famishy
d Ins) it S a
For the Carib
( [ a w kin s I 9 5 2 and
1979 and ms) and
Taulipang (Pemong) (Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) as represhy
senta t ives of the North Amazoniall Languages (but
Evidencepoundor Tupi-Carib Relationships 375
wordR from lomc (I t h ( Illngllilgls w(~rc llddcd mORt o( I
them taken from de Goeje 1909 and 1946) and Bakaishy
ri (Steinen 1892 and Weatley ms) as a representashy
tive of the South Amazonian languages (with a few
examples from Nahukw~ after Steinen 1894 and de I Goeje 1909) By taking into account such languages I we reduce the possibility of including in List A
sets of correspondences valid only for a particular
subgroup of languages
List B consists of correspondences found only
between the Tupi-Guarani family (excluding the
other Tupi families) and North Amazonian Carib lanshy
guages To the Carib languages used in List A were
added Way~na (Coudreau 1892 de Goeje 1946) as well
as other North Amazonian languages (after de Goeje
1909 and Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) These correspondenshy
ces include words for fauna flora and cultural
artifacts which are common to the whole Tupi-Guarashy
nl ~ family They probably reflect a contact either
~ b etween an ancestor of the present day TupI-Guaranl
languages and an ancestor of the north Amazonian Carib languages or between one of the Tupi-Guarani
longungeR And on( or L h ( North AmAzoniAIl Cilrib ll1nshy
guages with subsequent diffusion within the respecshy shytive family Bu t these strictly Tupi-GuaraniNorth
Amazonian Carib correspondences (which constitute
the bulk of the lexical similarities so far mentioshy
ned by previous authors) are Rurely not due to geshy
netic relationship and should therefore be clearly
distinguished from the cognate sets represented in 5
List A This point is mentioned here only in pas- I I
I ~ing but it deserves a more thorough examination
iI 1
I I I I
376 Aryan D Rodrigues
i nth c rut 1 I r 0 ] S W ( J C q 1 I r ( ( I ( r k 11 () W I ( d r ( t) f a
larger number of Carib languages It should also
be taken into account that many lexical items
included in List B are to be found as well In some 6
North IImazonin IIrawAk languages
r i q [ c p r ( ~ ( II S ( (l r r ( s P () 11 II ( II tmiddot ( S III () S I pro h i1 b I Y
d II ( I (l r ( t ( II ( (l 11 I ( IS II ( r C 11(IIIltI(lolllwords
of several Carib languages taken either from Lingua
Geral or from some other particular Tu p1-Guaranf
lan~uage C I loanwords f rom Llngua Ceral (Tateshy
vin 19 10 Stradelli 1929) in North Amazonian Carib
languages C 2 - loanwords from Wayapi
(Coudreau 7
1892) or Lingua Geral in Wayana I add also a
list of Carib loanwords in a Tupi-Guarani language 8
C 3 - loa n w 0 r d s fro m ~ a y a n a i n Way a pi
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 377
TAIlLE I Phonologic1 CorrospolldCl1ccs--Consonallts
(Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
Tb p Tr p elll i peV i Mu p 61 ie Ww p
h Hk h Jp Gl Wn p Ilk p x 7 20 29 33
353819 )5 ~)9 70 71 93 9 11 95 97 98
I 14 I 17
Tb p T r pI ftII Tp p 5111 Ww Hk Bk tIll
29 30 3 I 47
Tb6 Tr p Mu m Ww Hk G1 Wn w 8 82 91 114
T b ~ I II T r M u p I II Ww Hk mI II 2 I 67 69
92 106
Tb~1 II Tr Mu pi 1 Ww Hk Bk (w) 25 26
317377 107
Tb Tr t Mu t d Ww Hk Tp Gl Wn HU Bk t
4 I 5 3 3 3 6 9 5 I () J I 0 J 11
Tb s T r t e I i Mu r Ww t tl i Hk t el e
Tp ~n t 43 52 62 637379100102118
T b T r Huk Ww Hk T p G1 l~ n k B k k k x 5
13 1940414554616875768385
939498101 III 14 liS 116 117 18
121
Tb Tr k Mu Ww Hk Tp G1 ~n Bk k 24 49
50 80 108 110
Tb Tr Mu Ww Hk Tp Bk Ii 17 22 35 65 67
74 109
Tb Tr Mu m Ww Hk Gl Wn m ilk Jf 6 9 14 42
56 63 83 88 90 103a 116
Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379378 Aryan D Rodrigues
T a h 1 c I P h () n () I (I g j C J I C () r r ~ S P () n cI l 11 C l S - - C 0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2 Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels
(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
--- --- --~---
T b Tr M u i Ww T p B k i H k e 3 57 58 8 I
Th Tr 11 Ww Il k lp 11 Ilk II IIi e 7 ill 77 HI
Th m Tr Mk Hk 01 1 6
8 3 19
II () Th Tr i Ww Ilk I J 5 1
T b n T r ff ~ w 11 8 I 8 8 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Ww Hk Tp Ap Bk i 18 22 23
T b T r 1) T P ) -1 w II k B k 01 Z 0 n2 7 4 8 9 I I 9 32 33 3 4 43 52 59 66 76 80 82 99
Tb r Tr Mu r t I 1 JJ Hk Tp Hk r Wn 12 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Hk Tp Bk a 16 19 45 76 103a
16 17 19 3 0 3Z 37 38 4 5 16 49 SO 54 I 15
64879699 101 106 li Z 11 3 114 120 Tb 4 Tr i Ww Hk Tp e 13k i 17 23 24 59 60
Tb r l II Tr Mu tl II Ww Hk 13k Z 55 7275 79 95
Tb u Tr 0 Mu 0 i Ww Hkt Tp Bk u 2177
Tb r Tr h Ww Hk Tp y I 56
87
90
Th Tr Mu y Hk y 22 1 9 97 107 Tb u Tr Mu 0 Ww Hk Tp 0 39 110 113 i21
Tb y Tr MIl w Tp 11 -111 w Ww Ilk 1( (S 6( Tb Tr Mu C Ww Hk Tp Hk e 10 16243031
58 59 75 76 77 78 79 106 108 115
Th y III Tr Mu will Ww Hk T p( I 0 I deg5 I deg6
II 3 12 I
Tb Tr e Ww Tp Bk il II 28 55 6587
Tb V Hk Vm 2 2 39 57 Tb Tr Mu e ~w Hk Tp Bk a 2132094106
108
Mp t ltI th e s C s 9 3 2 J3 I 2 5 (J () 2 I R B () 8 1 8 5 Tb Tr Mu a Ww Hk Tp 13k a 14 15 25 27 33
H7 II ()I 9) ltj( ()7 I () 353738414243445052566063
656768707172747583848586- --- --__--_ 889192939495 III 112 114 116 117
120
Tb Mu a Ww Hk e 45 62 73 105
T b T r 0 N u 4 ~w Hk o u T p 13 k 0 I 8 9
15 29586971828997 100 109 118
Tb Tr 0 Hw Hk Hk a 26 47 68 96 101 N
T b T r V -Iw Hk T p B k V I 4 I 5 3 2 35 5 I 65
8 0 82 j
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
374 Aryon D Rodrigues
Our COIIIPflt ~()II () r ~ ()III (I I ltl n p 11l f ( S of t II ( Ill pi
stock with languages of the Carib family led to the
establishment of regular phonological correspondenshy
ces between both groups These correspondences
presented in Tables and 2 are based on over 100
lexical equations covering such domains as kinship
body and plant pltlrts nature l1on-cu ILural and culshy
tural items qualities ltl c ti o ns and stat e s In adshy
dition to some
perSOl1 markers
In List A are
In compiling
g rammatic a l morphemes including
[ h ( ( q U l l () n ~ wh i ( hill ( p r ( s ( n t e d
indi Cltive of genetic relationship
Tables and 2 only the Carib Lanshy
guages often recurring in List A were specified
the other laneuages of the same family appearing in
that list b e have in ~eneral similar to one of the
specified languRg(s
for List A only sOl11e languag e s of each group
were used selected from those for which more lexishy
cal and grammatical information was available to ~ b (me For th e Tupl stock I took Tuplnam a 16th and
17th century sources especially Anonymous 1952shy
19)] p h 0 n ( m i ( 7 ( rI 0 r I ( r Il (l d ri p I l( ~ 1C) S C) 111 d 1911 I)
