INSECTS! Lecture notes, SPLASH 2010 Davie Rolnick ... · PDF filenotes cover roughly what we...

INSECTS!Lecturenotes,SPLASH2010 DavieRolnick,drolnick@mit.edu

Thesenotescoverroughlywhatwetalkedaboutinclass,aswellasagoodbitmore.IhaveusedredtypetoindicatespeciesthatarefoundinNewEngland.MostofthespeciesthatareinourareaIhaveseeninthevicinityofmyhouseinsouthwestVermont.Mostofthephotosarenotmine.ThosethatIdidtakeIhavemarkedwithanX.1.Coverslide(seeslide100).Introduction: 2.Thisisamasonwasp(Ancistrocerusadiabatus)withadiagnosticsmileyfaceonthethorax.Theslideismeanttoindicatethethreesegmentsofaninsect’sbody:head,thorax,andabdomen.Thelegsandwings(ifany)alwaysareattachedatthethorax.Insectshavesixlegs(exceptforsomeleglessforms,usuallylarvae)anduptotwopairsofwings.Birdsevolvedwingsfromoneoftheirpairsoflegsandasaresultnowhaveonlyonepairoflegsleft(theyusedtohavetwopairswhentheywerenon‐birdreptiles).Unlikebirds,insectsdidn’thavetogiveupanylegsingettingwings–thewingsarejustextensionsoftheexternalskeleton(exoskeleton)oftheinsect’sbody.3.Thefirststageofaninsect’slifeis(generally)anegg.(Aphidsoftengivenbirthtoliveyoung,buttheaphidlifecycleisawfullycomplicatedandIwon’tdiscussithere.)ShownhereistheeggofaMonarchbutterfly.4.Thenextstageis(generally)alarva/nymph(likethisMonarchcaterpillar),whichnormallylackswingsandsexualorgans.Insomeinsects(suchasgrasshoppers)thisstageresemblestheadult,exceptforthelackofwings–itisthencalleda“nymph”andthereisnopupalstage;thenymphjustshedsitsskinandbecomesanadult.Thisiscalledincompletemetamorphosis.Withotherinsects(suchasbutterflies,moths,flies,andbeetles),theyounginsectlookstotallyunliketheadult–itisthencalleda“larva”andmustgothroughapupalstagebeforebecominganadult.Thisiscalledcompletemetamorphosis.5.Forinsects(suchasthisMonarch)withcompletemetamorphosis,thereisapupalstage,duringwhichtheinsectisrelativelyinert,doesnotfeed,andreorganizesitsbodyintotheadultconfiguration.6.Thefinalstageisthelifecycleistheadult.7.Sinceinsectsliveinsidearigidexoskeleton,theymust,iftheyaregrowing,periodicallyshedtheiroldexoskeletonandmakeanewlargerone.Ashed

exoskeletoniscalleda“molt.”Thisladybuglarvaismolting.Itmayeatthemoltafteritisdone,soasnottowastetheenergy.Some ma0or groups of insects:LEPIDOPTERA(Butterfliesandmoths)8.AtlantisFritillary(butterfly)usingitsstraw‐likeproboscistodrinknectarfromaredcloverflower.Theproboscisisthefeedingapparatusforall(adult)mothsandbutterflies,andisonlycapableofextractingliquidfood.9.Tigerswallowtailsp.nectaring.10X.SomesortofNymphalidbutterflythatIfoundinCostaRica.11.ADorcasCopper.RelatedspeciesfoundinourareaaretheBronzeCopperandAmericanCopper.12.ABandedHairsteakbeingeatenbyaGoldenrodSpider.Thisspider,avarietyofcrabspider,hastheabilitytochangecolorbetweenyellowandwhitetohelpitblendinwiththeflowerswhereitliesinwait.13X.AvarietyofIthomiinebutterflyfromCostaRica.Ifounditrestingforthenightonthetipofatendril.14.AYehlSkipperdrinkingupnutrientsfromsomebirdpoop.Butterfliesandmothsdon’tfeedjustfromflowers.Manyalsodrinkupnutrientsfromrottenfruit,treesap,ormoistpoop.Inourareaduringthesummer,onecanoftenfindgroupsofbrightyellowCloudedSulphurbutterfliesclusteredonadirtroadtoobtainsaltfromthemud.ThereisevenamothinAsiathatdrinksthetearsofWaterBuffaloandotherlargeanimals.Arelatedspecies,theVampireMoth,hasasharpproboscisthatitusestopiercetheskinofanimalsanddrinktheirblood.Thisexcitingmothis,however,foundonlyinMalaysiaandthereabouts.Skipperbutterflies,liketheYehlSkippershownhere,are(ingeneral)tinyorangebutterfliesthatflyathyperspeed,whizzingaroundsofastthatyoucanbarelyseethem.Theynormallydrinkfromflowers,ratherthanpoop.ThereareseveraldozenspeciesofskipperinNewEngland(thoughtheYehlSkipperitselfisfoundonlyintheSoutheast).15.AnIndonesianOwlMoth.Itisquitelarge,withawingspanofupto8inches.Mothsvastlyoutnumberbutterflies(intheUS,about10to1),andbutterfliesmightbeconsideredasubsetofmoths.Whilepeopleoftenconsidermothstobesmallanddrab,mostactuallyhavebeautiful,intricatemarkings,andmanyarelargeandbrightlycolored(thebiggestmothsarelargerthanthebiggestbutterflies).

16.AnEmperorMoth(akindofsilkmoth).ItwassuggestedinclassthatthemothmightbefromaSpanish‐speakingcountry,giventheURLonthephoto.Infact,itisfoundinnorthernEurasia.(IthinktheURLwasderivedfromCzech.)17X.ALunaMoth(wingspanofabout4inches),whichisthemostcommontypeoflargesilkmothinourarea(Ihaveattractedasmanyas7tomylightduringasinglenight).Likeothersilkmoths,LunaMothsshouldbelookedforinJune.Settingupalightatawindowisthebestwaytoattractsilkmothssincetheydonotfeedasadults,subsistingentirelyonfoodstoredfromthecaterpillarstage.(Mostothermothsdo,however,feedasadults.)LunamothsarefeaturedintheadvertisementsofthesleepmedicationLunesta.18.AColumbiaSilkmoth,foundinnorthernNewEnglandandCanada.Youmaynoticeonitsthoraxalargeamountofwhatlookslikefur.Thefurisactuallymadeofthesamestuffasthecoloredscalesonthewings,justthescaleshavebeenmodifiedtobeverylong.Thefur(whichistechnicallycalled“pile”todistinguishitfromthehairofmammals)helpskeepthemothwarm.19X.ItscloserelativetheCecropiaMoth.Thisone(whichcametomylight)isperchedonmyshirt.Itisthelargestsilkmothinourareaandismoderatelycommon.20X.APolyphemusSilkmoth,anotherlargesilkmothinourarea.Thisoneisonmyhand.Thelargeeyespotsonthehindwingsareintendedtostartlepredators.21X.AnAmericanSwordgrassMoth,oneoftheCucullinae,agroupofmothsthatflyduringthemiddleofwinter.Theyarewell‐insulated(lookathowfurrythethoraxis)thuscankeeptheirmusclesgoingevenwhentheairisjustabovefreezingpoint.Whentheyarenotflying,themothsrollupintheleaflitterandbecomingcold,torpidlumps.Thisoneiswell‐camouflagedasapieceoftwigordeadleaf.Wintermothssuchasthisonecanbereasonablycommoninourarea,buttheydon’tgenerallycometolights,since,whentheyareflying,theyaregenerallylookingforfood–i.e.sapthatisleakingfromtrees.Iwillbeputtingupahandoutincludinghowtomakesugarybaittoattractsuchmoths.22X.AChocolateProminent,aprettymothcommonaroundJuneinourarea.23X.AnamazingmothcalledtheLetteredHabrosyne,whichisuncommoninourarea.Itfliesinthesummer.24X.ThebeautifulPartheniceTigerMoth.Therearemanysortsoftigermoth,mostofwhicharediurnalandbrilliantlycolored.Thisoneisrelativelyuncommon,buttheVirginTigerMoth,whichlooksalmostidenticaltoit,isreasonablycommon.Duringtheday,itcanbefoundinmeadows,andatnightitcomestolights.

