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DlAD, CULT OF -¡HL J.I')
Vlll.) were located olltside of the (it)' walls along the
highways) as well as by ~ rirual. Dearh was rcgarded as
having a polluring effccr on rhe enrire family: rile' (lamen Dialis (.._~ flarl1ines) was nor ro roueh a dead body, nor
parricipate in a cremarÍon (Gell. NA TO,rs,24). The
.~ priesrs werc in charge of rhe legal governancc of bur
ials (Liv. 1,W;7), altbough bmial and the cult of the
cltad WCTe css('nri;llly privare ritllals arranged hy thí'
)- {Jata ía/llilias. Upon rhe arnv<ll of rhe funeral procession ar rhe bur
L11 silt,. fhe hody WdS ll1rcrrccl 01' crema red ( ~ Bmi;l!
U.). Accordil1g ro Ciceru (Leg. 1.,.16), hurial W;l~ nor complere in rl1e ca~e of crclllarion unriJ rhe l1lon1l:Jll
when rhe carrh covered rhe ashcs of the clece~sl'd; the
grave (sefJ¡·t!cnmz), however. was not considered as con
sl'ruued and dicl nor hecolllc nn ohjcct o/ rcl.igiolls Iaw
until furthcr eeremonics W1'1T pcrfurmed: findings from
rhe uecropolcis inJicillL' t·har perfume, wine and oil wefl'
burned. According lo Cie. Leg. 2,.,)7, <1 pig was sncri
ficcd and rhe deceasecl was nuurishcd by the smcll (lf the
animnl, suggesring rhal he had alrcaJy made rhe rransi·
¡ion into rhe Gllegory of rhe Di • rvlanc~. S¡llce rhe ¡iv··
ing WL'fC nor allowcd ro share food wirh the deaJ, rhey
ate no parr oh'he animal, only perhaps a second pig lh,ü
was ofkn:d ro t!w ~ Pen;ltes. Aft'cr cigll!" days had
p<1ssed (dics denicales), anorher sacrrficl' mok place on
lh ... dOI1lesric altar, where a 'ram rOl' Lar' W;'lS slaLlgh
raed (Cie. l.eg. 2.,) .')). The family of rhe deccascd W,1S
now relcascd from rhe poJlurion of de;lt"h.
The ROIn;lJ1S also ccll'hrarcd rwo ccn'monies I-<,r rhe dead: rhe Feralia (Ov. Fast. L,5:n-')70) took place on
2 T February, 3r rhe cnd of J ll10Ilth fi]Jed with variol1s
purificarion rires ín prepararion for the new year in an··
cient ROll1e. 'Ihis W;JS rbe final and c!osing day of [1
period of ninc days (13-21 Fehruary), rhe (lies /Nlrentales ( ~ l\lrcnralia), which wcrc declicared ro rhe dead
(Van'o, Ling. 6, '.3). Aceording ro Clvid (loe. cit.), fami
¡ies visired rhe graves and brollghl: gifts, ofren mudes!" (llleS, ro rbe Di Manes: on a briek JecoratL'c1 wirh gar
lands- serving as 3n o.lrar- grains of wheJt ami 5<1lt:,
flat: loars of wheat., and vio!ers wcrl~ ~prcad out while
ritual prayers wcre spokcn. Ir was) hOI},'cvcr 1 l10r forbic1·
den ro make more ¡avish offerings. This cnemony,
which allowed thc living to fulfil rhcir durics rowards
rbe dead, confirmed rhe place of bor11: rhe dcad in rhe
graves, and rhe living in rhe hOllses where rhe surviving
famiJy joincd together on the following day (2.]_ Fehru
ary), ::lfrer a sacririce ro rhe Lar.
The secolld celebrarian fOf rhe dead 1 rhe LCffiuria,
took place on the 9th, T nh and ] 3th clays 01' May (Ov.
Fasr. 5,4 f9-66r; ..~ lemures). Ovid conoecrs rhe na me
nf rhe monrh (Maius) erymologicalJy wirh the nwi()rt's
('ancesrofs'). ·The LCllluria werc dedicared to rhe IC1l1u
res, rhe souls of rhe deJd, al so rcgardcd as nocrurna!
ghosrs who supposedl)' visitl."d r!leÍr former homes
(Non. T97 l.). In rhe [nurse of rhesc dap, gifts (inferiar:) wt're broughtTo rhe gravcs. In rhe nighr, rhe pater familias conjured up [he lenwtes in his house. This ritlul!, as
descrihed hy Ovid, cn[ailed m~lgi(;l1 c1emenrs (finger
lTn
gestures of eonj uration; words repeared nine rimes~ rhe
pater familias addresses rhe ghosts with his hOLk rurncd in orcler to clVoid ;'Iny V¡Sll~ll cnnt"JclJ and aporropaic
aspecrs: rhe lemures ¡eave aftcr being fed heaos, which ¡s
rhe priee fol' rhe pater (amilias and his family ro 'buy
our'; rhe noise of bcaring metal wirh rhe hands rhen
scares rhe ghosrs aw;¡y. Tberc is, howevcr, a connecrion
ro more rradi¡-ional "sJcrificcs (lV): rhe ghosrs WeJ'e
prc,Scnrcc! with black hcans,'similar ro rhe hlack sacrifi··
cíal animal::; offered ro rhe ~ 'chrhonic deiries'. The
introductor), washing of rhe hancls hy rhr pcrSCll1 pcr·
tormillg rhe ritual is ,1 rypical acr of purification hdore a sacrifícc; rhe second washing, however, which is dom'
to conclllde the ccremony, aims ai c!eansing the pe!"
fonning penlOn of rhe pollutiun rhat he :ncurn.:d
through his contacr with rhe dcad, and elllphasizes rhe
separarioll hetwccn the dead and rhe living.
FlIrrheJ' {inds in the CXl";lV:Hion~ of ROlll,'lll llCCro
pol.cis, cpigr,lphil' doclIlllcnrs, ,111<.1 anc11yses of rhe ]'(-m··
na1lt"s of ofkrings, esp. of rhe animals sacribced eH rhe
gr;lvcs will offer lllorc <.:oncreU.: knowledgl' ahoLlr tbe
rclatioIlships bcrwccn rbe living and rhe clcad.
~ Burj,ll; :> Funeral'}' archircdure IU (;.; :> Necropo··
leis VIII.; :> Sacrificcs; • Rjru,ll; ~ De:Hh 11.; ., Under·· world
F. BOI'MFlt, Ahncnkulr une! Allllcll!-',buhc im altcn ]{nm,
L944j 1,'. CUMoNr, Lu>.: perpe[lm, 1~4l)j L 1IINI\IW ('d.), La mnrt al! qllOtidicJ1 dans le monde rolH:lin, 1995; 1. MORHIS, DC:lth-Ritual <lnd Social SlTlletLlIT 11I (:IJsslca] AllllLJuiry, 1 99.'.j .J. SeH]'11), (:llJlLLUi;l (acen.:: 1"l'IIVcr:,(' lllents C[ dl;plncelllellt~ dan" les rirl's fun¿:raircs, in: AION h, Jt;18 .. f. 117~r~9. A.PIJ.