as a repreSellLai ve of th e Tllpi
- (uarllli
f 1111 i 1 Y
(w o rds not attested for Tupinal11h~ were t ltlken from shy
Old Guarani R u i z d e ~1 0 n toy a ) 639) Tup a ri (Caspar
and Rodrigues ms) as il membCor
I Y il 11 d
memb e r
fam i ly
1962)
HUll d II r II k (c () r (s 1 9 7 ~
of thl MUllduruk~ fomily
I took bAsically Waiwai
Hishkary~na (Derbyshire
o f the Tupari famishy
d Ins) it S a
For the Carib
( [ a w kin s I 9 5 2 and
1979 and ms) and
Taulipang (Pemong) (Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) as represhy
senta t ives of the North Amazoniall Languages (but
Evidencepoundor Tupi-Carib Relationships 375
wordR from lomc (I t h ( Illngllilgls w(~rc llddcd mORt o( I
them taken from de Goeje 1909 and 1946) and Bakaishy
ri (Steinen 1892 and Weatley ms) as a representashy
tive of the South Amazonian languages (with a few
examples from Nahukw~ after Steinen 1894 and de I Goeje 1909) By taking into account such languages I we reduce the possibility of including in List A
sets of correspondences valid only for a particular
subgroup of languages
List B consists of correspondences found only
between the Tupi-Guarani family (excluding the
other Tupi families) and North Amazonian Carib lanshy
guages To the Carib languages used in List A were
added Way~na (Coudreau 1892 de Goeje 1946) as well
as other North Amazonian languages (after de Goeje
1909 and Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) These correspondenshy
ces include words for fauna flora and cultural
artifacts which are common to the whole Tupi-Guarashy
nl ~ family They probably reflect a contact either
~ b etween an ancestor of the present day TupI-Guaranl
languages and an ancestor of the north Amazonian Carib languages or between one of the Tupi-Guarani
longungeR And on( or L h ( North AmAzoniAIl Cilrib ll1nshy
guages with subsequent diffusion within the respecshy shytive family Bu t these strictly Tupi-GuaraniNorth
Amazonian Carib correspondences (which constitute
the bulk of the lexical similarities so far mentioshy
ned by previous authors) are Rurely not due to geshy
netic relationship and should therefore be clearly
distinguished from the cognate sets represented in 5
List A This point is mentioned here only in pas- I I
I ~ing but it deserves a more thorough examination
iI 1
I I I I
376 Aryan D Rodrigues
i nth c rut 1 I r 0 ] S W ( J C q 1 I r ( ( I ( r k 11 () W I ( d r ( t) f a
larger number of Carib languages It should also
be taken into account that many lexical items
included in List B are to be found as well In some 6
North IImazonin IIrawAk languages
r i q [ c p r ( ~ ( II S ( (l r r ( s P () 11 II ( II tmiddot ( S III () S I pro h i1 b I Y
d II ( I (l r ( t ( II ( (l 11 I ( IS II ( r C 11(IIIltI(lolllwords
of several Carib languages taken either from Lingua
Geral or from some other particular Tu p1-Guaranf
lan~uage C I loanwords f rom Llngua Ceral (Tateshy
vin 19 10 Stradelli 1929) in North Amazonian Carib
languages C 2 - loanwords from Wayapi
(Coudreau 7
1892) or Lingua Geral in Wayana I add also a
list of Carib loanwords in a Tupi-Guarani language 8
C 3 - loa n w 0 r d s fro m ~ a y a n a i n Way a pi
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 377
TAIlLE I Phonologic1 CorrospolldCl1ccs--Consonallts
(Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
Tb p Tr p elll i peV i Mu p 61 ie Ww p
h Hk h Jp Gl Wn p Ilk p x 7 20 29 33
353819 )5 ~)9 70 71 93 9 11 95 97 98
I 14 I 17
Tb p T r pI ftII Tp p 5111 Ww Hk Bk tIll
29 30 3 I 47
Tb6 Tr p Mu m Ww Hk G1 Wn w 8 82 91 114
T b ~ I II T r M u p I II Ww Hk mI II 2 I 67 69
92 106
Tb~1 II Tr Mu pi 1 Ww Hk Bk (w) 25 26
317377 107
Tb Tr t Mu t d Ww Hk Tp Gl Wn HU Bk t
4 I 5 3 3 3 6 9 5 I () J I 0 J 11
Tb s T r t e I i Mu r Ww t tl i Hk t el e
Tp ~n t 43 52 62 637379100102118
T b T r Huk Ww Hk T p G1 l~ n k B k k k x 5
13 1940414554616875768385
939498101 III 14 liS 116 117 18
121
Tb Tr k Mu Ww Hk Tp G1 ~n Bk k 24 49
50 80 108 110
Tb Tr Mu Ww Hk Tp Bk Ii 17 22 35 65 67
74 109
Tb Tr Mu m Ww Hk Gl Wn m ilk Jf 6 9 14 42
56 63 83 88 90 103a 116
Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379378 Aryan D Rodrigues
T a h 1 c I P h () n () I (I g j C J I C () r r ~ S P () n cI l 11 C l S - - C 0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2 Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels
(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
--- --- --~---
T b Tr M u i Ww T p B k i H k e 3 57 58 8 I
Th Tr 11 Ww Il k lp 11 Ilk II IIi e 7 ill 77 HI
Th m Tr Mk Hk 01 1 6
8 3 19
II () Th Tr i Ww Ilk I J 5 1
T b n T r ff ~ w 11 8 I 8 8 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Ww Hk Tp Ap Bk i 18 22 23
T b T r 1) T P ) -1 w II k B k 01 Z 0 n2 7 4 8 9 I I 9 32 33 3 4 43 52 59 66 76 80 82 99
Tb r Tr Mu r t I 1 JJ Hk Tp Hk r Wn 12 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Hk Tp Bk a 16 19 45 76 103a
16 17 19 3 0 3Z 37 38 4 5 16 49 SO 54 I 15
64879699 101 106 li Z 11 3 114 120 Tb 4 Tr i Ww Hk Tp e 13k i 17 23 24 59 60
Tb r l II Tr Mu tl II Ww Hk 13k Z 55 7275 79 95
Tb u Tr 0 Mu 0 i Ww Hkt Tp Bk u 2177
Tb r Tr h Ww Hk Tp y I 56
87
90
Th Tr Mu y Hk y 22 1 9 97 107 Tb u Tr Mu 0 Ww Hk Tp 0 39 110 113 i21
Tb y Tr MIl w Tp 11 -111 w Ww Ilk 1( (S 6( Tb Tr Mu C Ww Hk Tp Hk e 10 16243031
58 59 75 76 77 78 79 106 108 115
Th y III Tr Mu will Ww Hk T p( I 0 I deg5 I deg6
II 3 12 I
Tb Tr e Ww Tp Bk il II 28 55 6587
Tb V Hk Vm 2 2 39 57 Tb Tr Mu e ~w Hk Tp Bk a 2132094106
108
Mp t ltI th e s C s 9 3 2 J3 I 2 5 (J () 2 I R B () 8 1 8 5 Tb Tr Mu a Ww Hk Tp 13k a 14 15 25 27 33
H7 II ()I 9) ltj( ()7 I () 353738414243445052566063
656768707172747583848586- --- --__--_ 889192939495 III 112 114 116 117
120
Tb Mu a Ww Hk e 45 62 73 105
T b T r 0 N u 4 ~w Hk o u T p 13 k 0 I 8 9
15 29586971828997 100 109 118
Tb Tr 0 Hw Hk Hk a 26 47 68 96 101 N
T b T r V -Iw Hk T p B k V I 4 I 5 3 2 35 5 I 65
8 0 82 j
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
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org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
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Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
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Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
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graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
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Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
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Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
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tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