25X.SomesortoftigermothfromCostaRica.Theadultmothhasevidentlyjustemergedfrompupation.Thewhitethingbesidethemothisthecocoon,insidewhichthemothpupated.Many(thoughbynomeansall)mothsmakesuchasilkencocoonaroundtheirpupalcase(notethatthecocoondoesnotreplacethepupa,merelysurroundsit).Thecocoonprotectsagainstpredatorsandisoftendistastefulandhardtogetinto.Inthisphoto,theslitinthecocooniswherethemothgotoutofit.Somemoths,whenemergingfromtheirpupaeasadults,havetosecreteanenzymetodissolvethecocoonandallowthemtobreakout,sincethesilkofthecocoonissostrong.Idon’tknowwhetherthisisoneofthosemoths.26X.Thisisoneofthelargegroupofmothscalled“geometers”(alsocalledinchwormsbecauseofthepeculiarwayinwhichthecaterpillarswalk).Youcantellgeometermothsasadultsbythecombinationofthefollowingtwocharacteristics:(1)Theynormallyhaveslenderbodieswithoutmuchfur,and(2)whenatrest,theyholdtheirwingsspreadoutandflatagainstwhatevertheyareon.Wehavehundredsofspeciesofbeautifulgeometersinourarea,thoughthisparticularone,whichisinthegenusPhrygionis,isfromCostaRica.27X.Thisisanothergeometer.Itisoneofmanyspeciesof“emeralds,”agroupofsmall,gem‐likegeometersthataremostlygreen.ThisspeciesisagainfromCostaRica,butmanyotherspeciesofemeraldarecommoninourarea.28.ThisisaCommonGluphisiamoth.Ascaterpillarstheyfeedonaspenleaves,whichareapparentlyverylowinsalt.Thatmeansthatasadultstheymustsomehowacquiresalt.Themaledoesthisbydrinkinghugequantitiesofwaterfrommud,extractingthesalt,andejectingtheleftoverwaterinforcefuljetsfromhisrearend.Thesalthehasgarneredhethenpresentstoafemale,whopassessomeofitontohereggs.29.Thisisacolorfulday‐flyingmothcalledtheFaithfulBeauty.UnfortunatelyitisfoundonlyasfarnorthasFlorida.30X.ThisisaLetteredSphinx,whichholdsitsbodyinaveryinterestingposition.Withtheup‐curledabdomenandthin,jaggedwings,itdoesagreatjobofmimickingadeadleaf.Likeothersphinxmoths,thisspecieshasashapelikeafighterjet–verynarrowwingsandalargethorax.Thethoraxisbigbecauseitisfilledwithhugeflightmuscles,whichthemothusestobeatitswingsreallyfast,enablingittoflywiththespeedandwhirrofahummingbird.Thehugeflightmusclesalsoproducelotsofheat,whichthemothusestoregulateitstemperature(activesphinxmothsareeffectively“warm‐blooded”).31.Thelarvaeofbutterflyandmothsarecalledcaterpillars.Theygenerallyfeedontheleavesorflowersofplants,thoughsomefeedonothermaterialssuchasdead

leaves,beeswax,oreventheshellsofdeadtortoises!ThisisthebrightlycoloredcaterpillaroftheBlackSwallowtailbutterfly.Itfeedsonfennelandrelatedplants.32.ThisistheamazingcaterpillaroftheCecropiamoth(seeslide19).Thebrightnodulesalloverthecaterpillararepresumablytheretowarnpredatorstoavoidit–thosespineshaveirritatingchemicals.Ingeneral,spinyorfurrycaterpillarshavesomesortofchemicaldefenseinthehairs.Thechemicalsarenotnormallyparticularlyirritatingtohumans,butsomepeopleareallergicanditisgenerallyadvisablenottotouchorpetsuchcaterpillars.33.ThefurrycaterpillarofthecommonHickoryTussockMoth.Themostfrequentlyseencaterpillarsareoftenhairy,sincethesecaterpillarshavechemicaldefensesandthereforeadvertisetheirpresencewithbrightcolors(whilethelargenumberofchemical‐freecaterpillarsareusuallywell‐camouflaged).ThewordcaterpillarinfactderivesfromtheFrenchfor“hairycat.”34.ThisisaCrownedSlugcaterpillar.Slugcaterpillarsaresmallslug‐likeblobswithalmostinvisiblelegs.Manyarebeautifullycolored.ODONATA(Dragonfliesanddamselflies)35.TwomatingHalloweenPennantdragonflies,sonamedforthebrightorange‐and‐blackmarkingsontheirwings.36.ACommonGreenDarner,whichisprobablythemostcommonlargedragonflyinourarea,oftenseencruisingoverponds.Itisoneofthefastestinsectsintheworld,abletoflyat53mph(comparedwiththefastestinsect,anAustraliandragonfly,thatcanflyat60mph).Dragonfliesareaerialhunters,usingspeed,theiramazinglycontrolledflight(eachpairofwingsiscontrolledseparately),andhugeeyestotrackandcatchsmallerinsectsflyingby.37.AnEbonyJewelwingdamselfly,commonlyfoundflappingslowlybesidewoodlandstreamsandrivers.Damselfliesaretheslimmer,moredelicaterelativesofthedragonflies.Theytendtoholdtheirwingsfoldedovertheback,ratherthanouthorizontallylikedragonflies.38.ASlenderBluet,oneofmanyspeciesofsmallneonbluedamselflies.These“bluets,”astheyarecalled,areextremelycommoninmarshesandwetmeadows,andaroundponds.Aswithmostotherdragonfliesanddamselflies,lookfortheminsummer.39.AlargeuncommondamselflycalledtheAmericanRubyspot.40.Thenymphsofdamselfliesanddragonfliesareaquaticandlookratherdifferentfromtheadults.Theyarepredatoryandhaveasortofexpandablemouththatthey

canshootouttocatchprey.Thisonehascapturedasmallfish.HYMENOPTERA(Wasps,bees,andants)41.Thisisthemasonwaspshowninslide2.(Rememberthesmileyfaceonthethorax!:‐))42.AGreatGoldenDiggerWaspfeedingonsomemilkweedflowers.43.ATricoloredBumblebee,oneofthemostcommonbumblebeesinourarea.Itisveryfuzzy(whichhelpsitkeepwarmoncoldmornings)andisbrightlycoloredtowarnpredatorsofitssting.44.Avarietyofcuckoowasp.Idon’tknowwhichspeciesitis,butwaspslikethisonearecommoninourarea.Theyaretinyjewel‐likeinsects,and,likemanyofthesmallerwasps,aresolitary(ratherthanlivinginlargenests).45.AnestofBald‐facedHornets,averycommonlargewaspinourarea.46.ThisisaverylargesolitarywaspcalledtheCicadaKiller.47.Thisisacicada,whatthewaspisafter.(Malecicadasarethoseinsectsthatmakeadeafeningzitheringnoiseatnoononhotsummerdays.)48.Thisisthewaspandcicadatogether.Thewasphasn’tactuallykilledthecicada,buthasparalyzeditwithaspecialpoison.Itistryingtogetthecicadaintoaburrowithasbuilt,butthecicadaisheavierthantheCicadaKiller,andsothewaspcan’tflywithitsburden.Ithastoclimbuptrees/posts/peopleandglidedowninordertomovethecicadaovertoitsburrow.Oncethecicadaisintheburrow,theCicadaKillerlaysasingleeggonitandclosestheburrow.Thelarvaofthewasp,whenithatches,willfeedfromthecicada’sbody,whichiskeptfreshbecauseitisstillalive,justparalyzed!Thelarvaiscarefultoeatthenonessentialorgansfirstsothecicadastaysaliveaslongaspossible.49.Thisisakindoffairyfly,thesmallestofallinsectgroups(thoughcalled“flies”theyareactuallyasubgroupofthewasps).Someareonly0.2millimeterslong(about1/100ofaninch).Theimageherewastakenbyamicroscope.Theridiculouswingsofthefairyflyareperfectlysufficientfortheinsectto“fly”sincesomethingthatsmallgetscarriedbythebreezewithease.Fairyfliesareparasites,layingtheireggsinsidetheeggsofotherinsects!COLEOPTERA(Beetles)Therearemorespeciesofbeetlethananyothergroupofinsects–some400,000speciesareknown,makingupabout25%ofallknownspeciesoforganism(includingplants,bacteria,etc.)!

50.ADogbaneBeetle,socalledbecauseitfeedsonplantsinthedogbanefamily.51.Aladybuglayingeggs.ThisparticularspeciesisanintroducedspeciescalledtheMulticoloredAsianLadyBeetle,whosepopulationhasexplodedacrosstheUS.Itisthisspeciesthatcommonlycrowdsintohousesinanattempttofindsomeshelterinwhichtospendthewinter.52.Beetles,likemanyotherinsects,havetwopairsofwings,butintheircasethefrontpairarehardenedintoprotectivewingcasescalled“elytra”(singular,“elytron”).Whenabeetleisnotflying,theelytraarefoldedoverthemembranoushindwingsandareallthatyoucansee.Whenthebeetleflies,itopenstheelytraandholdsthemoutstifflywhilebeatingthehindwingstogeneratethrust.53.ThislargegreenbeetleiscalledtheGloriousBeetle.54.ThisistheRound‐headedAppleTreeBorer,thelarvaofwhichfeedsonthewoodofappletrees.55.Thisisadungbeetle.Thesebeetlesseekoutdung(poop)oflargeanimalslikedeerorelephantsandrollballsofdungintoburrowsthebeetlesbuild.Eggsarelaidonthedung,andthebeetlelarvaefeedonit.WhileAfricahasparticularlylargedungbeetles,therearespeciesfoundinNewEnglandaswell.56.Thisisakindofpleasingfungusbeetle,so‐called,presumably,becausetheyfeedonfungusandareoftenbrightlycolored.57.AvarietyofbrightlycoloredbeetlesfeedingatrottenfruitsomewhereinEastAfrica.58.AkindofEyedClickBeetle(alsocalledEyedElater).Theeyespotsonthethorax,whicharenowherenearthebeetle’srealeyes,aretoscareawayapotentialpredator.Likeotherclickbeetles,thisspecieshasalittleclickythingatthetipofitsabdomen.Ifoverturned,thebeetlesnapstheclickythingandtherebyflingsitselfupwardintotheair–itrepeatstheclickinguntilitlandsrightwayup.59.AkindofLong‐neckedGroundBeetle.60.AGoldenBuprestidbeetle.61.AkindofbeetlecalledtheFierySearcher,whichclimbsuptreestoeatcaterpillars.ItwasintroducedtotheUnitedStatesinanattempttocombattheinvasiveGypsyMoth(acaterpillarofwhichthisindividualiseating).However,thebeetlesalsoeatmanynativespeciesofcaterpillarandhavethereforeperhapsprovedmoreofaproblemthanacure.62.Akindofcheckeredbeetle.