VI. CJIIUSTIANITY
rn rhe hegillnillg, ¡·he Chrisrian worship 01' t:he dl';ld
(ldOj)I"Cd almo.'ir all of rhe rradirion<ll forms of rhe olLler
C;rl'dc J.Lld ROll1an culrs of the dcad. [7.. 46-531. For
insrance, there were cekbrations on rhe }rd, 7th, ')orh
and 40th day, after death (Ambr. Obit. TheDd. 3), nI'
rhe Novemelialia (_...• 11()lIclldiale sacrum) and·;. Parcn
raIia (Aug. Quaestioncs in Heprareuchum 1.)172; ALlg. Conf. 6,2), bur most impürtandy on thc 'birrhday' (dies natalis)l which ChristiaIls understood ro be rhe day of
dearh, esp, in rhe case of ·martyrs [IJ.230-239;
2. 54-67; 1 'l.. 2. .1 9 Lj. Howcver, rhe days uf rhe dearhs
of martyrs and bishops do nor apre.H in rhe wrirren
sourccs llntil rhe second half ()f rhe 4th ccnL ( .~ Chro
nographer 01' 354). BC¡I,inning wirh bishop -;. Damasu5
af Rome (366-384), the first installations ro suggest a
l1larryr cult ar rhe graves 19· 'l·75-302.] 3ppeared in
Roman ~ car~1Combs. Earlier and conrcmporancolls
trace" of rhe Chrisrian culr of rhe clead are simílar ro rhe
forms of rhe p,lgan culr in Salolla, Tipasa, Snhrarha,
Cornos, Iúrragona.
In the 3rd and 4th cents., rhe mosr popubr fonn (lf
1:he culr of rhe tleatl vv'as rhe funerar)' banqu('r, which in
Rome was nor ncecssarily held ar rhe grave, hut, cle
pencling nl1 spoce, In rhe ¡. schota 14J collegiJ or in rhe
privare rcslJellCl:. The graves had special place~ fol'
[ 17
:> libarions and for lamps and f[owers [3.31"-,7;
4.2rr-243; 7.179-r~))J. Porricularly in Norrhern
Afríea, rhe rradirionai Ineal Was held in rhe conrexr of
rhe privare cuIr of rhe dead, anc! aLso during rhe feasr
days of marryrs. Borh pracriees are evidenecd by rhe
half-circular masonry betths (stibadía) at the necropo
leis of Tipasa and Sabratha 13. 29 f.; 12. 3 l\ f.[. TI",
cusrorn of having meals ar rhe graves W(lS íudged nega
tively by the Chmch Fathers [lO. 50 l., roO-102, ¡ 33
T4o:; T2. 224-;z.341. This cusrom is ducllmentecl in rhe
carauHllhs in Rome on rcprcscntatiolls (Jf fUllcr,H)' h,lfl ql1ers, which also show the symbo(ic signlficancc of
> agá/oc alHlDf peaee during tbe meal [3· 31-3.\ l. Here,
we aIso find other rraces uf rhe rradirionaI culr of rhe
cleacl~ seat"s hcwn into rhe rllff (cathedrae) [8,98-115;
7.148-1 ,):.11, gbsses fUf liharions and orher objecrs ,H
rhe graves 14. 261-2G][, tables (mellsae) for sacrificcs
11[. In rhe course of the 4rh cent., rhe olc! lireral rllc<lnlng
of rhé re{1'igerium ('rcfreshment') ar rhe grave changeLl
ínro a more symbolic onc: the wish aIld rh<: hope for
<;alvaríou and eternallife in paradisc Is· 164-1711.
The early 4th cenr. wirnessed {"he consrructioll of [·he
first exedra basilicas in Rome 17. 15,-1641, foliowecl
by other ccmcrery basilicas in rhe Chrisrian necropolc¡.s
of vnriolls cÍtics in the clltire ImperjuIll (esp. in Norrh~
cm !\frica) [[o. [7,]"-1971. These basilieas were the
place rol' funerals as well as for burial anJ ElIeharisr
cclebrariolls. The ccld1r,Hion of rhe ElIcharisr in rht·
cnntt'xr Df rht, Chtisrian cu1t of rhe dead can be fOLllld in
writren s()urc<'.':~ (already in Terr. De Corona 3d ;llld
Cypr. Epist. 1,2, 1), [10. 69-731 102- 104; r 2. 222-22~~,
2.14 f.1. Archaeologiealiy, crlebrations of the Eueharisr
are Jocllmcntcc! in rhe ccmerary basilicas of rhe 4th
cene This closc connecrion berween ~ altar and grave
is c10cumcnred in rhe sources for as early as rhe miel 4rh
cent. ArehaenlogicalJy, the oldest evidence ro suggesl
rhis connecrion stems from thc 5rh ccnt. in Romc and
was füund in the B;]siliea of Sr. AlcXelnder 011 rhe uia NomentalUl[9. 284 f.],.
~ Basilica (B.); >- Saínrs; • Caraeomhs; • Martyrs;
>- Paradisc; • Pilgrimage UI);·~ Dearh
1 E. CHALKIA, Le mense paleocristiallc, t991 2 F. W. DE1CHMANN, Einführung in die chrisd. Arch., 19!:\3 3 P.A. FÉVRIER, Apropos du repas fllnéraire: cnlre er sociabi·· lité, in: Cahiers Archéologiques 26,1977,29-45 4 Id" Le culr..: des morts dans les communauté.~ chréti<.'nncs duranr l<: lIle siccle, in: Atti del IX congresso intl'fnazionale Ji archeologia cristiana, vol. J, 197H, 211-2.73
~ Id., La rombe chrérienne ct I'au-dela, in: .J.-M.LEROllX
(ed.), Le remps chrétien de la fin dc ]'Antiqlliré (llllvfoyen Age, 1984, 163-] 8.3 hE. ]ASTRZEBOWWA, Les SCL'lleS de
banquet en pejnrurr cr eo sculprurc chrétlel1nc du me cr du ¡Ve s., in: nccherchc-', Allg:l1~tllli<.::nncs L4, 1979, 3-90
7 Id., Unr. L.llm chrisrl. Tutcnmahl oufgrLlnd dcr Monumente des .1. LlnJ 4 Jh. llore!" der Basilika des l-I1. Srbasrian in Rom, 19k 1 RT. KI.!\U~[,I<', Die CHhedLl im Torenkult dcr heidnischen und Lhn:-.rl. Ant., J 97 ¡ 9 L. l{¡~.EKMAN",
1.('s cryptes d..:s llurryrs n1llW.lm, in: Atri, !lec 141, .'.7 ~-102
10 V. SAXER, Ivlofb, rll:lrt~'rs, reliques en Afriquc chrétier:nc dUX premie]",; si0c1e'i, I;!Ho 11 A. ,)TUII1ER, s. Y.
Gcburt~tJ.g, RAe <),217.-<1.43 12 W. Su L\'II In , Spatanr.