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cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
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Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
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~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
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Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
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Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
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Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
376 Aryan D Rodrigues
i nth c rut 1 I r 0 ] S W ( J C q 1 I r ( ( I ( r k 11 () W I ( d r ( t) f a
larger number of Carib languages It should also
be taken into account that many lexical items
included in List B are to be found as well In some 6
North IImazonin IIrawAk languages
r i q [ c p r ( ~ ( II S ( (l r r ( s P () 11 II ( II tmiddot ( S III () S I pro h i1 b I Y
d II ( I (l r ( t ( II ( (l 11 I ( IS II ( r C 11(IIIltI(lolllwords
of several Carib languages taken either from Lingua
Geral or from some other particular Tu p1-Guaranf
lan~uage C I loanwords f rom Llngua Ceral (Tateshy
vin 19 10 Stradelli 1929) in North Amazonian Carib
languages C 2 - loanwords from Wayapi
(Coudreau 7
1892) or Lingua Geral in Wayana I add also a
list of Carib loanwords in a Tupi-Guarani language 8
C 3 - loa n w 0 r d s fro m ~ a y a n a i n Way a pi
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 377
TAIlLE I Phonologic1 CorrospolldCl1ccs--Consonallts
(Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
Tb p Tr p elll i peV i Mu p 61 ie Ww p
h Hk h Jp Gl Wn p Ilk p x 7 20 29 33
353819 )5 ~)9 70 71 93 9 11 95 97 98
I 14 I 17
Tb p T r pI ftII Tp p 5111 Ww Hk Bk tIll
29 30 3 I 47
Tb6 Tr p Mu m Ww Hk G1 Wn w 8 82 91 114
T b ~ I II T r M u p I II Ww Hk mI II 2 I 67 69
92 106
Tb~1 II Tr Mu pi 1 Ww Hk Bk (w) 25 26
317377 107
Tb Tr t Mu t d Ww Hk Tp Gl Wn HU Bk t
4 I 5 3 3 3 6 9 5 I () J I 0 J 11
Tb s T r t e I i Mu r Ww t tl i Hk t el e
Tp ~n t 43 52 62 637379100102118
T b T r Huk Ww Hk T p G1 l~ n k B k k k x 5
13 1940414554616875768385
939498101 III 14 liS 116 117 18
121
Tb Tr k Mu Ww Hk Tp G1 ~n Bk k 24 49
50 80 108 110
Tb Tr Mu Ww Hk Tp Bk Ii 17 22 35 65 67
74 109
Tb Tr Mu m Ww Hk Gl Wn m ilk Jf 6 9 14 42
56 63 83 88 90 103a 116
Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379378 Aryan D Rodrigues
T a h 1 c I P h () n () I (I g j C J I C () r r ~ S P () n cI l 11 C l S - - C 0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2 Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels
(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
--- --- --~---
T b Tr M u i Ww T p B k i H k e 3 57 58 8 I
Th Tr 11 Ww Il k lp 11 Ilk II IIi e 7 ill 77 HI
Th m Tr Mk Hk 01 1 6
8 3 19
II () Th Tr i Ww Ilk I J 5 1
T b n T r ff ~ w 11 8 I 8 8 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Ww Hk Tp Ap Bk i 18 22 23
T b T r 1) T P ) -1 w II k B k 01 Z 0 n2 7 4 8 9 I I 9 32 33 3 4 43 52 59 66 76 80 82 99
Tb r Tr Mu r t I 1 JJ Hk Tp Hk r Wn 12 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Hk Tp Bk a 16 19 45 76 103a
16 17 19 3 0 3Z 37 38 4 5 16 49 SO 54 I 15
64879699 101 106 li Z 11 3 114 120 Tb 4 Tr i Ww Hk Tp e 13k i 17 23 24 59 60
Tb r l II Tr Mu tl II Ww Hk 13k Z 55 7275 79 95
Tb u Tr 0 Mu 0 i Ww Hkt Tp Bk u 2177
Tb r Tr h Ww Hk Tp y I 56
87
90
Th Tr Mu y Hk y 22 1 9 97 107 Tb u Tr Mu 0 Ww Hk Tp 0 39 110 113 i21
Tb y Tr MIl w Tp 11 -111 w Ww Ilk 1( (S 6( Tb Tr Mu C Ww Hk Tp Hk e 10 16243031
58 59 75 76 77 78 79 106 108 115
Th y III Tr Mu will Ww Hk T p( I 0 I deg5 I deg6
II 3 12 I
Tb Tr e Ww Tp Bk il II 28 55 6587
Tb V Hk Vm 2 2 39 57 Tb Tr Mu e ~w Hk Tp Bk a 2132094106
108
Mp t ltI th e s C s 9 3 2 J3 I 2 5 (J () 2 I R B () 8 1 8 5 Tb Tr Mu a Ww Hk Tp 13k a 14 15 25 27 33
H7 II ()I 9) ltj( ()7 I () 353738414243445052566063
656768707172747583848586- --- --__--_ 889192939495 III 112 114 116 117
120
Tb Mu a Ww Hk e 45 62 73 105
T b T r 0 N u 4 ~w Hk o u T p 13 k 0 I 8 9
15 29586971828997 100 109 118
Tb Tr 0 Hw Hk Hk a 26 47 68 96 101 N
T b T r V -Iw Hk T p B k V I 4 I 5 3 2 35 5 I 65
8 0 82 j
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
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Maisonneuve
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Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
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Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
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Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
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Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
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uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379378 Aryan D Rodrigues
T a h 1 c I P h () n () I (I g j C J I C () r r ~ S P () n cI l 11 C l S - - C 0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2 Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels
(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
--- --- --~---
T b Tr M u i Ww T p B k i H k e 3 57 58 8 I
Th Tr 11 Ww Il k lp 11 Ilk II IIi e 7 ill 77 HI
Th m Tr Mk Hk 01 1 6
8 3 19
II () Th Tr i Ww Ilk I J 5 1
T b n T r ff ~ w 11 8 I 8 8 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Ww Hk Tp Ap Bk i 18 22 23
T b T r 1) T P ) -1 w II k B k 01 Z 0 n2 7 4 8 9 I I 9 32 33 3 4 43 52 59 66 76 80 82 99
Tb r Tr Mu r t I 1 JJ Hk Tp Hk r Wn 12 Tb 4 Tr Mu i Hk Tp Bk a 16 19 45 76 103a
16 17 19 3 0 3Z 37 38 4 5 16 49 SO 54 I 15
64879699 101 106 li Z 11 3 114 120 Tb 4 Tr i Ww Hk Tp e 13k i 17 23 24 59 60
Tb r l II Tr Mu tl II Ww Hk 13k Z 55 7275 79 95
Tb u Tr 0 Mu 0 i Ww Hkt Tp Bk u 2177
Tb r Tr h Ww Hk Tp y I 56
87
90
Th Tr Mu y Hk y 22 1 9 97 107 Tb u Tr Mu 0 Ww Hk Tp 0 39 110 113 i21
Tb y Tr MIl w Tp 11 -111 w Ww Ilk 1( (S 6( Tb Tr Mu C Ww Hk Tp Hk e 10 16243031
58 59 75 76 77 78 79 106 108 115
Th y III Tr Mu will Ww Hk T p( I 0 I deg5 I deg6
II 3 12 I
Tb Tr e Ww Tp Bk il II 28 55 6587
Tb V Hk Vm 2 2 39 57 Tb Tr Mu e ~w Hk Tp Bk a 2132094106
108
Mp t ltI th e s C s 9 3 2 J3 I 2 5 (J () 2 I R B () 8 1 8 5 Tb Tr Mu a Ww Hk Tp 13k a 14 15 25 27 33
H7 II ()I 9) ltj( ()7 I () 353738414243445052566063
656768707172747583848586- --- --__--_ 889192939495 III 112 114 116 117
120
Tb Mu a Ww Hk e 45 62 73 105
T b T r 0 N u 4 ~w Hk o u T p 13 k 0 I 8 9
15 29586971828997 100 109 118
Tb Tr 0 Hw Hk Hk a 26 47 68 96 101 N
T b T r V -Iw Hk T p B k V I 4 I 5 3 2 35 5 I 65
8 0 82 j
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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Anonymous