63.TwoZygogrammabeetles.TheyarerelatedtotheCalligraphabeetles,so‐calledbecauseofthefinemarkingslikewritingthatadorntheirelytra.64.Akindofdivingbeetle.Thisaquaticbeetleusesitsfrontlegstocatchprey,whileanotherpairoflegsismodifiedintopaddlesforswimming.65.Aspeciesofwhirligigbeetle.Theseshinyblackbeetles,foundingroups,dashaboutincirclesonthesurfacesoflakeslookinglikebitsofmovinghematite.66.Side‐viewoftheheadofawhirligigbeetle.Youwillnoticetwoeyesonthisside,onepointingupandonepointingdown.Thebeetlesinfacthavefoureyes,twoforlookingabovethewaterandtwoforbelow.Theantennaofthebeetleisplacedsoastorestonthesurfaceasthebeetleswims,andanorganatthebaseofeachantennadetectsthemovementsofthewaterandsenses,bytheripples,whatpotentialpreyorpredatorsarenearby.HEMIPTERA(Truebugs)67.Manytruebugshaveparentalcare.Thisbrightlycolorednymph(itisprobablytoxic)isholdingontoalargerandmoredrablypatternedparent.68.Truebugsaretoldbythepeculiarmodeoffeeding–theyhaveastiffstrawlikemouthpartcalledarostrum,whichtheyfoldbeneaththeheadwhentheyaren’tusingit.Therostrumistheredthingbeneaththeheadofthiswheelbug.Havingastrawtoeatwith,truebugsmustfeedfromsomethingliquid.Someofthemdrinkupplantjuices.Others,likethiswheelbug,sticktheirrostrumintootherinsects,injectenzymesthatdissolvetheotherinsect’sbody,andthensuckupthenutritioussoupwiththerostrum.69.Thisblood‐suckingconenosedrinksthebloodofmammalssuchassquirrels.I’veneverseenoneinthisarea,anditdoesn’tnormallyfeedfromhumans…!70.Thisambushbugliesinwaitinthetopsofflowers,particularlygoldenrod.Camouflagedandmotionless,itseizesunwarybeesandotherinsectsthatland.

71.Notalltruebugsarepredators.Thisleafhopper(genusGraphocephala),oneofseveralbrightlystripedspeciesinourarea,isatinyinsectthatfeedsonplantjuices.Speciesofgreenleafhoppersareverycommoninlawnsandmakeupmostofthetinyinsectsthatfleetheapproachofalawnmower.Theycanhopandfly,andtheirexoskeletonrepelswater,whichpreventsthemdrowningintinywaterdroplets,whichwouldotherwisebeaveryrealdangerforcreaturesthatsmall.72.ThisBroad‐headedSharpshooter,likeothersharpshooters,arelargeleafhoppersnamedfortheirlong,straightjumps.

73.ThisBuffaloTreehopper,relatedtotheleafhoppers,alsofeedsfromplantjuices.Itcanhopwellandevadesdetectionbycamouflagingitselfingreenandalsobyappearingthornyandunappetizing.Itspendsitstimeonstemsand,ifyoutrytocatchit,hastheendearinghabitofalwaysdodgingaroundtothesideofthestemoppositetothesideyouareon.74X.Thisplanthopper(familyDerbidae)isoneofthespeciesoftruebugthatholdtheirwingsoutlikethewingsofamoth.(ThisindividualistheonlysuchbugIhaveseen–IwasveryexcitedwhenIfoundthisinCostaRica.)75.Aphidsaresoft‐bodiedtruebugsthatoftenliveinlargemasses,drinkingthesweetsapfromplants.TheseareMilkweedAphids.76.Thenymphsofperiodiccicadasliveinthegroundformanyyears(13or17),feedingonthesapoftreeroots.Theythenallemergeatthesametimeandtransformintowingedadultssuchasthisone,whichzitherinthetreetops,mate,anddiewithinasummer.Thesynchronizationhelpsmatingandalsoswampspredators,whoarefacedwithfarmorecicadasthantheycanpossiblyeat.Sinceadultcicadaszither(byscrapingtheirwings)inthetreetopsatthehottestpartofthesummerday,thosethatliveinthesouthwestgetveryhot.Tocooloff,theysweat–emittingwaterfrompores,whichevaporatesandcoolsthem.77.Aratherdifferentproblemofhotweatherandwaterfacesthisbeetle.(Idon’treallyknowwhyIthoughtthatIshouldputthisslidehere,butitisafunstory.)Anyway,thisbeetle(genusStenocara)livesinreallydrydesertsinNamibia.Sixtimesamonth,fogsweepsoverthedesertatdawn,andthatisaboutallthewaterthereis.Butthebeetlehasawayofcollectingit.Thebeetlestandsonaduneandfacesthefog.Tinynodulesonthebeetle’selytra(thosehard,modifiedforewings)fosterthecondensationofwater.Groovesintheelytrachannelthecondensedwater,anditrunsintothebeetle’smouth.Thewater‐gatheringapparatusissoefficientthattheUSArmyiscurrentlytryingtocopyitasawayofgettingwaterinaridareas.DIPTERA(Flies)78.Cranefliesarelargeflieswithreallylonglegs.Likealmostallflies,theyareharmless,andinfactcraneflieseatmosquitoes.ThisPhantomCraneflyspreadsitsblack‐and‐whitelegsasitflies,withtheairpocketsinthelegsprovidingincreasedbuoyancy.Itissomewhatghostlytowatch,since,asitglidessmoothlythroughtheair,itsblack‐and‐whitepatterncausesittoappearanddisappeardependingonthebackground.79.Thesefruitfliesaremating.Likemanyotherflies,theyhaveamazingeyes.

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80.Moreamazingeyes.Thisflyisfoundinourarea,thoughIhaveforgottenitsname.81.Akindofpicture‐wingedfly.Themalestrutsupanddownlikeapeacocktoattractfemales.82.Astalk‐eyedflyfromSoutheastAsia.Theredthingsattheendofthestalksaretheeyes–theflyinflatestheeyestalksimmediatelyuponemergingfromthepupa.Onlythemaleshavestalkedeyes,andtheyareforattractingfemales–infact,themalescompeteformatesbywrestlingwiththeireyestalks!83.TwomatingGold‐backedSnipeFlies,oneofmyfavoritelocalflies.84.AflyinthegenusSericomyia,mimickingabeeorwasp.ORTHOPTERA(Grasshoppers,Crickets,Katydids)85.ACarolinaLocust,averylargegrasshopperthatisverycommonhereindrygravellyareas.Whendisturbed,itjumpsupandfliesawaywithastartlingcracknoise.86.ATreetopBushKatydid,anelegantinsectthatchirrupsfromthetopsoftrees.87.TheSpringFieldCricket,oneofthecommonspeciesofcricketinourarea.NEUROPTERA(Lacewings,antlions,andmore)88.ThisGreenLacewingisavoraciouspredatorofaphids.Itisverycommoninmeadowsandgardens.89.Lacewingslaytheireggsonstalkstodefendthemfromants.Ifanantwalksacrosstheleaf,itwillhopefullynotnoticetheeggssuspendedaboveitshead.MANTODEA(Mantises)90.ThisChineseMantis,anintroducedspecies,isnowcommoninAmerica.Fulgoridae(Lanternfliesandothers)Theseareactuallyasubgroupofthetruebugs,butIputthemherebecauseIforgotthat,andbecausetheyaresoweird.91X.IfoundthislanternflyinCostaRica.92.Hereisanotherspeciesoflanternflyfromsomewhere.

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93.Andanother.TheclassdecidedthatthisshouldbecalledanElecock(from“elephant”and“peacock”).5efenses against predators: 94X.ThisWhiteUnderwingmoth(withawingspanof3inches)ispatternedsoastoblendinwiththebarkofthePaperBirch(atreethatiscommoninthenorthernforestsinwhichthemothlives).IputthisindividualonaPaperBirchtoshowthecamouflage.95.Oneoftheseleavesisnotaleaf,butanIndianLeafButterflywithitswingsclosed.Atthebottomofthispageiswrittenwhichleafisthebutterfly.1Noticehowthebutterflycopiestheveins,mildewedspots,androughoutlineoftheleaf.96.Thesamebutterflywithwingsopen.97.Akindofleafinsect,arelativeofthestickinsects,whichiscamouflagedtolooklikealeaf.98.AkindofkatydidcalledtheGreaterAnglewing,camouflagedasaleaf.Itisverycommoninourareaandmakesanexcellentpet,subsistingwelluponleavesinsummeranduponcheeriosandberriesinwinter.99.Akindofdead‐leaf‐mimickingmantis,hiddenamongtheleaflitter.100.Anothermantis,fromSoutheastAsia,mimickingapurpleorchid!Themantisliesinwaitamongtheflowersoftheorchidandcatchesinsectsthatcometotheflowers.101.Ihavesadlyforgottenthenameofthistropicalmoth,butthecamouflageisamazing.102.ThecaterpillaroftheViceroybutterfly,whichmimicsabitofbirdpoopthatnopredatorwouldwanttoeat.Theadultbutterflyisshowninslide125.103.Agroupoftreehoppersmimickingthorns.Ithinkthattheplantthattheyareondoesnotactuallyhaveanyrealthorns.104.Thisisactuallyacaterpillar–andjustonecaterpillar!ItiscalledaMonkeySlug(theadultmothiscalledaHagMoth).Thoseprojectionsonthesidesofthecaterpillararenotlegs,butextensionsofthebody.Thewholecaterpillarissetuptolookliketheshedskinofatarantula!Strangely,itisfoundfarfurthernorththan

1Thebottomleftleaf.