Tl8 !HALJ "EA
Griibrrfeldcr in den Nordprov. des rúm. Rtiches und d:LS Allfkoll1men christl. Hesrarmngsbrauchrllms, SaalburgJh 50, 2.000, 2 L3-441. E·I/\
Dca Dia An orherwise unknown fcmale deity ro whom
rhe }- Arvales tratres devored rhe saerifiee üf rhe month
of May; llorhing is known abour rhe conneerion of rhe
Dea Dia (DD) with a Dia from Amiternllm (C1L l' 2,
1546) amI the Greek Dia. Her mlllll' derives froro rhe
,ldjective dius and is conneered with rhe spJce of heav··
en, proklbly rhl' 'good lighr of heJvcll'. The rhesis tha1" DD is an lIldigiration ( ~ IncligitamL:nta) uf Tellus 01' of
Ceres cannor be mainraineJ.
R. SCHIU.ING, H.ires. cutres, dieux de Rornc, 1979, ":\ 66
170 • 1,0,·
Dead Sea (textllal fillds) Wha[ is l'cfel'red to :1s t111' rexnu! finds of the Dcad Sea (DS, ~ Asphalriris ljmnc)
i~ rhe: library of ivlSS rhar werc found ar locarions on rhe
US, illcludillg Ketcf Jericho, > Qumriín (= Q), J:iirhat
al-Mirel, Wiíd¡ n-Niír, Wiícl¡ I-(;uwair, Wiíd¡ I-Murah
ba'a (= WM), W"d¡ Sudair, Nahal Hever (= NH),
Nahal MismÚf, Nahal Se'elim anel the Masada (= M),
:1S wcll as in the W"d¡ d-DiJliya (= Wn) loeated between
Samaria and .Jcrieho. A cOlnpl~tc [¡st of aH the rexrs can
be fmmd in 13, vol. 391·
1. WAD¡ D-DAI.1YA [1. QUMHAN 1II. MASADA
IV. NAl:IAl. f:h:VER, Wi\U( J..-MURABBA'A AND
KI'TEI' JEIUUltl V. SMALLER SITES VI. tllRBA'I'
AL-ivIJlu)
J. WAD¡ D-DALlYA
Witl, the exceptioll Df WDSP 38 ((;reek), the W"di
ed-Daliyeh Samarita" l'apyr¡ (= WDSP) were written in
Aramaic and were found, baclly damaged, in 1962
J964 in a cave of rhe WD. The c\ocuments (from rhe 4rh
cent. Be) had been in the possession of parts of rhe
Samaritan upper class who had flcd from Alexander's
[41 armir.::s. A lnrge pan uf the c\ocuments deals wirh thc
bllying and sel1ing of s]avcti. More importanr rhan rhe
clocumenrs rheOlsclves are rhe glyprics 011 rhe seal
impressions. Thcy suggesr rhar a Hellenistic influencc
on Sam~Hitan culture and religion exisred already in thc
4th ccm. BC [vol. 3, 24; 5 [l·
ll. QUMRAN
In 1947-J 9 56, Bedol1ins and archaeologists fOlllld
abol1t 1,000 MSS in JI caves near I:.lirbat Q ( ~ Qum··
ran) in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and N~lbatacJn, mosr
of rhelll badly damaged, which were eL1rL:d [JJlaeogra
phically into the period from rhe .1 rd cent. He to rhe 1 sr
cenr. AD. Asiele from hiblieal rexrs, they documcnt apo
cryphs rh,H Wl:rL: known already prior ro T947 ( ~ Apo
cryphal jireraturc A.) amI } pseudepigraphic lireraturc
as wel! as :1 brg(' nlllllber of Essen(' ( ¡. Essenes) and
nnn-Esscnl' rcxrs rhar \Vcre l.lllkllOWn prior ro 1947. A
rew tL'xrs from rhe lasr grol1p (e.g, rhe Damascus Docu
DE/\D StA 110
V¡im ha· Mclah / /\spl1<llti[¡~ Lim;lcj IhJlassa h¿; Ná.ra/ MnJllllllll Mate/
Ih'f/{iSI'(/
I
''1,hlT Z'¡ (
){/ (1
L\ 1 \'".,- '\F"',,'
I ,JI \\I(¿ I, I
~I
1P""""_,~J'~) / "
_"__' _._¿___ !/t;~30':
Textual finds by tIJe Dead Sea and in tIJe Judaean desert Site of manuscrip( finels (selectlon) Yahuda Reglon
@ Semitlc texts (more exacL [!J Impor(ant Lown Identlfication nor pos5ible)
Ancl1~nt road (wurS0 certam/ullcerLain) • Aramaic text5
M~ddva Hebrew / AramaiLl i\Jab,ltilt-'an nalllf' O (Pala.eo -) Hebrew texts Medaba Greek/Labn name @ NabatclPan texts M,jdabj Modern nilJ71e @ GreC'k (up to ByzJntlne) texls
e i-atin (exts () ') 10 15 2tl 25krn
~-----;;-,~==-='=--~
() SYI'lac tcxts
CD Arable text'i ·:J.Oü 100 SCJQ
r )~O lZol
mcnt :J.nd the Ardmaic ¡,cui Docttnumt) are :1150 known
[rOlll [he ~ GC'lllZ(!. Tbe library of Q rherdore pro vides
a JlllO-repre:>l'IlLarive cflJss-secrion of rbe J¡rerarurc oE
ancienr }Judaism in rhe HeJlenisric-Roman períod.
The rexrs authored by rhe Essene residents of Q ean be idcnrif'icd 3ccording ro the foilowing crireria: the [reat·
ment or rhe qllotJtion of ;]11 Essl'ne rt'xt, rhe use of typi
cal rerminology (eg. ans)! hyJ?d, rbar is 'rIlCIl of the COI11
Illuniry'), radical ohscrvarion uf rhe Torah, cusmic
erh¡C3l dualism wherE"in cverything \lon-Essene i.'> rejcct
('el a.', ~inful, critica] distallcc to lhv 'f'ciTlJlk uf.lnmalelll,
use o{ :l 3()4-day sol8r calendar, ~llld the mcntion ni
cenrral figures frolll rhe history uf rhe Essene COIll1l1t1
niry. In conrr;Jsr, rhe free use of the terragram, rhe 354
d,,1Y Illnar cillcndar, ;llld tlll' compilatinn (lf a rext in a
lang:l1<lgc othcr th:J.ll Hchr'cw suggest rhe J]oll-,EsseJ'lc
origin of a texto
A. lllSTORY (jJ; TIIk CANON ANU BllH,¡Ci\L
MANU'iCRll'TS B. PAHA-,B¡BLICAl. LITF,RA'l'tJRE
C. Exu;¡:.'l'lC LITEHATUIU D. 1.1'l'1·:RATtJ!U: In,AI
ING WITI-] HEI.l(;IOUS LAW E. CALENDARIAL i.lT
I':HA'J'URE F. P()ETIC-I.ITlJR(;[CAL LITERATURF.