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shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
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i
I I
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1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
380 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381
I 1ST 1 Tupi-Clr h r()III]t(~l (-
Abbreviations ilk Bakairi Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a I I Tb r- Mu d- 1r h- r elationa l Ww Hk Tp Karina) Hk Hishkary~na Ie Island Carib ~ Mk y-
Makushf Mu MundurukC Nk Nahukw Tb ~Tu pinam h Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1 Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana) Ww Waiwai 12 Tb ri for on Ww re through Hk rye thr ough ill on~
Personal affixes 1J Tb -ke (in o~a-ke in front of lit 1n I Tb wi- Tr W- 0- Mu we- 0- 1st singula r fa ce of) Hk ka to (eg ompata-ka
Ww w- Iy- 0- oy - Ilk w- j- flk W- u- towards the face of i - Tp 11- u Y-- y- 14 Tb amo another some G 1 Wn I C a mu
2 Tb Tr Mu e- 2nd singular Ww a- Bk a- Tp
a- aw- Hk a- ay- 0- ow- oy- Kinship terms J Tb Tr Mu i- 3rd non reflexive Ww Bk Tp 15 Tb amoy grandfather tamoy grandfather of
1- Hk 10- u- somebody Tp amo-ko grandfather u-tamo 4 Tb t - Mil t - 3rd non rpfl(xiv( Tr t ( - t shy my grandfather Wn Gl tamu Hk tam-
3 r d r ( r I lt )( i V Ww T P t - II k t- t r II - tnmu- grillidfalhcr
t- Bk t~- 3rd reflexive 16 Tb en4r males sister Bk -enaru-to Gl 5 Tr ki- k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~- k- -enau-tik sister
Hk ki- ku- k- Bk ki- ku- k- 17 Tb iir males cross cousin B k imiddot r 1
fem ales cousin Case )ffixps 18 Tb j~+r males younger brother -Apalal
(- Ill -mo - tmo III lh s I 1 t ( () r Ww -111( Hk -me ~pir+ Gl pi [i Ie ihiri
7 Tb -pe punctual lo cative Tr -pe inessive 19 Tb 4ker females older sister +ke--~r Mu -pe -he locative Hk -ho Tp Wn -po males older brother Tr ike males older l ocative brother ike-it females older sister-08 Tb d f f II S ( IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t Apala1
~ -akoro-ne Tp ako) akon-U br ot her
Wn akon older brother Other affixes 20 Tb pel females cross nephew Ww pamo Gl 9 Tb mo- T r m- 0- Mu mi- causative Hk om- pamu brother-in-law Hk hamo cross
on- em- cousin Bk pama males brother-in-law v10 Tb ye- Ir we- Mil J(-w e - reflexive Tp Ilk 2 I Tb u~ Tr op father Ww Hk -im Apala
i urn
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
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Nim
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388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
382 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383
G I uml1 Tp Bk (J (~ bullu~ Nk uu Wn ipii Gl wimiddot pi Ie w~bo
35 Tb 4pau island Wn Gl pau Ie ubo
~~~J_~_~_ _~~_~ _~a~~~_ ~L~~~~~ 36 Tb +tu waterfall Trio itu-ru Gl ito-ti 22 Tb a-~y grain secd Ilk tym e nut
B k t ~u 23 Tb ipi tr ee stpm Ww Wn cp u trpe stem 37 Tb kwar sun Mu ka-1ii sun Hk a-kwar+ lH k e II + 0 II t s t 1 n rl i n g t r (gt e
sunlight2 r b 10 i sill 1 I
38 Til par] Large river Tp paru waterI
25 Tb kaS Tr a p Mu liep fa t (noun) Hn river Apala1 paru river Bk paru
kap- ha k fat (ildjective) ka-t fat water
(noun) Ww ka Hk (1 k a-t i fat (noun) 39 Tb yu field Hk o-yomo
26 Tb oe Tr e p Mu -tp l e af Ww f1k Ilk a
27 Tb o~a Mu opa face Ir epa eye Ww Qualities
ep a -ta Hk empa-ta ompa-ta Gl emba-ta Tp 40 Tb akim wet Wn te-ukuma-i t-ekupa-i Gl
emp o- ta empe-ta face ekup-i
28 Tb pe bark Tr pe bark skin Mu i-be 4 J Tb aku Tr akop Mu a1iip hot Hk ak
bark ~ tv pi- h ark Tp pi-p+ skin bark 42 Th aman c rcle surround Tr amon-a
1-9 Til Ppo T r p ( P () w i Tl g r ( 1 I II co r Tp pcpo-ko r 0 u n d R P II (gt r i caL Ilk amno- round (see
LO tak e off the f ea thers (ko to pull no 83)
away see no 109) 43 Tb asi Tr aci to be sick to ache Hk
30 Tb pere milt J w Wn B k ere Hk e rye T p atih to be rotten bad
e r liver 44 Tb ay sour Ww ai to be hot (pepper) Hk
3 1 Tb p e r c ~ wound ulcer Ww ere Ilk erew to ayih to be hot like pepper ]l h (gt bull
45 Tb kira [at (adjective) Hk kare to make 32_ Tb p~ru to tread Hk ihro fa at
f at 33 Tb pita heel Tr cito fo ot Mu ida
46 Tb mir~ Tr iri small Bk i-meri Mk heel Hk ihta sale ihta -k marunu heel miri-ki Ww ht] Tp p+ta foot Wn pta sale
47 Tb par Tr at full Hk ar-i-hto to fill pta-pu IICC[ Nk Llta-pt ~ole
t-ar-ke full Ww ari contents
48 Tb pos-iy Tr poci Mu poSi heavy Tp pi-si Elements of natur e
Gl awomiddotsil)34 Tb t~+ earth ground i~i-ttr mountain
49 Tb purua pregnant Ww puruki to swell Mu i pi earth Hk Ht- Apilla1 ipi Ilk ~w+
50 Tb ar upper part top Hk kare high
l~ CdCpoundS CC~-- ------
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
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shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
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402 Aryan D Rodrigues
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I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
384 Aryon D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385
nkre to lifl vegetnl medicil1e ehremo to give
medic ine
Non cultural items 63 Tb sam rop e Hk a-tame thick rope 5 I Tb apwa poi nt Ww epa p oin t Tp epo-te e-tam-~e thick rope (possessed)
extremity of the arrow head 64 Tb uru basket Hk uru-to small basket for 52 Tb as-ik piece Ww asik-wo to break into cassava bread
t wo pieces 65 Tb ya7~ e1ish pot Tr wae pot Mu wa7e 53 Tb ipi beginning 4p~-ru9 to begin flk calabasb Tp wai calabash bottle
+h-Cc to bcgin 66 Tb yt Tr wi ax Gl wjmiddot-wi Wimiddot-ri Wn 54 Tr k i r( pc pl ( Ilk k-i-r+ T p k tlrJ Y m JI1 Ilk Apala1 wi-wt Bk pt
k tJ r ~ P ( (l I I e
s5 Til per Tr -- p e t won JI1 Ww pi Ilk Ie-Ce Actions and States
wife 67 Tb a~ to c ut Ww Hk ama to cut Wood 56 T b mar a - b r a v e r y mar an war w maya 68 Tb akaso to mov e to a far place Hk e-taka
h r a v e r y t b 0 w i J d 11 k rna Y n t (I b ( wi 1 d to move oh-taka to change the place (a nirnlt1I ) 69 Tb a-o to wrap cl othes Ww w-omi
wrapper flk w-omu clothes Wn y-om Cultural items-- __ --- - shy wrapper Gl w-oomo European clothes
57 Tb inl hamm ock Hk toeneme sew 70 Tb a pi to burn Tp api to set on fire 58 Tb enimo inim o laquo inY hammock + po 7 I Tr apok to sit down Ww apo Hk aho-n~
fiber) thread rope Ww k-eXepu hammock aho-nano Tp apo-no apo) seat bench Gl r 0 p e w - (- il c- P1I Hk - w - (n( Ii u b 1 h y s I i_ n g apo-ni seat in a canoe
1j fJ I h I P oj Ir l ( i j Y 11 WW I I 1 72 T h 11 r y n r l t I I k ( t (l 1 ( C e i v c Tr at Mu(l
epe-pic Hk ehe-th-i-ri p ayment Hk eh e -ma jat to take Ww a-ri Hk a Tp a-Ii Gl Wn epe-illa t o pay Bk ep+ to cost epi-wa a-ro Bk a to take to carry to pa y t o make a gif t 73 Tb asa~ to pass to cross Hk w-eto Gl