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tarantulas(includinginNewEngland),butpresumablyevenherepredatorswouldbewaryofeatingsuchanunappetizinglump.105.ThecaterpillaroftheDouble‐toothedProminentmoth.Birdsoftenlocatecaterpillarsonthebasisoftheholesinleavesthattheyleavewhentheyfeed.Thiscaterpillarconcealstheleafdamageitmakesbypositioningitselfinplaceoftheleafmaterialithasjusteaten.Notethatthebackofthecaterpillarlooksjustliketheserratededgesoftheelmleavesthatitissurroundedby,soitcanreplacetheedgeofaleafveryeffectively.106X.TheadultDouble‐toothedProminentmoth.Thisoneisfrommyhouse.107X.ThereisaOnce‐marriedUnderwinghiddenagainstthebarkofthisPaperBirchtree(Iartificiallyinducedthisparticularcamouflagebyputtingthemothonthetree).108X.Close‐upofthemothhiding.109X.Thesamemoth,butwithwingsopen,showingthebrightred‐and‐blackhindwings.Underwingmothslikethisonegenerallyhavebrightlycoloredhindwings–red,orange,oryellow.Ifcamouflagefailsandapredatorhasdiscoveredthem,theyflashtheirwingsatthepredator,hopefullystartlingitlongenoughthattheycanflyaway.Atleasttwodozenspeciesofunderwingmothsarefoundinourarea.Owingtotheirbrightcolorsandlargesize,theycanbequiteexcitingmothstofind.Theyflyinlatesummer,andareespeciallyattractedtosugarybait,butalsocometolightssometimes,asthisonedid.110.Manygrasshoppershaveananti‐predatortacticsimilartothatofunderwings.ThisisaCarolinaLocustcamouflagedagainsttheground.Whenittakesflight,itrevealsblackhindwingsborderedwithwhite.Italsomakesaloud“crack”noiseintakingoffthatisadditionallystartling.111.HereisaBlue‐wingedGrasshopperwithbrightbluehindwings.112.AndaPlainsYellow‐wingedGrasshopperwithyellowhindwings.Thisspeciesisnotinourarea,butotherspeciesofyellow‐wingedgrasshoppersare.113.Anotherspecieswithbrightredhindwings.114.ThisisaGaudySphinxmoth,withthesametrick.Camouflaginggreenforewingsconcealstartlinghindwings.(Noticethelittlebrownspotsontheforewingsthatlooklikedeadpatchesinagreenleaf.)

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115.Eyespotscanreplacebrightcolorsinstartlingapredator.WhenthisIoMoth(oneofthesmallersilkmothsinourarea)opensitswings,itlookslikethefaceofabigscaryanimal.Hopefully,apredatorwillrunaway.116X.ThisSmall‐eyedSphinxisdoingthesamething.Whenitswingsareclosed,themothlookslikeadeadleaf.Ifcamouflagefails,theeyespotscanbedisplayed.(Thismothisquitecommonnearmyhouse,andmyhouseiswhatthisindividualison.)117X.Thisisaharmlesstreehopper(asortoftruebug)calledCyphoniaclavata.Anoutgrowthofitsbackisformedintoadecoythatmakesthebuglooklikeafierceantfromontop.118.Thesamespeciesfromvariousangles.119.ThisisaScarlet‐bodiedWaspMoth.Ithaswhatiscalled“aposematiccoloration”–brightcolorsthatwarnpredatorsnottoeatit,becauseitistoxic.ThisparticularmothistoxicbecausetheadultmalemothdrinkspoisonoussapthatleaksfromcertainplantssuchasEupatoriumcapillifolium.Itmanagesnottobepoisoneditselfandusesthepoison(analkaloid)tomakeitselftoxic.Themalemothalsoputssomeofthetoxininthespermthathegivestoafemaleandshethenusesittomaketheireggstoxic.Additionally,themalehastwopouchesonhisbellyfilledwithcottonyfibers,andhesaturatesthefibersinthealkaloid.Whenhemates,heshowersthesetoxicfibersuponhismate,soshebecomestoxicaswellashereggs.120.ThisistheBellaMoth.Italsoistoxic,thistimebecauseofalkaloidsitingestedwhileitwasacaterpillar.Ifattackedbyapredatorwhohasignoredtheaposematiccoloration,themothemitsfromitsthoraxadistastefulfrothfilledwiththealkaloid,whichservesasanadditionalwarningthatthemoth’sbodyistoxic.121.TheleftphotoshowsaBellaMothfrothing–thefrothisthewhitebubblystuffcomingoutofthethorax.TherightsideshowsaspiderthathasjusteatenaBellaMoth.Themothwaseatenbecauseitwasraisedonadietfreefromthetoxicalkaloids.Thespiderwasnotdeterredbythecolorationorbythefroth,sinceneitherfrothnormothprovedtobedistasteful.122.ThisisacaterpillarinthegenusTarchon.ItissobrightlycoloredthatPanamarecentlyuseditasthepictureonthenationalpostagestamps.Alotoffurrycaterpillarsthatonemightwanttostrokeactuallyhaveirritatingtoxinsontheirhairsandarebrightlycoloredtowarnpredatorstostayaway.123.ThisisaMonarchcaterpillarandtwoRedMilkweedBeetles.Bothspeciesaretoxicbecauseofthepoisonousmilkweedplantstheyeat.124.TheadultMonarchbutterflyretainsthetoxinthatitateasacaterpillar.

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125.TheViceroybutterflylookslikeaMonarchsopredatorswillthinkitistoxicandavoidit.Infact,Viceroysareperfectlypalatable.Themimicryofapoisonousspeciesbyanon‐poisonousspeciesiscalledBatesianmimicry.Sometimes,also,twotoxicspecieswilllookalikesoastoreinforcetheimpressiononpredatorsthataparticularpatternmeanspoison.ThistypeofmimicryiscalledMullerian.ViceroysinsomepartsofFloridaareactuallydistasteful,likeMonarchs,andare,inthiscase,Mullerianmimics,notBatesianmimics.126X.Thisharmlessmoth(theMapleCallusBorerMoth)isaclear‐wingedmoth(familySesiidae).Clear‐wingedmothshavepatchesoftheirwingsfreefromscalesandthereforetransparent.ThemothsareoftenBatesianmimicsofbeesandwaspsandtheclearwingshelpthemintheirdisguise.127.Thisisapaperwasp,whichcansting.128.ThisistheharmlessGrapeRootBorerMoth,oneoftheclear‐wingedmoths,whichmimicsapaperwasp.(Inthiscase,itlookslikethewingsofthemothdohavereddishscalesonthem,sincethewingsofapaperwasparen’tclear,buthaveareddishtint.)129.Thisisasyrphidfly(Spilomyialongicornis).Syrphidflies(alsocalledflowerorhoverflies)typicallyfeedfromflowersandareBatesianmimicsofbeesorwasps.Thisflyappearstobemimickingayellowjacket.130.HereisanEasternYellowjacketforcomparison.131.ThisisaBald‐facedHornet.132.Thisisaharmlesssyrphidfly,Spilomyiafusca,thatmimicsaBald‐facedHornet.133.ThisLocustBorerbeetlealsomimicsawasp.Itisoftenfoundfeedingfromgoldenrodflowers.134.ThesetwomatingbeetlesarebuprestidsinthegenusAcmaeodera.Unlikemostotherbeetles,whostickouttheirhardelytra(wingcases)laterallylikeairplanewingswhentheyfly,Acmaeoderacansliptheirtransparenthindwingsoutfromundertheelytra,withouttakingtheelytraofftheback,and,bymeansofalittlenotchatthebaseofeachelytron,canflyusingjustthehindwings.Theadvantageofthisisthatthebeetlesappearwithtransparentwingsandcanmimicwaspsevenastheyareflying.135.Thisisacaterpillar,notasnake!Itisholdingonwiththetipofitsabdomen(therearesomeappendages[notlegs]thatitisusingforthat)anddanglingupsidedown,sothatweseeitsunderside.Theheadofthecaterpillaristhenoseofthe“snake,”andthelegsofthecaterpillar(allsixarevisible)areonthetopofthe

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snake’shead.Theeyesofthesnakearejustbulgesonthesideofthecaterpillar–theyarenotthecaterpillar’seyes(whicharetiny).Thiscaterpillarisfromthetropics.136.Thisisalocalsnake‐mimiccaterpillar,thetigerswallowtailcaterpillar.Thehugeeyespotsareagainnowherenearthecaterpillar’srealeyes(thecaterpillar’sheadisthatdarkbrownbandonthebottomedgeofthesnake’smouth).Theeyespotsaredesignedsothat,liketheMonaLisaeyes,theyalwaysappeartobelookingstraightatyou.137.Thisistheadulttigerswallowtailbutterfly.(ThisparticularbutterflyisaCanadianTigerSwallowtail,anditisvery,verycommonhere.)138.Thisisabombardierbeetle.“Bombardier”meanssomebodywhosetsoffbombs,andthisisjustwhatthisbeetledoes.Ithasaspecialchamberatthetipofitsabdomenthatistheexplosionchamber.Inthis,hydrogenperoxidereactswithchemicalscalledhydroquinones,producingtoxicbenzoquinones–andalsoalotofheat.Thebenzoquinonesarereleasedbyanozzleonthetipofthebeetle’sabdomen.Theycomeoutinajetwithapoppingnoise,andtheyareboilinghot(about100degreesCelsius)asaresultofthereaction.Whenattackedbyapredator,thebeetleshootsitwithajetoftheboilingpoison.Thepredatorinthiscaseisapairoftweezersthatarepinchingthebeetle’sleftforeleg.Thebeetlehasrotateditsnozzlesothatthejetpointsdirectlytowardsthetweezers(goingthroughthebeetle’slegs).139.Pupaenormallydon’tmovemuch,sincetheanimalinsidethemisrearrangingitsbodyasitdevelopsintoanadult.However,ifyoutouchapupa,itwilloftenwrigglesoastogetawayfromyou.Thisladybugpupadoessomethingmoreaggressive.Ifyouareanant(whichyoumightbe…)andyoustickanexploratoryantennaintooneofthosenicelittlegroovesontheleftsideonthepupa,thepupawillimmediatelysnapupright,closingthegrooveandpinchingyourantennabetweenthesharpedgesofit.Thesegrooveshavebeentermedgintrapsbecauseoftheirresemblancetocertainnastytrapsofthatnamewhichhumanssettocatchanimals.140.TheseareMilkweedAphids.Theyhavelittleprojectionsknownascorniclesatthetipsoftheirabdomens.Whenoneoftheaphidsisdisturbed,itproducesakindofwaxfromitscornicles.Thewaxemergesasaliquid,butcongealsrapidly,actingasasortofanti‐predatorsuperglue.Waspsthattrytoparasitizetheseaphidssometimesdie–stucktoplantsbyhardenedcorniclewax.141.Tortoisebeetlesarebuiltratherliketurtlesortortoises.Theyarecovered,fromabove,withahardshieldformedbythinextensionsoftheelytraandthepronotum(aplateonthethorax).Withheadandlegsunderneaththisshield,atortoisebeetledoesnotpresentthosehandholdswhichantsfindusefuloninsects