C. WISDOM L1'1'ERATlJRI·. (Al) ¡\ la~NRE) I-'L ¡'-Jl:-;"
'rO¡ULA L Tl',X'l'S AND N AHRATlVl',S .r. ApOCA I.i'PTIC
ANO E,<.,C!IA't'OI.O(;ICAL Ll'n:Hi\TtJRF K_ MA(;I
CAL-IHVINATDRY l.l'n:RATUIU· L. ()'I'HF.l{ TEX'¡'S
A. HI.'iTORY OFTlIF cANoN ANIJ HIBUCAL
IvIANUSCl{JI'TS
Tbe library of Q indicares rhar 31lcicnt .Judaism in rhe
I--kllcnistic period obscrved authm-irarive text:-. and had
developcd ~1ll undersranding of rhe Scriprure,'-I from rhe
time of rile Hellcnistic re1igiolls reforms in 175- ¡ ('4 Be. Wc can, howcver, nor :lssume;l complere canon for this
time. Alrogerhcr l (.200 MSS uf boolcs of the lJrcr Hc
brew lliblc wcrc found III Q: The nldesl' (4QS3m"; 4QJc1'·1
) stem from the mid 3nj cent. BC. C. 35 %) of rhe
OT MSS from Q dOclllllent rhe s<JI11e inventory of Con
sonants as the bter Masoretic rextj 5 '}(', dOCllmetlt a
for111 of rhe Pellrareuch, v,.. hich was latel' nJoprcd anc1
;:drered by the Samarirans; 5 % document rhe Hehrew
111ode-1s of vnriolls books o{ rhe Sepruagint; c. 2.0 (Xl)o
use a full orrhography common ro Q; c. 15 {Yo shov.'
rypes of t'cxts rbar cannor be classified undel' any of the
kllown versions. Especiaily the textual evidencL of rhe
la sr group allows insighrs into rhe editorial evollltion of
rbe 01' baoks and shed doubr, a t leasr for a part af rbe I-iebrew Bible, 011 rhe posruhlrc uf an original rcxt.~1SS
in Aramaic and Grcek inclicare thar rhe rransbúon pro
ce$S into Greek anJ Aramaic rcaches tar hack inra the
pasl' ( .} HihJe tr:111slatiolls). Tú rhe exrc:nt that ir IS pns
.sible ro date thcm, rhc non-BiblJcal rexrs from Q stem
from rhe period berween rhe 4rh and rhe 1 st cenrs nc. Thc"ie rexts can he divided into various grollps:
B. PARA-Blfll,ICA1. I,II·I'RATUkF
Para-biblical n:xr:; are literary w()rks which <ue
dosel y connectcJ to (exts, topies,) nr pt'rsuns of the la ter
¡ 22. DEi\D Sl'A
I-Iebrew Hible. Para-bihlicallirerilwrt' is characrerized
by rhe endc:tvollr to gain insighrs ahotlt rhe revelarinn
thm h,-10 occllrred rhrough ll1rcrprcrJnon ()f aurhorira
rive rexrs (sllch as the Torab) and ro ne\'vly arriclllate ir in ncw tcxts. Thesc relecture proccsses represent the
attempt ro find :JnSWE"rs tu conremporary ql1esrions allJ
ro ground rhcm in rhe revelation from rhe p<lsr. The
Para-hihlical Jitcratl1rc froLTI Q deals wlrh tcxrs <lnd Pt'f
son~ from rhe time of Crcarion to the rime of exilc.
Asidc from texrs from the realm of the rewritten Rible (c.g. t!w h()ok~ Ilf N(),lh ,1Ild ,Juhilen, I1vlose:" ,tpO
cryph.';), wt' ::J1so find llarrarives (B()ok uf c;iants), res!:;)
111('nrS 1 <lnd apocalyp:lCs (see helow).
C. EXECETIC IXl'l":R¡\TU JU',
Thc library of Q is the primary s(JureL' of l'Xl'gCtic
liter~1ture in ancient .IlHL\ism froJll rhe time of rhe Hcl
lenislÍ<' religio1l5 rc{()rms (1-:7)-164 Be). The be! that
l'xegnic iiter~Hurc ~tppcar('d al' lhat rime sllggests ~1
change in ¡-he trcl11TI1clH of aurhuril:llrive ("('xts . .luclaislll
clid nur devc1np ,111 l¡ndcrsranding of Script'ures llnril
rhis pcriod. The most widely l1scd f?;enrc (Ji exegetic lir
cratl.1fe are thL Pesharún thar originared in Esscnc cir
eles. They sharc the cOl11mun fetlture of introdllcing [he
interpretarion of ;1 ('ited lel11ma wirh an interprNlHive
formula that (;\11 vary in its precise wording hut alw~lY,~
cOlltains rhe word pese/' ('inrerprct<1tínn'J. There are
thLIl1Jtic l1nd conrinuolls }Jcsharim. '1"he word fJcSer ane!
rhe inrcrprct<lrivc tcchniques useJ hy tll(' Pesharim are
rcminiscent of ,1l1cient interprc¡:aLÍon:; of drc~ms <.lnd
omens ( ~ Oll1en; > Drcal1ls, lnrcrprerarioll uf drcJIll's).
Thc inrl'rpret:lltion nf the Pcshl1risrs was regardcd as a
secund aet of rcvelarion suhordinare l'O tl1l' rcxr of rhe
prophcr,1'vhich n.'v('a1cd ro the interpreter rhe Il1canÍllg
of rhe tcxr h¡Jdl'n to rhe prophct'.
D. LITEH.ATURE DEALlNC WITH RELlGIUUS LA\V
The faet rhJr rhe Esscncs regJrdcd rhis type uf litCT<-.l
CUre as largcly exegetic is indica red by rhe- designation of
midraSfm for two community rules. Communiry rules
anJ a large parr oE rhe -} Halakha are of Essent' origin.
Their exegeric charactcr may be relared ro rhe Essene
COlllUlullity's claim 1'0 have a special knowlcdgc of rhe
interpretation and the significance of (he laws. Gener
ally, wc cm observe rhe t'endl'ncy towards a partic1llarly
srricr inrerpret<ltion of reiigious L1WS in rhe Essenc Hal ..
akha. 'The n:ason fnr this may he fOllnd in rhe pricsrly
origín nf rhis cornmunity. AsiJe froffi issues of purity,
the !aws abnur rhe Sahbarh and calendar issues are of
particular intercsr. Commllniry rules such a.., Serekh
ha~Yal,13d or the Damascus Documenr govern rhe con
dUCi of I¡fe in thc ES:>l'nc COlTimumty ,HlJ are rcminis
cenr in rheir regulations uf rhe structure of J-Iel1enisric
rc1igiolls guilds. Thc facr that issl1es of rel.igious law
were llot only fckvant for the period in qucstion is dem
ollsrrared by rhe so-calleo Rule: nfWar ,1nd rile commll
nit)' rllle referring ro (he esrl13toJ1
[JE/\U '.LA 1]·3
L CALENDAR TAL LITERATURE
The large l1limher of calcnJarial MSS indic<1fes thar the Essencs regarded calendar lssues as hlghly signifi
CJnt. Thc rexts establish the times of serVlce for rhe Jífferent ranks of pricsts and lisr the dares faI' rhe Sahbarb and cnlt festiva/s. Mixed forms were not unusual. Wirb rhe cxceptlon of 4QZodiology and Bronrulogy (.360day ~oldr calendar), JII rexts are commlrtcJ ro a 1fi4
day solar calenuar, similar ro rhe eme in asrrHcn and Jub, 'liso thc <;;1l11C 011C rhar governed thl' ultt prauices be(q[l' 1SO Be e1t lca~~r uf rhe ]crllsa1l'm ~ '1l:mplc. In thü; calendar, monrhs, weeks, and (bys do nnr llave
nal11es, hl1r are sil11ply countcd. lr \Vas llsed by the Essene movement even after 15:.'. Be, whilc rhe remple <H th ..1t rime used rhe.1 54-day lunar calenJar with Baby· 10111,ln na mes, rhe samc tila!' is srill bl'ing used by lnod
ern judJism.