60 T h j t 1 () II S ( pol C T P (J s a I I lilt e r l I w~middotto to pass by to cross
pol es il e hOllsc 74 bull Tb a7al) to try Hk arne ( I Th okar Tr laquok e r v ilLage pl 1za Ww e ken 75 Tb ekar to look for Bk eka-heni to look
place for to gather eka-una to gather 62 Tb po sa l) m edicine Ww eh~e cure 76 Tb ek+y Tr aki to pull Tr eki to
medic ine ehtem- to trea t Hk eh~e ohce stretch lw aki to bring Tp w-aka to
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
386 Aryan D Rodrigues
p u 1 1
77 Tb enue to h ear Ww en~ enw- Hk Wn e ne
Gl ene to see
7R To C P-l-y to s pr i nkl( 1-1 11 ( P ~ k ( - i II k j w j k C
to we t
7 () T h ( s ~ r I (1 r (1 1 I I Ilk (( f r t I I (J h (
(()okCd
80 Tb eJy t o scral c h WI k -i- Il k k e Ilk ike
to s cr ilpC
8 I To i n to s it Tr - all co nl1i l1pr ( ie
sitling plil ce ) WI - ri shy to sCt on lilt
ground
82 Tb -i~ 0 to ar row I w 4 wo H k w a t 0 fi r e lt
Gl iwo to wound t o kill
83 Guaran1 kamik to squeeze L a tread Hk
a kmeke t o trend
1 I T h k II ( ~ I I r ( d I II k I( I 1 I I I ( r (I ~ I I bull
85 Tb k ay t o burn (inLr) WI ltlkn Lo burn
(tr) Ilk a k e t o burn in L r )
Ro T 0 k a ( r () r (l n s ton iI p I 1 r r () r m Hk kan-ho
S7 Tb knr Tr (gt t Mil ( C r tmiddot () s I ( ( p Ww nkri
1 l () j ( d () Will B k i k I () I ((1)
8B To 111) n l (I g () f r () lIll d t () f (11 ( (I I Trlll1 shy l 0
ro l l up Ww rn a to d a nce Hk mltln-ho to
da nce ma m- ko t o f e nce mam u all Tp
man- urn t o d a n cC ( s CE flO J 8)
89 T b n o ) I () Pill II k n () T P II () ) t () I ( t
s t] Y
90 Tr am tmiddotl u j OJ t a g i e WI Ilk irn
Ipalai
urn Bk u
9 I Tb p a e Tr pap t o en d to die Nu apam to
d ie (m any peopl e) Hk wlh t o diE Tp
Evidence for TupimiddotCarib Relationships 387
pa-nese d ead
92 Tb pa~ all Hk e-ham to have many
93 Tb pak to wake mo-pak to ca use to wake
Tr e-pak to wake Ww paka Tp paka- Hk
haka to wake om-palea to cause to wake
91 To l (k1 bull Tr pCCkl to open Wwahka to
b r e il k
95 Tb pita to stay to stop Ww eh~o to
stay Tp pita to stay pia-a harbour 96 Tb par to jump Tr pot-eki to Jump
ltS- pot top I u c k Ww ahro Tp -puru- to
jump
97 Tb pay to feed Mu p~y-bit meal Hk
yho-hto t o fe ed y ho-ta to have food
98 Tb puk t o get pierced Gl e-puka Wn Trio
i-puka Bk i - xoki to pierce Ipurukotamp
pok Ie - 1kl Hk pokltl-ki to kill Iolith an
arrow
99 Tb ririy to tremble Hk r-irin to
tremble ririni- trembling -I shy
100 Tb so Mu Ci Sata r e Awetf to to go Ww
flk to IIk dfl
101 Tb sorok t o t ea r 1 C t - a t f r a k a B k s a r ot e
102 Tb suu Tr taka to bite Wn e-tuku
o-tuku to eat
103 Tb ti to tie Trio tirti Hianakoto-Umaua
i-tena-ma- Hk yeneena
103a Tb tim to plant to bury Hk e-nam to
plant to bury Bk e-ta to plant
104 Tb we B t o extinguish t he fire Wn epu to
go out (fire) epu-ka to extinguish the
fire Kumanagoto ep-ka
Bib
liot
eca D
igit
al
Curt
Nim
uen
daju
htt
p
bi
blio
etn
olin
guis
tica
org
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
388 Aryan D Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389
lOS TI) yay ll) lIlo ck Mu v oy t () I III 1 10 Ww t ilflkl aki nrollLi Se( Ilk Itak-rn pig to scold Tp pak-ila wild pig
106 Tb yeree t o return Ilk Trio e rama Gl I 18 Tb soko a heron Wn toko Ibis infuscata eramo Wn irama to turn t o r e turn I 19 Tb ti Tr ni9 timb~ vine a fish poison
107 Tb y4B to be cooked Tr a-yip t o roast on Hk ceme to poison the f i sh Tp i-teg c 011 s f Hk yo to (ook poisonolls VIne GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme
108 Tb e t o say t o do Tr ke Lo s ay ka Trio tiXe to inebriate to do Mu e to say Ww Hk Tp ka to 120 Tb urua Guarani uruwa snail Hk warwa
say to do 13k ke to say to speak Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua snail IC 6ra 109 Tb ok Bu ~k to pull aw ay Hk oko to shell Bk uru-yeni shell used for smoothing
cut (meat) Tp k a ko to pull away bows
110 Tb u Tr ko Mu o to e a t to drink Hk 121 Tb yaku Tr wako Mu wak~ Penelope sp ok Ww ok4 to eat (bread) Tp eku to Cracidae GI Trio woko Wn wok Hian~koto-eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime big Crax sp Cracidae
An i maJ~_ _~ p _~a n t s List - dB Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl an North I I I I h n ku t fouti Tp Mk Nk kill C l Wit Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1 Tri o Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12 Tr arime species of monkey Wn Apalaf Abbreviations Ap Apalai Ar Arek~na GI Galibi Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime (Kalina Karina) Hk Hishkary~na HU Hian~koto-
9 big ) UmOua IC Island Carib In Ingarik~ Ip I 13 Tb ayuru Tr aorn MlJ nr o parrot Tp IpurukotC Mk Makushi Tb Tupinamb~ Tp
worD-we parrot Ww Ilk kworo SPC ClC S of Taul i pang Wn Wa y nn (and Upurui) Ww Waiwai macaw Yb Yabar~na
I 14 Tb kapii8ar Hydorchoerus capybara Wn
kapiwala Ap a lai
kapiara Akawai kapiwa GI vTb a ~a t i corn GI awasi Ap IC awaSl kapia Bk pakia Tb ara~e cockroach Tp arut GI alawi IC el~we
I IS Tb ks( (igt n rnbo o ) knife Tr kite bamboo Tbar a k wa a b i r d pound~~ ~~ Wn aragua Tp kate bamboo Tb isipo vine GI sima
I 16 Tb komana beans GI kumata Arekuna Tb karawata Bromelia sp Wn kulaiwata Tamanaco kum~middotta Wayumaramp kuma-sa Bk kuata karuata
I I 7 T b P a k C0 ~ 01 e n y s_-P_~~ G I P a k C pac a B k Tb kupii termite GI kupisa I
I I j I
11
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391390 Aryan O l~adrjglles
Tb urapar Gunranf w~rapa bow Tp In urapa GlT b k u rema a r ish M u g~ ~~J2_ G I k we r j TTl a
ulaba Wayumar uraha Hk kuraha Ww krapaTb k uri mat a a f ish P r 0 chi 10 d u ~2 E Ch a r a c ida e Tb urukurea an owl Gl ulukuleya lG1 k u 1 i mat a 5 aJ~_o_~~i~at_~ Ch a r a c ida e
Tb urupe mushroom Gl ulupiTb kwati honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i Tb wara a her o n Ibis rubra Gl uala Ibis
rubra HU ualaT h mJ [ ] k 1 n l s pp( P S o r Pl[[ol I J Tl TTl 1 r ] k J n Trio wara I b i s egretta Tb weraWA manatee Gl Y1l1 a waTri o HU ma iukanu Mk marakan Tp 111) r a kal) J p
marakona Tb warini war Yb ualini Gl walimi Tb yakare alligator In yakale Ar yakalr ApTb maraka ya wild cat G 1 Wn marakaya Tp
zakare Tp ~akare Gl akarem ar aka~ a Tb yawar jaguar Uk awar-ko Tp ~awaira black
jaguar T b m [ a k u y a C lJ a r 11 Tn ~ [ ~J_~~I y P1SSOIl fJowCr Gl
mareku ya IC merek oya Wn muruku ya
Tb yurara a turtle Gl walala Yb uaraara Hu
alala
Tb nan~ pineappl e Ap Gl Wn Trio nana
Tb paku a fish ~rl~~~middot Ap Gl paku HU
haku
Ill p 1 [ J n S ( 1 C 1 WIl P) [1 n) 1 C bl 1 ~ 1111 ] =)C1 LIST CI Borrowings from Lingua Geral in North
10Amazonian Carib languagesTp palana wavp s
Tb parawa a pa r rot Gl Wn Trio p a lawa Ap
paraua LG wakawa Herpetotheres cachinnans a hawk that