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thattheywishtocarryoffasprey.ShownhereisaMottledTortoiseBeetle.Thebright,iridescentgoldistypicaloftortoisebeetles.142.Somespeciesoftortoisebeetles,whichliveonsucculentleaves,useclawsontheirlegstopiercetheleaftissueandfurtheranchorthemselvesagainstbeingcarriedoff.Butthespeciesshownhere,thePalmettoTortoiseBeetlelivesonpalmettoleaves,whicharetoohardtobepiercedbyclaws.Therefore,ithas,inadditiontoitshemispherical“tortoiseshell”,large,paddedfeet,eachwithabout10,000bristlesunderneath.Fromglandsonthefeet,oilisdrainedtothebristletips,eachofwhichisforkedintopads.Whenthebeetleisattacked,itsimplypressesitsfeetflatagainstwhatitisrestingon.Theoil,compressedintoafinefilmonthebeetle’s120,000tinypads,producestremendoussuction,sothatthebeetleisabletoremainfixedevenwhenpulledatfor2minuteswithaforce60timesitsbodyweight.Thisisroughlyequivalenttomebeingabletohangfromtheceilingwhileanelephantdanglesfromme.Toreleaseitsfeetfromtheirsuction,thebeetlerollsthemoffthesubstrate.Thedisadvantageofthedefense,however,isthatalargeamountofoilisexpended.Topreventfurtherandunnecessaryuseofoil,thebeetlewalksontiptoe.143.PhotoAshowsthisbeetlewithstandinga2gramweightthathasbeenattached,bypulley,toitsback.Bshowsthebeetle’sfeet(tarsi).Cisacloseupofoneofthetarsi.Fshowssomeoftinypads,eachtippedwithanoildroplet.Gshowstheoildropletsleftonasheetofglassafterthebeetlehaspresseddownitstarsusonit.Hereisthedescriptiongivenbyanarticleonthesubject:(A)Beetlewithstandinga2‐gpull;brushstrokesarecausingthebeetletoadherewithitstarsi.(B)Ventralviewofbeetle,showingyellowtarsi.(C)Tarsus(numbersrefertotarsomeres).(D)Tarsusincontactwithglass(polarizedepi‐illumination).(E)Sameaspreceding,innonpolarizedlight;contactpointsofthebristlesareseentobewet.(F)Bristlepads,incontactwithglass.(G)Dropletsleftonglassaspartofatarsal“footprint.”(HandI)ApparatusdiagrammedinFig.1.InH,beetleisonplatform,beforeliftisapplied(horizontaltraceonoscilloscope);inI,thelifthasbeenapplied(ascendinggreentrace)topointwherebeetlehasdetached(returnoftracetobaseline).[Bars=1mm(B),100μm(C),50μm(D),10μm(F),and50μm(G).]144.Detailsofthepads.Herearethedetailsfromthearticle:(A–C)Normaltarsus,anddetailsthereof;thepadsarestucktogetherinclusters(C),whicharearrangedinrows(A).(D–F)Comparablewithpreceding,butofatarsuscleanedofoilbytreatmentwithmethanol/chloroformsolution.(G)ComparablewithEbutwithsomeofthebristlesclusteredwhereadropletofoilhasbeenapplied.(H)Portionoftarsuswheretipsofbristleshavebeencutoff,showinghowbristleshaftsarestucktogetheringroups;asubstance,presumedtobeoil,isseenbetweenthebasesofthebristles(upperarrow).Lowerarrowspointtoporesfromwhichtarsaloilispresumedtobesecreted.(I)Bristles,inprofileview,showingthe

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componentparts(shaft,bifurcatedtip,pads)andoilporesbetweentheirbases.[Bars=100μm(A),20μm(B),5μm(C),10μm(I).]145.Thebeetlewalking.146.A,B,Cshowthelarvaofaspeciesoftortoisebeetlethatsportsaslender,two‐prongedfork,nearlyaslongasitis,attachednearthetipofitsabdomen.Whilemostinsectsabandontheirpoop,thelarvaattachesitspoop,togetherwithitsmolts,totheforkonitsabdomen.Itthenisabletousethepoopasadistastefulshield,abletobepositionedinanydirectiontoblockitsbodyfromapredator.TheremainingphotosshowtheadultPalmettoTortoiseBeetle(again)anditslarva.Thelarvadefendsitselfbyexcretingitspoopinlongcurlingstrands,whichitgluestothetipofitsabdomen.Thestrandsgraduallyformasortofprotectivethatchoverthelarva.Thethatchpresumablyactsasdisguise,aswellasadistastefulcoveringthatpredatorsdonotwanttoprobeinto.Onesortofbeetle,however,Calleidaviridipennis,habituallyfeedsuponthelarvaanddoesn’tmindextractingitfromthecoveringofpoop.Ants: 147.ThesearesomegreentreeantsfromAustralia.148.Thesoilexcavatedbyanantcolonylivingunderasidewalk.149.TheratherlargernestofacolonyofEuropeanwoodants.IwaswrongwhenIsaidinlecturethatcolonieshavejustonequeen.Manyants,suchasthesewoodants,havemultiplequeensatonetime.150.Aqueenantdigginganewnest.151.Theemergenceofthequeensanddronesofanantnest.Theantswithwingsarethequeensanddrones.152.WorkersofthespeciesPogonomyrmexmaricopaandAphaenogasteralbisetosafightinginanArizonadesert.Pogonomyrmexareharvesterants.SomeoftheseantsfromtheWestcovertheirnestswithpebblessoastoincreasetheamountofheattheyabsorbfromthesun.Sometimes,fossilbonesgetmixedintoo;paleontologistsknowtochecktheantnestsinanareatheyareinvestigating.Moistureregulationalsoaffectsnestdesigninants.InthearidIndianscrubland,Diacammarugosumcovertheirnestswithfeathersandotherabsorbentmaterials;thesecatchdewinthemorningandprovidetheantswithwater.Theoppositeproblem–thatoftoomuchwater–isfacedbyPrionopeltaamabilis,whichlivesintheCentralAmericanrainforest.Theseantscreatedesiccatedchambersfortheir

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moisture‐intolerantpupaebyspreadingabsorbentoldpupalcocoonsoverthewallsofsubterraneanchambers.Certainantsthatliveinmangroveswampsbuildneststhatarepartiallysubmergedathightide.Afterforagingfordelicaciesontheexposedgroundatlowtide,theantsmovethemselves(aswellastheireggs,larvae,andpupae)intospeciallydesigneddead‐end,bell‐shapedchambersofthenest,inwhich,asthetiderisesthroughthesoilofthenest,spacesofairremain.153.Ahoneypotant,andanantdrinkingthefoodstoredwithinit.154.Acolonyofleaf‐cutterants,whichfarmfungus,feedingitwithleafpiecesthattheytakefromtrees.Theantshavechosenaparticulartreeandaredefoliatingit(theycanstripitcompletelyinasinglenight).Theycutoutpiecesoftheleavesandcarrythemhomeward.Thepiecesarereallyheavycomparedtotheants–equivalenttoahumancarryinga700‐poundweight.Eachantcarriesthisweightwhileitdasheshomewardatarateandforadistanceequivalenttoahumanrunning17four‐minutemilesinarow.Oncebackatthecolony,theleafpiecesareprocessed.Inoneofthe1,000chambersofanundergroundnest(ofwhichthepyramidalmoundofexcavatedearthcanweigh44tonsandthepopulationofantsbe8million),aclassofsmallerworkerscutsthepiecesinto1millimeter‐widesquares.Stillsmallerantscompressthepiecesandplacethemintheundergroundgardenofthecolony–agray,porousmassofmoist,decomposingplantmatter.Stilltinierants,oneeighthofaninchlong,cleanthegardenandremovesomeofthehyphalfilamentsofthesinglekindoffungusonwhichtheentirecolonyfeeds.Thefungusfeedsontheleafmaterialtheantsharvest,andisimmunetothefungicidestheantssecretetokeeptheircolonyclean.Themutualrelianceoftheantsontheirfungusandviceversaiscomplete.Ayoungqueenraisedinamaturecolonycarriesasampleofthepreciousfunguswithher,inhermouth,whenshetravelstofoundanewcolony.155.Somespeciesofantsformmutualisticrelationshipswithplants.PseudomyrmexantsoftheAmericasareprovidedbyacaciatreeswithnestinglocationsinsidehollowthorns,togetherwithnectarfromthebasesoftheleaves,andBeltianbodies(packagesoffood)producedbythetipsoftheleaflets.Theantshelptheacaciatree,inturn,bydrivingawayvoraciousherbivorousinsectsbybitingandstinging,andbykillingtheseedlingsofnearbycompetingplantsbeforetheycangetestablished.Otherants,suchasthese,growplantsintheirarborealnests–theplantsaregivenasafehabitat,whiletheantsgetthestructuralsupportoftheplants,aswellasfoodtheplantsprovide.ARMYANTS(156‐158)Armyants,suchastheSouthAmericanspeciesEcitonburchelli,areitinerantraiders.Travelingtoorapidlythroughtherainforesttobuildelaboratenestsfromorin