F_ POETH>J..l'l UI{CfCAL 1.lTEl{ATtlln: Thc fact rhar pocric.-lirurgicallitl.:r:1rurc forms one ni
the larg;esL groups uf texfs in rhe library 01 Q has ro do with rhe significlnn' that rhe praist of (;od has (or rhe
~ Esscnes. Duc ro their disral1cing from t!l<.' Jerusalem Tcrnplc, rhey rcgarded rheir COm11111lúty as ;1 spiritual rempk (mqds adm, 'Temple o{ htlll1~lns'), i11 which d1l' pr:1ise uf God tnok on rhe funetion (JI' thc sacrificl' (5ee 4QMidrEschar\ HI). In genef<\l, one can ascenaiJl lhat the poeric genres of rile Hehrcw Hiblc mclr togerhcr in dll' rexts of rhe Q lihrary. Also, one finds more ami more allthologic<Ii poetry {sL'e, for inSl<111lT, the
l-lodayot). The liturgic<Jl poetry cnmprises collcctiolls of so-called daily praycrs, song,<, for rhe sacrifice uf SaÍ1
barh, rcxrs de'lling wirh a covenanl: rl'ncwal lirllrgy, jJurification riruals, ilnd cxorcism (see bclow K.j. Asid e
from psall11 collccrions III rhe sryle of rhe psalrer and Iol11ents, rhe: ncm-liturgical pocrry cOl1sists esscnlially {1i"
Hodayot (songs of praise) anJ }-1odayot-like !1(l~ms.
G. \XlrsDOM L1TEHATURE (A.'1 A (;ENIU~)
The library uf Q contained .\ sllrprisingly laI'ge numbcr uf wisdom rexts~ J./l nf non-EsscI1/..': origin with
rhe excepríon of a didaerie speeeh (4Qz981. Theír large numher indicares rhat wisdol11 lirerature was nHlch more prevalent in ancienr JLJdaism rhan previously assllmed, The dominanr genre in rhis type of lirerarure IS
constirured by;] "reaching' (müsar). Such reachings are él
combinarian of collect.ions of sayings and of passages in the sryle of rreatise.s, hymns , and parenesl5. Wc also find a collection of wh~lr seem ro he olJ s,\yings c111d two otheI' didaetic speechcs. On the conrcnr Icvd, must of rhe rexrs c<ln be subsnlllt'd under rhe wisdoIn ot the
TOL1h, bur ir is also not unusual ro flJ1d Juallstic-cschcltolugical ideas and an interesr in culto
H. 'f--ll"TOIUCAI. TEXTS ANll NARRATrVES
Narrarivc tcxrs nrher rhGn rhDse bclonging ro rhe
pilrabihlical carcgory are vcry rJrt in the lihrary of Q. Aside frorn Tob, which W¡lS probably wrirtel1 in Hebrcw
originalJy (4Q196-.:.oo), \vc unly fínd rwo AramaÍ(.
\ 14
court narrarivcs (Prayrr of Nabonid; 4QL42; Proro
Esther; 4Q 5' 50'-5 50c )'.
J. ArOCALYP1'1C AND ESCHATOLOGICAL LITERA
TUUE
None of rhe apocalypses in rhe library of Q indicate Essene amhors t\1any of the Jpocalypses are of parablb1Jcll narurl:' ;lnJ procJaJnl tu be revelatioJ1s. Unril recenrly, symbolic codificarion waS regarJed as 3 char~lc
terisric fearurl' (lf apncalyptic revebrion, and indeed, <;l'vef('¡] (Ji rhl'~e <;ymbolic :lpOC<llypscs can be found JIl
rhe líhrary (JI Q (Book olDrcams: 1 Hen 83-90: 4Q204
'1 ctc.). Howevcr, some tTxrs of revdarion werc found wirh icleas similat to rhose in symbolic apoca!ypses, but rhey did not use sYlllbolic codificatioll (c.g. l-lisroflcaJ rext A: 4Q24R) <1nd should be Gltegorízed as non··S}'ln·· holic apocalypsl's. Asidc from jJllrc tcxrs of rl'vclation, we ;llso find works thal tak~ rhe visi()n~lry <lLllhor inlO rhe world of rranscendellCl', O!1 wh,1( onc would caH fl!!Jerworldly j()urlleys (asccnr ro heaveJl; Nc\V Jerusa lem: lQj2e[<...), Furrhcrmorc, lIle Jibrary ofQ contaillS
;:¡ largc I1LlmIH~r of other esch.1tologicaJ rexts (c.g. Ruk 01' W,U or cOlInllunity rule). Of rhesl'¡ at Icast: a younger form ()f the Rule of War, rhe cschatological C{HnI1111nity rllle, Jl1d p()ssihl~1 blcssjngs derived froJl1 dI(' A.1roniric
hlcssiJ]g (Num 6,24-26) appcar ro he of EssclIc origino
K. M.A(;1Ci\L~J)IVINATORY LITEI<.ATUH.F
Only sparse .1t110unts uf magie<ll-divinatory lit('r;l' tllrc wcre found in (2 Zlnd n(mc 01' it Jppears ro he of Essenc origino Aside from a physiognomical-asrfnlngi
callisr of ol11t.'ns ("IQ 1H6, 4Q5GI), wc find <1 bronto]o gioll ¡\rrachcd lo zodiacal asrrology (4<...2318). Thc Sllr
viving magic'1! tcxts are brgely cxorcist· in llarure ¡. Exorcislll).
1.. ÜTHFH TEXTS
In addition, the library of Q conrained a small nun1l-w.r l)f legal and rc!igious documcnrs, WhlCh dearly connecr rhe lihrary found in lQ-ll Q wirh rhe setrlcr11ent of Q ( ¡. Essenes; 'r Qumran). Funhermore, two
Icrrers 14Q34L, Aramaic; 4Q34.3, Nabaraean), four exercises by scrihes as wc1i as a 1ist of trCZlsures cllgraved in
copper 13 Q 15) have survived.
llI. MASADA
The badIl' damaged MSS of rhe M Ion rhe archacology and rhe history of finds: ¡. Masada) stem primarily from irs Zelotic inhabirants during the first ) Jewisb War. Only rhe hihlieal MSS MasDrn and MasEzek
could possibly srem from rhe period 01' Hcrod I¡ JI rhe Cl-caf. As ~~1l as ir i~ stiJ! ascenainablf', the Sl'Ven bíblical rexls clocurncnt a proto-MasoreriL' texr [vol. 7, 6!