cries in the night Tp wakawa night bird withTb p i ray piranha ~Xf~~n_r=-s __~~E middot and ~~~2_aLmu s screaming crys P G 1 P ira j ~_~_o_C_~l_~~_~__ sl
T hr man u a ) nrC t ( [ I T [ 0 r] III a no Mk LG akayur~na false cashew tree Gl akayula wild
cashew tree Curatella americanatamanua
Tb tapiukaB a was p Gl t a piuka bee LG apukuit( oar Ap apak~ita Gl abokuitya middot l vLG k ~seapara slcke Ww kaclpara Gl supara
knife Tb ta pi y hut shelter Ap tapi y house Tp tapiy
house hut t apu iuka hut LG pa~iiwa a palm Itiartea exorrhiza Gl pasiuTil l 1 y ] Xj n l h u s () m a sp Wn T rio 1 yJ Ie t 11 1 a
LG yakamT Psophia crepitans Tp yakamiGl raler Gl akami
Tb tokay (hunt e rs) hut G 1 t ok a i shamans small LG yan[d]i~ a catfish Tp Jandia
house
LIST C2 Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or fromTb tuyuyu big stork ~1z_ct_e r i a _~_~~~~~_~ Gl
L 1 lngua Gera 1n Wayan alU YUY U
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
392 Aryon D Rodrigues
Wp p~kllitltl 1( lpukuil ~ Wn a p u k u i t j 0] r
Wp LG a d jraa rar a wa macaw
Hn a rua mi r r a Wn LG warupound
t r ee LG karan~
Wn
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm
panama Wn panamem butterfly Wp Ie tUkhrlt1Wn tukllrltlWa pr 1s s hopp
oIn yakuman-a pil o t o ar LG yakuma
L I ST C3 Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y3n] in Wa ya pi
Wp pari g ] nci c hild ~n p]ri-p s ik (psik s mlt11I)
Wp k a p a ru club Wn k a paru
Wp kasuru beads Wn k a1iu r u
Wp ktto a t oa d Wn k u t o
Wp kur u para g un powder Wn kurup a r lt1
Wp k u ltl i r i s 1 p1 i () (1 - () n I middot y Wn k (1 ~ j 1 bull
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( f 1 ) r bull -111 k ( 1 1laquo
Wp ma ria k n ife Wn marla
a li z ard Wn o ror i iguan aHp orori
Wp paira bow wood f or makin g b o ws Wn paira
bow Wn ma rapi d is h of th eWp pa r api mar a pi di s h
white man
Wp p iro t o l ea d shot ~ n pirot o
Wp saa mach e t e Wn sa p a
-Ip sa uru sa 1 t Wn s auto
Wp s aW 1I1r Q 1 V IIl11 i1 WIl S l w aT1~
Wn s iri k a W p s i r ik e p 1 ( i a d ( S C () 11 S t C I I a t i () n
S t a r Wn wa r ap u ru coc o a-tr ee Wp wa rapuru coco a
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Although a possible genetic relationship between
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
1909 (by de Goeje) the general classifications of
South American Indi a n languages (e g Rivet 1924
Schmidt 1926 Rivet and Loukotka 1952 Swadesh
1959 Greenberg 1960 Loukotka 1968) have not taken
this possibility into account not even for a long
range (phylum) relationship In the data just preshy
sented not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
relationship rather the most obvious lexical simishy
larities between such languages appear to be the
result of borrowing both recent (as bet ween Wayamshy~
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupishy
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib)
There are however a sizable number of lexical
items that although not so obviously similar can
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonoloshy
gical correspondences Most of these belong to seshy
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
is less likely to occur It is probable that not
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate afshy
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
both Tupi and Carib Given the present state of
Carib linguistics it is not possible to estimate
the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
item in a given language as a component of the
Proto-Carib lexicon For instance in Taulipang
(Pemong) pepoko to take off the feathers may be
analyzed as containing ko to pull away and a mor-
I I
I
~
I
i 1
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
394 Aryan D Rodrigues
P 11( me pep 0 a t t 0 s t ( d t 0 () n I yin t his w0 r d n n d for
which we may provide the meaning feather even
though the free form for the same meaning is anoshy
ther word (yap~ri) The abstract morpheme pepo is
very similar to Tupinamb pepo and Tuparf pepo
both meaning wing feather (no 29 of List II) as
well as to Mawe pepo wing Juruna peo- wing and
Kariti~na pap~ arrow feather all leading to the f reconstructlon o Proto-Tupl pep o However we
I a c k any e v ide nee 0 f pound_~P~~~ h a v in g cog nat e sin
other Carih langu 1g(s nd we do not (ven know how
its meaning is conveyed in them Thus until we
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Cashy
rib languages the possibility of pepoko being a
loanword cannot he discarded
Neverthel ess is likely th1t t h hypothesis of
a common b Tupi-Carl d es~ent for a good part of List
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the
Carib languages This should of course also hold
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi languashy
ges When the compared words are attested to in
several languages both in the Tupi
and in the Carih
group the case is of course stronger as in sets I
2 3 4 2 I 25 26 33 34 46 59 72 88 90
919396 100 108 119 It is unlikely that
these instances could be due to borrowing between
single lnguag0s for e ch of them involves more
than one family n the Tupi
stock and more than one
subgroup in the Carib family Additionally only
set 119 is cultureenvironment-bound
To these lexical correspondences we could add
some identical structural features of the phonolo-
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395
giee and grammars of the Tupi
and Carib languages
such as (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
~ u e a 0) (b) postpositions genitive-noun phrashy
ses and basically verb-final clauses (c) prefixal
person markers in the noun and the verb other inshy
flections being suffixal (d) possessor markers and
object markers are in general the same (e) clear
distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd pershy
son as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st pershy
son (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomishy
nantlyergative
It should be noted that some of the words (or
morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
J~ languages besides Tupi and Carib Taking Kainshy
giing (J~) and Borampro as representatives of Macro-
J~ we can exemplify this with among others the
following correspondences for set no 21 which w
could be derived from a common form u9 father
Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa both with the
same meaning and for set no 69 which analogous-w
ly could stem from Ol to wrap Bororo has ogwa
(homonymous with the preceding word) to conceal w
These two reconstructions have after a back voshy9 w
wel aft e r a front vowel 1) could be reconstrucshy
ted on the same basis of Tb -f= Catib -m in w