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naturalmaterials,thearmyantserectabivouac.Whenthecolonyhalts,500,000workersinterconnecttheirclaws,forminghangingchainsofantsthatare,inturn,interconnected,untilamassiveshelterisformedofsolidants.(Aparasiticmitethatlivesonthefeetofarmyantworkersprovidesitsownclawsforbuildingpurposeswhentheworkersformtheirshelter.)Theshelterissolid,andprotectssomeoftheworkers,aswellasthequeen,eggs,larvae,andpupae.Huntingexpeditionssallyforthdailyfromanarmyantbivouacdaily.Massiveriversofantsforgetheirwayinaseeminglyrandompathovertheforestfloor.Branchingintosmallerriversandrivulets,themassformsatree‐likeconfiguration,whichforcesthefaunaoftheforestbeforeit.Theworkersrangeinsize;tinyworkerskillfleeingantsandgrasshoppers,whilelargeworkersattackfrogs.Thegiganticsupermajors,500timesheavierthanthesmallestworkers,haulawaydebrisfromthepathoftheotherworkersandcrushprey.Slightlysmallersubmajorsslicepreyintopiecessmallenoughforpartiesofworkerstocarrybacktothenest.Armyantsswarmshavesuchapowerfuleffectontheforestthatwholeecosystemshavedevelopedaroundthem.ParasiticflieshoveraboveahordeofEcitonburchelli,divingdownnowandthentotrytolayaneggonaworkerant–thelarva,ifithatched,wouldfeedontheant’stissues.Opportunisticbirds(suchasantbirds),alsofollowtheants,feedingfromthemassofpanickedinsectsandotheranimalsinfrontoftheswarm.Antbutterfliesfollowthebirds,feedingfromguano.156.Anarmyantcolumn,marching.157.Abivouacontheright,andanantbirdontheleft.158.Antsformingalivingbridgeacrossonobstacleintheirpath.TRAPJAWANTS(159‐160).Trapjawantscanspreadaparttheirmandiblesandlockthemthereinaprimedtrapposition.Whenaspring‐likemechanisminthemandiblesisreleased,thetrapclosesinthefastestrecordedanimalaction,takinglessthanamillisecond.Trapjawsareusefulforcatchingprey,aswellasforcombatingpredators.InthecaseofOdontomachustrapjawants,themandiblesmaybespreadapart180degrees(astraightline).Soft‐bodiedpreycanbecutintwobytheclosureofanOdontomachustrap,andotherinsectsmaybestunnedbytheshockorlaceratedbytheserratedjaws.Anantmayfollowupitsattackbystingingitsvictimwiththetipofitsabdomen.InfightsbetweenrivalcoloniesofOdontomachus,workersorienttheirjawsdowntowardstheground,thentriggertheclosingmechanismandlaunchthemselvesmorethanafootthroughtheairandontopoftheirenemies.Thereisavideoofthelaunchingatberkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2006/08/21_ant.shtml

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TrapjawantsinthegenusDacetonstalkspringtails(alsocalledsnowfleas).Theantsrubsoilonthemselvestocamouflagetheirscent,whilealsoreleasingspringtailattractantchemicals.Freezingwhenitsquarrymoves,aDacetonworkercaninchuptoaspringtailandsnapitstrapshutaroundthecreature’sbody.Fewotheranimalscanconsistentlycapturespringtails,whoseescapemechanismoflaunchingintotheairisalmostasrapidastheclosureoftrapjawantmandibles.159.AnOdontomachustrapjawantstalkingprey.160.Theantwiththecapturedprey.78owers and fruit: Therearenumerousanddiversemechanismsbywhichplantsaccomplishpollination.Whilesomeplantsdisseminatetheirpollenbymeansofwindorwater,manyspeciesprovideanimalswithnectar,pollen,orothermaterialinexchangeforthemotileforceoftransferringpollenfromflowertoflower.Animal‐pollinatedflowerspossessbothmaleorgans(stamenswithpollen)andfemaleorgans(carpelstocapturepollen),sincesuchanarrangementenablespollinatorstobetwiceasefficientatpollination,bothdeliveringandreceivingpollenateachflowertheyvisit.161.AWhite‐linedSphinxmothfeedingfromaflowerwithitslongproboscis.Theseandothersphinxmothshoveratflowerstofeed,lookingmuchlikehummingbirds.TheWhite‐linedSphinxisoneofthediurnalspeciesofsphinxmoths.Butterfliesandmothsareimportantpollinatorsofsomeplants.Theyseeknectarusingsightandsmell,and,hence,“butterfly”or“mothflowers,”flowersmeanttoattractbutterfliesormothsspecifically,havestrong(sweet)scentsandbrightcolors.Flowerspollinatedbybutterfliesordiurnalmothsopenduringtheday,whilemanypollinatedbynocturnalmothsopenatnight,and,soastobeasbrightandvisibleaspossibleindarkness,areoftenpaleorwhite.Manybutterflyandmothflowershavethin,tubularbases,inwhichtheystorenectar,keepingitoutofthereachofinsectswithoutlongproboscises.Particularlylongtubesfittheparticularlylongproboscisesofsphinxmoths.162.Asulphurbutterfly(OrangeSulphur?)feedingfromaflower.163.Abeefeeding.The20,000to30,000speciesofbeesintheworldformthelargestgroupofanimalpollinators.Manyspeciesincreaseforagingefficiencybyvisitingonlyoneorafewspeciesofenticingflowers,andmanyplantsandbeeshavespecializedtogether,beesaidedbyhavinggoodnectarsourcesdesignedspecificallyforthem(notothers)toreach,andplantspecieshelpedbyconsistentpollinationoftheirflowersandnotothers.Flowersspecializedforpollinationbybeesprovidethebeeswithlandingplatforms(lowerlipsoffoxgloveflowers,forinstance).Bees

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quicklylearntocometosuchflowers,aidedbysweetscent,recognizablepatternsthatmayparticularlyindicatethelocationofnectar,andbrightcolorsinyellow,ultraviolet(invisibletohumans),orblue;beescannotseethecolorred.Inplantspeciesdependentonbeesforpollination,nectarisplacedatthetubularbaseoftheflower,whereitcanbereachedbythetubularmouthpartsofbees,butcannotbetakenbychewingmouthparts,likethoseofbeetles.164.Ahummingbirdfeeding.Flowers,suchascolumbine(thoughthisflowerisnotcolumbine),thatarepollinatedbyhummingbirdsorotherbirdsprovidelargequantitiesofnectar(insomecasessomuchthattheflowersdripwithnectar)tomeettheirpollinators’highenergyrequirements.Suchwell‐stockedflowers,however,couldnotproperlybepollinatedbysmallinsects,which,requiringonlymoderateamountsofnectar,wouldnothavetheneedtomovefromflowertoflowertofindsufficientfood.Bird‐pollinatedflowers,therefore,todetersmallinsects,areoftenodorless(sincemanyinsectsareattractedbysmelltoflowers,whilebirdsarenot);areoftenred(verynoticeabletobirdsbutinvisibletoinsectssuchasbees);andoftenhaveelongatedtubes,which,likethetubesofbutterflyandmothflowers,servetoexcludeinsectswithshortmouthpartsfromtakingnectar.(Tubesdonotalwayswork,however;beessuchasthecarpenterbeespeciesXylocopatabaniformisorpifex,whichhavemouthpartstooshorttodelveintotubularflowers,maypiercethebasesofsuchflowersandpilfernectarintendedforotherpollinators.)Columbineflowershangupside‐downsothatonlyhummingbirdscanfeedfromthem.Bees,forinstance,whichcan’thover,wouldneedaflatlandingplatformtofeed,andcolumbinedeniesthemthis.165‐166.“Sesquipedalian”isamagnificentword.ThederivationisfromLatin"sesqui"meaning1.5and"ped"meaningfoot,soitliterallytranslatesas"afootandahalflong.”InEnglish,thewordmeans(ofaword)reallylongor(ofapieceofwriting)characterizedbyreallylongwords.Ilovethisword,partlybecauseitdescribesitself;otherwordsthatdothatare"terse,""short,""drab,"“mellifluous,”and"attenuated."

ItturnsoutthatthereisaMadagascanorchidthatiscalledAngraecumsesquipedale;thisorchid’sflowerhasaverylong“spur”(thintubehangingdownwardsfromtheflower)–upto14incheslong.Darwin,afterobservingtheorchidin1862,explainedthelengthofthatpartoftheflowerbyconjecturingtheexistenceofamothwithaproboscislongenoughtoreachthenectaratthebaseofthespur.Thismothwouldbenefitfromtheweirdstructureoftheflower,sincefewotherpollinatorswouldbeabletocompetefortheorchid’snectar.Theorchidwouldalsobenefitfromthearrangement,sincethemothwouldextensivelypollinateitsflowers.Darwinhypothesizedthatthisunknownpollinatorwouldbeasphinxmoth–oneofthelarge,hummingbird‐likemothsthathoveraboveflowerstofeedontheirnectar.