MasSir (Ma rh) shows a rextual form which deviares from the LXX allc\ rhe Ceniza ~/fSS, Aside from biblical and dcllterO-C3nonical tv1SS, the fol!owmg rext<; \V('rt-'
found on rhe M: a Juh or p,Juh MS 1M3 1 JI, two MSS 01 texts thar are also dOcllmentcJ fol' Q, an apocr)"rhon o/ Genesis or Joscph, a paleo-Hebrew I\;1S (MJ 10 rL in
12~
whicb hrgrz)'trl (".M.oum Garizim') is written as a proper
name in one word dnd which could be' of Samaritan urigin lvoL7, 6, 142~\47j, an Aramaic rragmenr, and several ostraka. The fact that Ma 1 k-I is a1so documenrcd m Q does not necessarily prove all Essene presence on M during rhe firsr ]ewish War. In rIw remains ot rhe Roman sieg,eworks, doctllTIcnts and lertcrs were found rhar provide insighrs Inru the life of the iegions aL dll'
end uf rhe firsr ecut. AD. One parttcular pan of ;,1 tcxt from Yerg. AC"l1. (Ma 72 J r) is rcmurk<.1blc in rilar ir cOllstitlltC<; (mc of lbe o\ckst piecc~.; of cvidcllCC for 1hi"
work.
IV. NAJ:íAL l:-1EvER, W.".DÍ L-MuRABBA'A ANlJ
KF.TEF .IEH.1CUO
The alrogerher badly damaged MSS 01 "he rhree ¡ocations nre in Hebrew, Ar¡HnaK, Gr~ck, and Naba
tacan, <llld wef{' UllCOVl'ITd eithcr hy BedouiJls or in sys tem,ltic cxcavatiol1s. The Bedollins indicated rhal rhe p1J.Cl:S of orip)n for rhe MSS 1hl'Y fOllnd in NH wcrc W5d¡ Sayyi¡1 ,u,,1 Q, ami uuly rhe study ,,1 rhe MSS
thcmselvcs led to soliJ conc1usions abour rheir ongin
1), voL 1~7, 1-6; .'), vol. 391. Lill~r;'lry texts, docl1mcms ,1nd !etrcrs frol11 the 1St <ll1d 2nJ cenrs. Al) we['e founu 111 reElige C;lves in NI) ;m<.l WM. The oldcst known non·
inscrip60nal I-kbrcw reXl, a palco~H('brew pa~)o
limpsest from rbc 7th cenL Be (rhe overwritten rexr consisrs of ,1 ¡ist of nnmcs, rhe sccondary tTxt is <l Ictte~):
W~lS fOlll1J in WM. ln Kctd .Icricho, lWO additional pa!co·-HebI'cw MSS from rhc 4rh cCllL Be w('rc found (Jer ¡; Je .. h,\). Aho in WM, Byzantíne ami Arahíe MSS were fOlllld. BibJical MSS are known only from NI} ,ll1d \XirvL '1'0 the cxtent rhat rhey are legible, they documellt :l prot'o-Masorctic tcxL
Parricularly imporrant ror rhe texrual hi."tory of the 0'1' is HHcvxn gr. Thi,.:; scrol.l consisrs of an edirion nI' the (;1'ce1<. transiation of the Book of I L Prophers in líght
of rhe proto-Masoretic text, a perspccrivc <lIso reprcs('nred by ¡. Theodorioll or rhe LXX Lamenrations.
DLJe t<J its rypiC<llusc of XUlYf, rhis edition is called Kaigl'
todJY. The j1alL.:ugraphIC Jaring of SI)evXII gr 111tO rbe
late 1sr cent. Be r), vol. 8, 19-.261 eVldcnces rhar thc rewo1'king of the LXX began 111 uch e.1rlicr than prev¡ously assulllccI anJ IIlvalidates rhe idea rhar rhe Christian use of rhe LXX tnggered the reworking process. The Yleld of non-biblie:a! tcxts from rhe three locarions is meagre. Aside hum ~1 few MSS from che time of rhe
firsr Jewish War (these docLJmenrs bclonged ro a group rhar f1ed from M ro WM in AD 71 or lorer) and a fcw 1\155 rilar srem from rhe R.ornan occuparion ofWM fol
Jowing the second Jewish W;:¡r, rhe (.160 MSS are documents from W!vl, NI~, and Kctcf.Ierichn ~1l1d ,,,-,ere in the possession of refugccs from rhe !asr ph;.1.<;C (lf the sccoll(l ]ewish War. The uoclIments were wntten in Hebrew,
Ar<ll11J.ic, Grcck, Jnd N'lh.:ltaean and offcr insighrs into thc s)'stem of Ltw, amI rhe social ami cconomíc history of rhL period. !vIos! of rhese documenrs bclong ro rhe foIlowing rypc ... : bilIs of ."<1Ic 01' lcase:., ¡isrs of gooJ,<" promissory nores, mJTl'i:1ge contracrs, and letrcr<; of dj
126 nEAlJ SE¡\
vorcc. Gcner~d!y~ rhE' ]aw"i rhar exisred prior to thc second .kvI-'ish \Xiar can a1so he found <lfrer AD 13 'J•• A new devdopmenr, howcvCf, is rhe use uf I-lebrew in legal
documcnrs. Funherffiorc, rhe documcnts frol1l bdore AD 132 suggesr rhat the Jewlsh popularion around the' DS parLicíparcd in rhe sysrern of law of rheir non-Jewish environment in thlS rime period [12.. 215]. The ~1fchives
of documents of two womell mahath~1:'i/6Hl'v 1-35;
Salome Komaíse: XHev/Sc 12, XHev/Se 60-65) allow
us tu undersrand in detail the lep;al history of two Jcwish {.llllilil'''i.
NH anu \XlM providcJ us wirh ,1 large number oí
]etters, which bcc>1me esscnrial sourccs fol' the hisrory oí
rhe secund Jewish War. Many of rhese lctrers werc writ·· ten by ~ Bar Kochb,l hi.msclf and rcvec1!, fuI' instance, Ilí." rme 11<1111(' (Shim'on ben Kosiha); other letrers stem from hlS adminisrrafiou. 'rhe facr rllat only rwo of thesc lener'. are wrirrclI in (;rcek, dw resr in Hcbrcw or Ar¡1
maic, sllggc.sr~ <1n cffort rowarJs revitalizlL1g rhe Hchrt'w bngu:]F;c.
V. SMALLI:H SITES
Slllaller finds of MSS wcrc made j¡1 WaJI ll-N;'ir, Wii.dI I-Guwair, Wcid¡ Sl.ldair, Nal}i.1! Mismúr, and Nahal Se·elím. AII 01 rhese MSS are badly damaged. In WiidI n-Nir, two (;reei{, (lne Sl'rtliric, and two lingui
stically llnidcntifiablc fr"lgmcnrs werc f()und. Their
speclllarive origin is l)irhat al··Mírd. The complex at Wad¡ !-C;lIwaÍr is possibly an Esscne settlcmenr. This complcx 1<; atrrihurcd wirh t:he hnds of J Greek papyrus
frclgment ane! a. Semiric p<.1per fr'lgmcnt. Accordíng ro inform,Hion from Redouins, four MSS from rhe period of rhe scconu .Iewish War wcre found in WadI Suda Ir
(= Na~al David) in ] lj 5" 2. These MSS consist of a protoMasoreric Gcn.-l\.1S, an Aram,lIc promissory note, and two unicicntlfied Greek documcnts. In N,1~<1l Mismar, renm<lnti'i of rwo Hebrcw and onc GrecJ{ document
were found, so were parts of four Hehrcw ami of one (;reei{ osrrakol1 from rhe pcriod of rhe second Jewish
War. The few MSS tlut <lrc ccrrain ro srclll from Nahal Sc\'lim weL'C di5covcn~d Juring élJl excavation ca m
paign in 1960 in cave 34. Thcy consist of a phylacteriul11, a Neh-1vlS, an Aram¡llC contraer,;] Grcek cenSllS
lisI, and a Grcek lisr of wbe<lt.