were to (re)turn ( set no 106) This is c om-
parable to Bor6ro kirimi to return and perhaps
( a 1 so to Kalngang Wlrln to turn for Bororo k as a
reflex of w note also woro parrot for set no
113 and Borampro korao parrot and in cases where
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
396 Aryan D Rodrigues
Ca rib is not involved Proto-Tup wor neck and
Borampro ko neck korora b~rd neck Proto-Tup~
wab to split a nd Bororo kwa ka split) For
se t no 108 a pos s ible proto-form is ke to say
to do which corresponds to Kaingng k e with the
11ml mprlning 1nd f or 1lt11 no 110 wi l h thC 1nl1shy
1 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 1 t ( d pr o I 0 - f or m k u l () e] t we
have both Kaingng an d Bor~ro with ko t o eat
Se t no 47 f or which por full is po st ulated
middotJS a proto-form a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang
fJr ful ill th E sa me way 1S Set no 96 with a
proto-form por t o jump evokes Ka ing~n g ~or to
be thrown Perhaps W p~ bark does no t corresshy
pond to Tb pe b ark ( set no 28) but rather to
Tb pir skin whi c h is matched by Kaingng ir and
Bor6ro biri both meanin g hark ski n
The whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially
nos 2-5 in List A) a lso belon g s to this net of relations Comp are for no 2 Kalngang a Shavante
(J~ fami ly) a - Bor~ro a- Kipe~ (Karir1 family)
e - Ka raj a - 2nd p erso n for no 3 Shava nte 1-
II r ~) r 0 K P (gt n cI K 1 r I i - j r cI p C r son non ref 1 e shy
xive for no 4 Kail1r~llg li Jr d person n o n reshy
fl e xive Shavante ti- Bororo tu- Kipe~ d- di-
Karaj~ ta- 3rd p ers on reflexive for n o 5 Kipe~
k- ku- 1st p e r so n plurl inclusive
A possible glnetic rcationship of Carib with
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o shy
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum But a lth o ug h th e
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of
Greenbergs h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~) they
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397
also question other aspects of it No evidence has
so far been found of regular phonological corresshy
pondences between Pano or Pano-Takna and eitherJ~
or Carib If an y genetic relationship would in the
future be discovered between them it would probabshy
ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
between J~ and Carib as we ll as the possible relashy
tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi In other
words Tupi
and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more likeshy
ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~shy
Pano-Carib as such But the grouping of Tu p1 with
Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
Greenbergs h y pothesis because Tupl then would be
placed within another of the three major divisions
conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan
Andean-Equatorial and J~-Pano-C arib As a SUPPshy
sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equashy
torial Tup1 would be related more closely to Arashy
wak than to either Carib or J~ Just the opposite
relationship is emerging from comparative work
Greenberg has himself remarked that the greatest
uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
groupings in South Ameri ca Andean-Equatorial and
Ge-Pano-Carib ( 1960791) and emphasizes that his
doubt pertains to the correctness of these two
as se mblages of languages as valid genetic groushy
ping s (1960 792) Indeed the evidence being gashy
thered where phonologically controlled comparative
work ma y be attempted s uggests the likelihood of a
genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
well as Tupf
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
398 Aryan D Rodrigues i Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399
NOTES
I After writing this paper I read Marshall Durshy
bins A Survey of the Carib Language Family
(Durbin 1977 repr i nted in this v o lume) in
which the Carib languages are divided into Norshy
t h f r n Car i h ltl n d S0 IJ the r n en rib hilt wit h 0 n I y
partial coincidenc e with my guess on
South Amazonian languages Durbins
cation deserves greater consideration
possibly include here [editors note
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in
volume]
North and
classifi shy
than I can
see also
this
2 C f Koch-Grunber g (1928258) on Wayumara
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
Nordostguayanas wozu auch die Hian~koto und
Verwandtf Ols ohrn Y1[lllrh-l1qllcth 7U rcchnen lind J) ) W Y r ( h I cl (gt I f4 (l g r i ( n ( r E r shy
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch anshy
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
fernen Osten Trio Galibi und anderen
3 Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
has been cast in doubt by some authors (eg
Tovar 1961112 Durbin 19772731) I b e lieve
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib
LI bull Nous fixol1s lnttcnti o n sur ce fait quil y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a fois
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive et au Tupi ou ~
lArroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
pas des onomatopees Seraient-ce des restes
dune ~poque o u c es familIes nen faisaient enshy
core quun e seule Nous nous contentons pour Ie
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances
(de Goeje 19091-2)
5 In some instances it is difficult to decide for
a given set hetween List A and List B In this
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian Carib languages eg Bakairi
or Nahukw~ as indicative of its belonging to
List A (for instance the word for beans no
116 of List A) After I wrote the last draft of
this paper I received a copy of BJ Hoffs
The Carib Language (The Hague Nijhoff 1968)
in which he comments (pp 13-14) on borrowings shy
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevins Tupf
which fR a ltlinleet of Llngua Gersl 25 items of
Hoffs list appear in our Lists A B
in List A 17 in List B 2 in List C
exception (kokokoxko coconut which
LG surely took from Portuguese while
and C--6
With one
Tatevins
Carib reshy
ceived it directly or indirectly from Spashy
nish) the other more than 40 correspondences
found by Hoff
categories of
fourth one of
not excluding
from a third
should fall in some of the three
Lists A B and C as well as in a
Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral
a further possibility of words
Amazonian language entering Carib
and LG independently (see note 10)
6 Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupfshy
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lonshy
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
100 Aryan D Rodrigues