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Somefortyyearslater,aMadagascanentomologistconfirmedDarwin’sconjectureswhenhediscoveredthesolepollinatorofA.sesquipedale‐asphinxmothwitha10‐inchproboscis,nownamedMorgan’sSphinx(Xanthopanmorgani).Darwin’s“Itoldyouso”ismanifestedinthesubspeciesnameof“praedicta.”Slide165showstheorchidA.sesquipedale(thelonggreenthingshangingdownfromtheflowersarethenectar‐filledspurs).Slide166isapaintingofXanthopanmorganipraedictafeedingfromtheorchid(photosofthisactarereallyraresincethesphinxmothisscarce,onlyfeedsatnight,andtheorchidsareinthehighcanopy).167.Whyisfruitred?Seeddispersalisaproblemformanyplants.Trees,forinstance,areliabletoshadeoutandkilltheirownseedlingsiftheseedsarenotsomehowtransportedawayfromtheparentplant.Windissometimesusedfortransportation.Milkweedseedsareequippedwithfinehairstocatchthewind.Mapleseedshave“wings”forthesamepurpose.(Note:thesewingsarealsoangled,givingaspinningmotiontotheseeds,slowingthemdownand,thereby,givingmoretimeforthewindtoblowtheseedsawayfromthetree.)Entiretumbleweedplantsareblownbythewind,scatteringseedsastheygo.Otherseeds,suchascoconuts,aredispersedbywater.Thehardhuskofacoconutenablesittofloatforlongperiodsonthesurfaceofthesea.Animalpowerisalsoharnessedforseeddispersal.Thevelcro‐likehooksonburdockcatchinthefurofanimals,whounknowinglytransporttheseedstonewplaces.Cherries,raspberries,bananas,andotherfleshyfruitsareeatenbyanimals.Theseedspassthroughthedigestivesystemsunharmedandexitfarfromtheirparentplants.Tothisend,suchfruitsaresourandhiddenamongtheleavesbygreenpigmentsuntiltheseedsmature,whenthefruitsturnbrightcolorstoattracttheattentionofanimals.Redisparticularlyfavored,as,toinvertebrates,whomighteatthefleshwithouttransportingtheseed,thecolorisindistinguishablefromthegreenoftheleaves,while,tothelargerand,therefore,moreusefulvertebrates,itactsasabeacontodrawattention.HereisaCedarWaxwingeatingsomeredhawthornberries.Thewaxwingmayeattheseedsofthefruitwholeandexcretethemunharmedelsewhere,whereasabeetle,say,thatatethefruitwouldlikelygnawsomeofthefleshandperhapsbiteintothetastyseedandeatpartofit,destroyingitintheprocess.Insectsdon’teatseedswhole.168‐170.Pollinationbyorchidsandbunchberry.

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OrchidsinthegenusOphrys,insteadofluringpollinatorswithnectar,haveflowersthatmimicthefemalesofcertainspeciesofbees,wasps,andflies.Realmalesofmimickedspecies,afteremergingintoadulthoodbeforetherealfemales,discovernewlybloomingOphrys,withwhichtheytrytomate.Theflowersdepositpollenontheinsects,andastheinsectstrytomatewithvariousindividualflowers,thepollenistransferred.TheWartyHammerOrchidflowerdoesn’tlookmuchlikeanorchid–orindeedaflower.Itconsistsmainlyofawarty‐looking,brownlump(modifiedpetal)attachedtoahingedstalk.ThelumpproducesascentthatattractsmaleThynninewasps,whichflyaroundsearchingforfemales(whichareflightless)tocarryoffandmatewith.WhenamalewaspfindsaWartyHammerOrchid,itbelievesthewartyparttobeafemale,landsonit,andtriestoflyoffwithit.Thehingedstalkinsteadcausestheflyingwasptopivotaroundandsmackintoamassofglue.Thewaspthenstrugglestogetoutoftheflower,and,indoingso,anamountofpollenadherestotheglueonitsbody.IfthewaspissubsequentlydeceivedbyanotherWartyHammerflower,thepollenwilltransferred.Certaintropicalorchidshaveamutualisticrelationshipwithbees(i.e.,arelationshiphelpingbothbeesandorchidsinsteadofjusttheorchids).Maleorchidbeesscrapechemicalsfrompatchesontheflowersoftheorchids,andstorethechemicalsinspeciallegglands.Aseachbeecollectschemicals,theorchiditisvisitingfixesapacketofpollentoaparticularplaceonthebee.Thepacketispickedupwhenthebeevisitsanotherorchidofthesamespecies.Orchidbeescanbefoundflyingwithpollenpacketsofdifferentspeciesoforchidaffixedatdifferentandspecificpartsofhead,thorax,orabdomen.Itisbelievedthatthebeesmodifythechemicalstheyacquirefromflowersforuseaspheromonestoattractfemales.Bunchberry,an8‐inch‐highplant,isfoundonthefloorofcoolevergreenforestsinCanadaandthenorthernU.S.Aboveawhorloflightgreenleaves,fourwidewhitebractslikepetalsradiatefromaclusterofminusculeflowers(22onaverage).Eachofthetinyflowersbeginsasacompactbud,withfourrealpetalsfusedattheirtips,holdingbackthepressuregeneratedbyfourhingedanthers,bentlikespringswithintheflower.Whenaninsecttouchesthelongtriggerononeofthepetals,theflowerexplodes.Thepetalsburstopen,andtheanthers,initiallybenttowardseachother,snapupandapart,flingingamassofpollenupwardsat4meterspersecond,withanacceleration800timesthatofaspaceshuttleliftoff.Thewholeprocess(whichhasbeeninvestigatedbyaWilliamsCollegeteamledbyProfessorJoanEdwards)takeslesstimethanthemovementofabulletdownariflebarrel,makingitthefastestrecordedplantaction.Theresultofthisdramaticfloweringisthattheinsectthatbumpedagainsttheflowernowhaspollenspreadalloverit,therebyimpedingtheinsectfromeatingthepollen(aspollinatorsarepronetodo).Smallinsects(whichoftenstayputonaflowerandthereforedon’tmakegoodpollinators)donottriggertherelease,and

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theflowersalsoripensequentially,sothatasinglepollinatorwillnotuseupthewholesupplyofpollenbytriggeringalltheflowersatthesametime.Thisbehaviorissomewhatsimilartothatofcertainorchids(genusCatasetum).Themaleflowersfirepacketsofpollenatvisitingbees,towhichthepollenadheresbymeansofaglue.Thebeesdon’tlikethismuch,soafterbeingtreatedinthismannerbyamaleorchid,eachbeeismorelikelytovisitfemaleorchidsinsteadoftheviciousmaleones(accordingtobiologistJohnAlcock).Thatisjustwhatmostbenefitsthemaleorchids,sincetheygettheirpollentransferredexclusivelytofemales.Slide168showsanorchidflowermimickingafemalebee.Slide169showsaWartyHammerOrchid,andslide170showsawasptryingtomatewiththeorchid.:ore stuff about insects: 171‐175.Fireflies.Firefliesproducelightbymeansofanenzymecalledluciferase(thenamemeans“thelight‐bearingenzyme”).(Geneticengineershaveinsertedthegenecodingforluciferaseintoothercreaturesandhavetherebyproducedpotatoesandmicethatglowgreen.)Malefirefliesblinktheirlightstoattractfemales.Thefemalesrespondwiththeirownsetofblinks.Eachsortoffireflyhasitsowndistinctivepatternofcourtshipflashes‐itwouldneverdotohaveonespeciesoffireflytrytomatewithanotherspecies.ThefemaleofonefireflyinthegenusPhoturistakesadvantageofthisarrangement.ShemimicstheflashpatternofamalefireflyinthegenusPhotinus.WhenaPhotinuscomestomate,thetricksterPhoturiseatsit.ThereasonwhyitdoesthisisbecausePhotinushavesomenicetoxicchemicalsinthemcalledlucibufaginsthatmakethemunpalatabletopredators.AfemalePhoturisacquiresthesetoxinsfromaPhotinussheeatsandthenpassesthechemicalsontohereggs,therebymakingthemsaferfrompredators.WeareprobablyusedtoNorthAmericanspeciesoffireflies,themalesofwhichblinkindependently(orseeminglyso).ButcertainfirefliesinSoutheastAsialightupinsynchrony.Wholedazzlingriverbanksoftrees,asfarasonecansee,pulsetogether,thankstothethousandsormillionsofmalefirefliesinthetreetopskeepinginperfecttimewithoneanother.Nooneknowsdefinitivelywhytheydothis,thoughpresumablyitgivessomematingadvantagetoeachparticipatingmale.171showsafireflyglowing.172showsafireflylarva;fireflylarvaearearmored,canglow,andoftenfeedonsnails.173showsaPhotinus.174showsaPhoturis.In175,aPhoturisiseatingaPhotinus.