VI. J:ll RBAT AL-M iRD
Tbe name rcfcrs ro rhe BYlantíne mOn<lSfLry of Kas
tcllion, which was cOl1strucred in AD 492 ncar the DS, llar far fI'om Ijirbar Q on rhe ruins of the anCiL'llt Hyr
cania. Sincc 1873, sllrveys and parria! cxcava tions hJ ve
been carried our rherc. The Arahic, Grcek, and Syri,m or Chrisrian-Aral1lJic papyri of Ijirba[ al-NIírd are
badly dan1<lged. Found 1I1 j 952 by Bedollins and ín 1953 in exc.1varions, rhey "tcm from rhe Byzantinc and Arabie periodo The roo Arabic papyn ('.1n be dividcd
¡nro protocols, legal docuIl1enrs, lctters, economic rt'xrs, literar)" rexrs, varia, and a drJwJIlg. Of the Syrian and Chrisrlan-Aramaic p<~pyri, a letter, ,1 magical amulet, and ~l !viS of [[ll: Acrs h<\\'c so far been published.
D[;,AD ~Ef\ t 2.7
Furtbennnre, reports exist of .1os-, N1t-, Lk-, and Col
MSS. üf [he Greek papyri. Mr-, Mk-, ¡n-, and Acts
MSS !lave Leen puhlis-hed as welJ as a mon ..'l.sric letter.
E])lnON~: 1 N. AVICAD, Y. YADIN, A Gencsis Apocryphon,I9s6 2J. J-l. CHARLE,..,woRnl (l'd.), The Princt'ton Theological Scminary Dcad Sea Scrol1s Pro)en, 199 í H. .1 ])iscovcrics in rhe JUd"lC"1Jl lkscrt (()fJordall), '
vol. ¡ n., I SI.') 'i ft. 41,. (;AHCÍ:\ MARIÍNE/" F. J. e:. TIlo
C1IEJ.¡\¡\jZ (ed.), The 1)cad Se<l SCI'olb SruJy Edirioll,vol. 1-2"llJ97-1<J')H s.l, M/\IFRetal.,J)ieQL1lnr;lJl·-b~el1t:r:
])1(' '1'1.'\((' V'()ln '];It(.'ll f'Vll:lT" ~ vol'i., 199'i'-'ll)l){)
b N L¡~\'('L"', Y.¡'!lOiN, J. (:. (;ItH~NFlF.U I (ed.), The DOClJ
Il1CJlt~ rmm dlC Bar Kokhha Perind lr1 the Cave of Letter" (.JlIdaean Ikscn Srudies), I ')S') 7 Masó.da. The Yigilel Yadin Excav;ltí(ms 1.')63-1965, Fina! Repon..... , vol. 1·-6, í9SY-I')lJ9 f{'Y. Y/\11lN (ed.), The 'fl"lllpk Serol1, vol. 1·'-" .lerus<1lcm )LJ77-I')H ~ 9 A. YAIW1:NI, 'Ti:x[hook (Jj
Aral11'lic, l-Iebrew aml Na]1;\[;1c:m OOCllJl1l'!1lary Text·s hUI11 I"llt' .IUCLH';lll Dc,<,nr clnd lZcl<Hcd I\tltenal, vol. ,\ -1\,
2.000.
BlllJ.lOC1<'¡\I'IIY: fO P. H¡\RT/¡{..II·.l....l''{, I.l':-' deV,ll1l"ir'rs el'Aquila (VT, Suprl. JO), ll.)(,·\ 11 J, M. 1)/\lIMCARTFN,
.)illdic .... ill t!lll1lr:Hl l.aw (Smdics Il1.Juuaislil in Latc Anli qUIEY .'."1), IY77 (2 L 11'. SCJ[(l'loMAN l·!;ll. (l:d.). FJll:y c\opedia ot rile Dead .)("'1 ScroJls, vol. 1-2, LOOO
l."1 T. HF.RBI':J{T, F.Tov (eo.), Tlw Tcxl of tlle llebrl'w Hi hJc ill i.ight 01 d1l' Di.\l·()v¡'ric~ ()( i1l1' .J1Id<1l'all lkslTI,
:::'..001.
'TI 11'. r....II\1' LS l\ASHl UN: !J. J¡'llICKI" (; ..)( IIMIT1, 1',11,1'
stina. Siedlungen in gricch ... riil11. Zeit (e;l. ~OO v. (;11r."'".')00
11. eh!'.; NonJ .. Illld Südtcil), 'IAVO B v 1 H, J 1)91.
1.. 1L SUII FFMIIN, Rec!,llming t"he Ik,ld ,)ca Scnll!s, 19X,~
1. WM;NF.H, l)icróm. PnJv. Palacsrin,llJnd Ar;lbia (70'- ::o<¡
n. Chr.),lAVO B V 17.2., 19HN.
Dca Roma st'c ~ Roma 1V.
Dca SyriJ sce ~ Syri~l Dl':1
Dcath
1. ANCll~NT I~A~T AND F(;YPT [1. CI.ASSICAl. AN'
I'lQUlTY
l. ANCIENT EAST J\ND EGyp'r
A range of archacologic_,1 and textual sourcc~ from
varieJ walles of life hear cloquent r(!sumony ro the in··
tCllsit)' of rlle attl'mpts of coming tu ttTIll wi(h dcath in
anclcnt eastcnl cultures ( > Burial and mourning rituab
and the reLuce! eulr üf the > e!cad), as displayecl in
forms nf-~ funcrary architeeture, huri8.1 objens [{nd the
exrcnsive ~ funerary lüerature. As is evidenr hom tex
tual SOUfces, this struggle occupled a brge p~1rt of every
day hUl11an cxistcnce 15 l. 011 thc one hand, bdief in a
cuntimlcd human existcnce ,lftcr Jcarh is a feature of
the Egyptian. Me~opot<lmian and Hittite traditions. Rody ::lllc\ soul-joincd rogether in this ¡ife--- are physi··
cally scpar,ltcd frum each orher after death. The mortal
n~tnC1ins are placcJ in a grave, rhe LieaJ person's sutil
travels ro the Ul1denvorld. 'The dt'pendencc uf thelo
Jead pcrson's suul 011 ~/his/her hody is eviden! in ritual burial (c,g. Egyptian Illummificatiun, J·-J.ittite ,llloim
r 1.8
mera of (he rcmains). Even thc: cult of the)- dead (;lkes
this corpofl>;¡Jity inro au.::ount \:vith the prnvision of
food and drink, As wcll, thlTl' (Hl~ othe!" forms or corn
mmúcatlon between the living and the dcad\ sllch as the
cvocatinn of the spirits of the dead (ef. ~ Cilgamesh
Epic, tahlet 1 el.