words such as those in List B as important inshy
dicators of possible moments of contact It is
significant that most words in
average length of Tupi-Guarani
regularly mono- and disyllabic)
anillyzCd rlS consistinr of morp
List B exceed the
roots (which are
and can not be
than on P Tt1 Pl-
Guarani morpheme This marks them as highly -
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl
I am grateful to Cheryl J Jensen for having
checked
gainst
work
reaus
tic and
3 It is
Coudreaus Waya p1 words used here ashy
data of her own and Gary Olsons field
This permitted me to conclude that Coudshy
wordlist is very reliable in both semanshy
phonological representation
also possible that South Amazonian Carib
languages have received Tupi words from languashy
ges within thCLr more immediate reltJch 8 UC has
Kamayura and Awetl The Bakairi word
rying basket mayaku stems clearly
ma yak6 typically with Iyl instead of
ran~ Inl (Tupinamb~ panaku)
9 Island Carib as is now wet known
for carshy
from Aweti
Tupi-Guashy
is an Arashy
wak language not a Carib one But it contains
a large number of Carib words due to the unusual
situation from which it evolved namely the inshy
teraction of conquering Carib men with captured
Arawak women and children Its Carib words are
included in Lists A and B because they indicate
the already existing presence of cognate words
in coastal Carib languages in the first half of
the 17th centur~ IC data was taken from de
Goeje (1909) and Taylor (1977)
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401
10 This short list includes only Lingua Geral Iwords that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent i
Other LG words which are found
Amazonian Carib languages are
words in LG and may have their
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages
also in North I most likely loanshy
origin in other i and possibly in I t
some Carib language So for some words it is
not a tall clear now which was the direction of
the loan ie LG gt Carib or Caribgt LG Some
examples
~ LG
muru LG LG k US1U
rapana =
REFERENCES
Anonymous
silica
are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum murushy
shywasai = Gl Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea
1 k h = G eS1U Plt eCla satanas LG ka-
Gl kal~pana mosquito)
1952-1953 Vocabuliirio na lingua bra-
Universidade de S~o Paulo Faculdade de
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras Boletim 137 164
Sao Paulo
Caspar Franz and Aryon D Rodrigues nd Die
Tupari-Sprache ms
Coudreau H 1892 Vocabulaires m~thodiques des
langues Ouayana AparaT Oyampi Emerillon
Biblioth~que Linguistique Am~ricaine XV Paris
Maisonneuve
Crofts Marjorie 1973 Gram~tica munduruk~
Brasilia Summer Institute of Linguistics
n d MundurukG field file Ms
Derbyshire Desmond 1979 Hixkaryana Lingua
Descriptive Studies I Amsterdam North
Holland
I
i
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
I I
402 Aryan D Rodrigues
i )( k 1 r y I 11 r i t 1 d 1 ( IIlR
Durbin Marshall 1977 A Survey of the Carib
Language Family In Carib Speaking Indians
Culture Society and L~nguage Ellen 8 Basso e d pp 23-38 Tucson University of Arizona
Press
Fonseca Joro Severiano and Pires de Almeida
1899 Voyage autour du Br~sil (~dition condenshy
s~e) Rio de Janeiro Lavignasse
Goeje CH de 1906 Bijdrage tot de ethnoshy
graphie der surinaamsche Indianen Internationashy
les Archiv f~r Ethnographie XVII (supplement)
1909 Etudes linguistiques cara~bes Vershy
handlingen der Konink1ijke Akademie van Wetenshy
schappen te Amsterdam Afdeeling Lettcrkunde
niellwe reeks d ( f 1 X n 1
- - ---- 1946 Ellldes illgui s liqu(s cara(bes tome II Verhandlingen der Koninklijke Nederlandsche
Akademie van Wetenschappen Afdeeling Letterkunshy
de nieuwe reeks deel IL n 21-274
lIawkins W N e i l 1952 A fono10gia d~ l1ngua
uaiuai Universidade de S 0 P a u I 0 Fa c u J dad e d e
Filosofia Ci~ncias e Letras 80letim 157 Sao Paulo
shy1962 A morfologia do substantivo na linshygua uaiuai Rio de J~neiro Museu Nacional
IIrtwkins W Nrgt i I and I~ f) h ( r til w k i 11 S bull 195] Verb inflectioll ill Wn i W(J (Carib) IIIlernational
Journal of American Linguistics 19201-21 I
Koch-Grunberg Theodor 1928 Vom Roroima zum
Orinoco Vol 4 Stuttgart Strecker und
SchrCgtder
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 403
M~traux Alfred I 927 Migrations historiques des
Tupi-Guarani Journal de la Soci~t~ des Am~rishycanistes 19 1-45
Olson Roberta 1978 Dicion~rio por tOP1COS nas l (W ) P ~l lnguas Olampl aJapl - ortugues Brasl la
Summer Institute of Linguistics
Rodrigues Aryon D 1958a Die Klassifikation des
Tupi-Sprachstammes Proceedings of the 32nd
International Congress of Americanists pp
679-684 Co~enhague Munskgaard
1958b Classification of Tupi-Guarani
International Journal of American Linguistics
24 231-234
1959 Phonologie der Tupinamb(-Sprache
PhD dissertation Universitat Hamburg
------ 1961 Tuplt1rl e tupinamh~ evid~ncias de parentesco gen~tico Paper read at the 5th meeshy
ting of the Brazilian Anthropological Associashy
tion Belo Horizonte
1964 1 f d l A c aSSl lCaraO 0 tronco lngulsshy
tico tupi Revista de Antropologia 1299-104
S~o Paulo
1970 Linguas amerfndias Grande Encishy
c10p~dia Delta-Larousse pp 4034-4036 Rio de Janeiro Delta
1980 Tupf-guaranl e mundurukC evid~nshy
cias lexicais e fonol~gicas de parentesco gen~shy ( tic 0 Estudos LlngulstlcoS 3194-209 Ararashy
quara Universidade Estadual Paulista
1981 Fonologia e morfologia do Tupinamshy
b~ Unpublished paper
I I
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
404 Aryan D Rodrigues
1639 Tesoro de la lenguaRuiz de Montoya A
Madrid Juan Sanchezguarani I Die Baka~ri-Sprache1892Steinen Karl von den
Koehlers AntiquariumLeipzig KF Unter den Natur v 51kern Zentral-Brasiliens
Berlin Dictrirh RCimCr
Vocabularios da lingua geralStradelli E 1929
portuguez - nheengatu e nheen g atu-portuguez preshy
cedidos de urn espoo de grammatica nheengatushy
umbue-saua miri e seguido de contoS e m lingua
Revi s [n do Institutogeral nheengalll-p o rnndllLlil
Historico e Geographico Brasileiro t 104 vol
9-768 Rio de Janeiro158 p p tUPl auLa langue tap1hlya dite1910
~eengatu (belle langue) grammaire dictionnaire
Schriften der Sprachenkommission II
Tatevin c
et textes Vien-Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften
Alfred Hblder
Tovar Antonio 1961 Catpoundlogo de las lenguas de
Am~rica del Sur Buenos Aires Editorial
n a
Sudamericana
1977 11 n gil f ( S 0 f t II C West I n shyTny1or )olJflns
Baltimore Johns Hopkins Universit ydies
Press Bakairi field file ms
Wheatley James n d
1 1
I
11
I
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju httpbiblioetnolinguisticaorg
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