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176.Thisisatermitemound.Suchmoundscanrisetoaheightof30feetandcontainmillionsoftermites.Sometermitenestsaresowell‐populatedthattheyneedventilationshafts,similartothoseinhumanapartmentbuildings,tobringoxygeninside.Theshaftsruntothetopofthenest,wherethemovementofwindoverthenestsucksoutusedairfrominsideandreplacesitwithfreshair.OnespeciesofAfricantermitebuildsahugeabovegroundnestwithbuilt‐inair‐conditioningandair‐circulation.Thewayitworksisthis:Thetermites’bodies,aswellasthefungusthetermitesgrow,warmtheairinthelowerpartofthenest,wherethetermitesandfungusbothlive.Sincehotairrises,theairatthelowerpartofthenestgoesuptothetopofthenest‐passingthroughaseriesofincreasinglysmallpipesjustinsidethewallofthenest,wheresomeofthisinnerair’sheatislosttotheouterair.Thepipesthenreleasethecoolerairbackintothebottomofthenesttocontinuethecycle.177.ThesearemagnetictermitesfromAustralia.Thenestsaretallandnarrowwiththethinendspointingtothenorthandsouth(thetermitesjudgethedirectionsbasedupontheEarth’smagneticfield).Thenestabsorbsthesun’sraysinthemorningandevening,atwhichtimesthesunstrikesthelargesidesofthenest.However,thenestdoesnotabsorbthesun’sraysinthehottestpartofdayasthesunthenstrikesthethintop,whichhasverylittlesurfacearea.Thusthetermiteskeeptheirnestatamoderatetemperaturethroughthewholeday.178.Thisisamolecricket.Molecricketsarenocturnal,ground‐dwellingcricketsaninchortwolong.Theburrowofamalemolecrickethastwoopenings,eachwithacarefullyconstructedmouthflaredlikethatofatrumpet.Betweenandbelowtheentranceslies(amongothertunnelsandopeningsinthecricket’sburrowsystem)asphericalchamberinwhichthemalesitsandcallstofemales(muchasmanyothergrasshoppersandcricketsstridulatetoattractmates).Thecricketwouldreachalargeraudienceifitscallwerelouder,soitwouldpresumablybenefitfrommegaphones.Theseareprovidedbythemegaphone‐shapedentrancestotheburrow;onaquietnight,amolecricketcanbeheardnearlyhalfamileaway.PARASITISMManyinsectshavelarvaethatdeveloponorinahostanimalbyfeedingfromtheanimal.Thesearecalledparasitoids,andareoftenwaspsorflies.Theadultparasitoidlaysaneggonorinornearaninsectofthehostspecies,andthelarvalparasitoid,whenithatches,feedsonthehost.Generally,aparasitoidwillhaveaverynarrowrangeofhostspeciesthatitwillparasitize–sometimesonlyasinglespeciesofhostwilldo.Givenhowparticulartherequirementsare,findinganindividualofthehostspeciescanbeproblemforanadultparasitoid.Cluesleadmanyparasitoidsinacorrectdirection.Somespeciesfollowchemicalpheromonesthattheirhostsuseasmatingsignals.Otherstrackchemicalsemitteddefensivelybyplantsattackedbyherbivoroushosts.ThebraconidwaspCotesiamarginiventris,forinstance,is

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attractedtotheterpenoidsemittedbyseedlingsattackedbyitshostSpodopterasp.caterpillars(armyworms).ThecloselyrelatedCotesiamelanoscelaexaminesareaswherecaterpillarsofitshost,theGypsyMoth,havelaidstrandsofsilk(thiswaspisoneof13speciesthatparasitizetheGypsyMothinspecificstagesofitsdevelopment).TheparasitoidtachinidflyCyzenisalbicansisattractedtosugarsreleasedbymunchedoakleaves,anddistributesitseggsoverleaves,wheretheymaybeeatenbythecaterpillarsofitshost,theintroducedWinterMoth.Someplants,indeed,particularlyattractparasitoidswhentheyareunderattackbycaterpillars.Suchaplant,whenmunchedonbyacaterpillar,identifiesthespeciesofcaterpillarbymeansofthechemicalsinitssaliva,andthensendsoutachemicalhelpsignalthatcallsinparasitoidwasps.Theparticularspeciesofwaspthatiscalledindependsuponthespeciesofcaterpillarthattheplantneedstobedefendedfrom.Someparasitoidspeciesleavechemical“occupied”markersbehinduponhostswheretheyhaveplantedeggs.Otherparasitoidsofthesameordifferentspeciesnoticethesemarkersanddonotparasitizemarkedhostindividuals,withinwhichcompetitionwouldlikelykilltheirownlarvae.Hyperparasitoidsparasitizeprimaryparasitoids.Alloxystavictrix,forinstance,onespeciesofhyperparasitoid,insertsaneggintothebodyofaparasitoidwhichis,inturn,insidethebodyofanaphid.Thereareevenhyperhyperparasitoids,whichparasitizethehyperparasitoids.Thus,onecanhavealarvainsidealarvainsidealarvainsideacaterpillaroftheCecropiaMoth(seeslide32)!179.Caterpillarsareparticularlypronetobeingparasitized.Thisslideshowsawaspcrawlingaroundonasphinxmothcaterpillarpreparatoryto(orperhapsafter)layinganeggon/init.Theeggwillhatchintoawasplarvathatwilleatthecaterpillarfromtheinsideoutevenasthecaterpillarcontinuestoeatandfeed.Keepingthecaterpillaralivekeepsthemeatfreshfortheparasitoidlarva…180.Thisiswhatcanhappentoaparasitizedcaterpillar.Thewhitethingshangingoffofthissphinxmothcaterpillararethecocoonsofwasplarvaethatfedonthecaterpillar.181and182.ThisisaPigeonHorntail,arelativeofthewasps.Itslarvalivesinsidetreetrunksandeatsthewood.Nowwoodisquitehard–andthereforehardtoeat.Itwouldbebetterforthelarvaifsomethingsoftenedthewoodinsidethetreesoitcouldeatitmoreeasily.Fungusisquitegoodatdecomposingandsofteningwood.Wouldn’titbeniceforthehorntaillarvaifitcouldputsomefungusinthewoodit’seating?SotheadultfemalePigeonHorntail,whensheislayinganegginatreetrunk,

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besideslayinganegg,alsodepositssomefungalsporesthatshecarriesaroundinapouchinherabdomen.Thissoftensthewoodupnicelyevenbeforethehorntaillarvahatchesfromitsegg.Buthowdoestheadulthorntaillayanegginatreetrunk?Treetrunksare,afterall,quitehard.Well,thatisthereasonforthehugespikythingontheendofthehorntail’sabdomen.Thatiscalledanovipositor.Lotsofinsectshavethem(thoughmostaren’tnearlythisformidable).Theyaretubesthroughwhicheggscanbelaid.Thisoneisstrongandpointyenoughtopiercewood(seeSlide182).So,ahorntaillarvacandevelopinsideanimpenetrabletreetrunkeatingspeciallysoftenedwood,safefromdanger–right?183and184.Wherethereisanicesortoffoodinnature,suchasanutritioushorntaillarva,beassuredthatsomeinsecthasfoundouthowtogetaccesstoit.ThisisagiantichneumonofthespeciesMegarhyssamacrurus.Ichneumonsingeneralareparasitoids.Thisoneisspeciallyadaptedtoparasitizinghorntaillarvae.Howtogetaneggthroughthetreetrunkandintothehorntaillarva?Thatiswhatthehugeovipositorisfor(it’slongerthantheichneumon’sbody).Itgetsinsertedintothetreeandintothehorntaillarvaandthenaneggislaidthroughit.Butwait–howcansomethingasthinasathreadpiercesolidwood?Nobodyreallyknows.Somehow,theichneumonmanagesit–theovipositorgoesin(seeSlide184–theovipositorhasseparatedintodifferenttubesandeachofthetubeshasbeenloopedupandthenforceddownthroughthewoodunderneaththeichneumon’sbody).Manyichneumons(Idon’tknowwhetherthisspeciesisoneofthem)havemetaltipsontheirovipositorsthatmakethembetterdrills.Themetaliszincormanganese,anditisactuallyintheionizedform,soIguessthatonemightmoreaccuratelysaythattheseichneumonsareusingdrillstippedwithrock,ratherthandrillstippedwithmetal.Anotherwonderisthattheichneumonknowsexactlywherethehorntaillarvaeareinatreetrunkandwheretoinsertitsovipositorintothewood…185.Thisisabugzapper.Bugzapperskillsomethingontheorderof100billioninsectseachyearintheU.S.,buttheydon’twork.Notonlydotheykillmostlymothsandotherinsectsthattheyaren’tintendedtokill,theyareineffective,perhapsactivelycounterproductive,ateliminatingmosquitoes.(Ipersonallydon’twanttokillmosquitoes,justasIdon’twanttokillmoths,butIunderstandthatmanypeopledo.)Whilemothsandvariousnon‐bitingfliesareattractedtotheultravioletlightthatbugzappersproduce,mosquitoesareonlymildlyattractedtoit.Inonestudy(UniversityofDelaware),outof13,789insectskilledbybugzappers,ofwhichonly0.22percent(atotalof31)werebitinginsects.Ontheotherhand,therewereabout

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2000“beneficial”insectsthateatinsect“pests.”Someofthosearepredatorsofmosquitoes.Inadditiontobeingineffective,bugzappersdootherbadthings.Theykillinsectsbyelectrocutingthemandtherebyexplodingthem.Theresultisthatvirusesandbacteriathatwereinaninsectgetshotoutallovertheplaceinanaerosolform,togetherwithalotofinsectparticlesthatarereallybadforpeoplewhohaveasthmaorotherrespiratoryproblems.Also,fortheoccasionalmosquitothatisattractedtoabugzapper(theUVlightisamildattractant),ifahumanisoutsidenearthebugzapper,themosquitomayabandonthelightinfavoroftheverystrongattractantscarbondioxideandwatervaporthatthehumanisexhaling.Sothebugzapper,insofarasitbringsmosquitoesin(whichitdoesn’treally),maybebringingtheminjustsothattheycanbiteyou.Don’tusebugzappers!186.TheColumbiaSilkmothagain–seeslide18.THEEND!

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