On the orher hand, death in ~ncil'nt t"astl'nl cultures
was a social cven1: a Ffcetlng [lot just rhe deccased :llld ¡li!'>
01' hcr famiJy but the whole social milieu 141. Death
outsidc onc's own sl1rroundings, ooc'::; own culture,
W,IS s()jlJcthing LO he fe'1rnl, J~; i!,; shnwn fur l'X,llllpk in
the Egypfial1 l10vd uf ~ Sillulll: 01' the Sumerian Epic uf
Lug<lJhanda [4/. Thl' death uf a ~ ruler could cnd'lI1~cr
t:he social or cusmi,c onlcr in irs entil'ety: the beginning
()f thC"' Hinite roy.t\ dL';.1th ritll,I! rtms: 'If a greJt disturb·· ,mce takes pLILT in l);lttUS;1 a~ i1 kinp, nr ljllCCIl becol11es :1 c\(>ity' i3. ')6). '"I'he val'i(~ty Jl1clltiorIcd ah()ve rypifies the r,JIlgc or lTlC:l,',urcs Cor L'oJliug witll dcuh, Tlw .... , t"O lhe
MesopOUlllli,ll1 mincl l the jOl\nlcy to tl1l' ~ Undcrwor\J
((luid t:.1ke difFerent rorJl1s (LTo~sing, rhe Undcrwnrld
r¡vcr, m~lking l:he joufIlcy on fOOI). Varying rcgioJlal l
social nI' cultural traditiol1s are mirro!"(!d in thc literary
texts, the lircrattlrc un dcath and rhe archacological evi
dcnc(', The dl~t;liled descriprion of ¡-he her('aftcr, espe· cially typiC¡ll (){ Egypt ;lI1d McsopOL'anll;l, articulates 1"lJl' attelllpt (() acquaint ¡he ITader wirh ;ln <1Spcct" of lik
in;¡cecssihlc tu hUl1lans and thus ro n'1110vc thc h'ar oI
(he unknown (eL rhe Egyptian guic\cs to rhe hcrc'lfter,
indicating t"h{' dist",lIlces of individual scetions),
Cmnll'10Jl!"o ;111 thos<' belid sYSfl'I11S lS t"he umcep¡- tha¡
rhe deccJscd h;l.'; ro mJkc a, jonrney tn reach the dest'i·
Il;ltion. Egyp¡-ian :Hld N1esojlotarnian conccpts view r11l~
decl'<lscd aS an active agenr; thc HitritT {1erspcnive, 011
tbe othe!" hJ.lld, secs him as esscntially passivc, depend··
c-:nt 011 propitiarory sacrifices ro the .... uil··goddess of [!te
Underworld ( ~ Sun-g()ddes~ IIl.}, who is to be illduccd
lO let him pa" (burial .. ¡tual: 16. 421 l. Therc are ::lIso texts that do not sha re tlll' hclic!: in :1
(gond) life aftcr dC(lch: Egypti,m harp .... ongs and the
Gilgamcsh Epic cxhorr pcople ro enjoy ¡ife 1). 1 SI 5
1.,041, as ollIy c\espair ,lile! oblivioll await thcm t:here
afrer -- dcath as rhe cnd to a sclf-determ¡ned existenec
anJ the beginning of <l shadowy existence rhíH canno!
be overcome wirh lavish funer;1ry <Irchitccture ;1nJ bur
ial gifts: 'Gilg'lLlle.S, where are you nlllning ro? YOll will not find rhe life rh,lt Y0l! are seeki.ng! \Xlhcn rhe gneis
creat"c.d mankind , rhey bestowed lllorr::Ility ... M;lke of
eaeh day a fesrival of pleasnre. dJnce and play by day
8nd nighr! ... Such is rhe n;1rt1re of human activity!'
(Gilgarnesh Epic, tablee 10). Even though the Contrast
hetween the two eoneepts could not have becn grcater,
Ln yiew (,f the great (m;:1tcrial) dforr deployed for life
aher deadl (panicularly in Egypr), tbey both nevcrthe
less fix on the .;ame ohjecrive - sllfvival, by deeds and
in litera tu re, in rosfl'rity's memor)': 'M,an p;1sses a\\':lY,
his boJy nwnhks ro Just. But ,1 book convey.s IlIs mcmory in the mOt1th of ("he perSOIl J"cading aloud .
(llst of OIJ Egyptian writers); "The)' have gonc~ t!Jcir
na mes wOllld have becil forgotten-- but it is tlle book
r 2')
rhat keeps rbeir lllcmory alive!' lL:2 7'".'1-22(,1.
~ Rllrial; ~ Funerary architecrure; > Funerary Jiter::1
tmCj ~ Dco.d, culr of the; ~ UnJerworld
1.1- ASSMANN, Toe! und jC!lScits im Altcn Ag" 1.00J
21-,1. BRUNNER, Die \XIelsheitshiicher cit:r Agyptl'f, 1. 1991 .3 V. HAAS, Hethit. Bestattllngsbrauche, lO: Altnricnral.
Forsch. 1.7, 2.000, F-67 4 S. LUNDSTRÓM. ZUf Aussagekr,lfL schnhliehn Qudlcn hinsich{lich dcr Vorstl'llull gen VOl)) Lcbcn nach dClll Tud in Mesopoumicn, in: Ah .. oriental. FOfsch. :;0. 1.003, 30-')0 5 (; . .1, SELZ, W:lS
blcil,¡-i', in: ~l'(' 14/ (111 prinr) (, r. P. .I.VJ\N lJI·.N HOli·l.
])cath 'lS <1 Pr¡vdege. Thl' ¡ litti((' Ropl hllle!""r)' Rimal: in .J. M. BI~tMl':R el al. (t-J.), ¡"liddcn FutLln:: ..... J)(-ath and Irnmonality in Anciclll Egypr, Anatoli:l. lhc C1aSSiC'l!, Bibli cal and Arahie Islamic World, r994, 37-7 S·
....,¡,ll ..II1lI!! (JI
Ilo Cl.A\:o,ICAl. ANTlQUITY
(Cree1\. OÚVUT.or;,/thánatos; l.al. IHurs, fcturn).
A. PRELlMJNA\tY REMAHK B. (;ENL:HAI. (lVl'.l{VIF\V
(:. CnnF.IUA uF 1lI',A'['ll D. IloM!CIIH. ANU qll ..
<:11)/' L. P\lllllSOP!lY 1". RFLIl;ION ANIJ fvfYT!IOi.'
()(;y C;.l.iTF1lATI1Hl;, 1,,"1. DFATlI 01' A ItlJr.ER
A. PIU·:J.1 MINARY RFMA¡{K
l.ike ~ hirlh amI > sl'xu,I1ity., de;Hh is (Jne uf lhe
collstants in thc condiáo hUma1lél tl.]. Rcsearch into it,
cnttillg ,lCr()~s cultural houndarics, le'MIs lO compc!ling
kl10wlcdge about cnltural valul's in socictie~. In cbssi··
cal st"udic.s, too, t"hc range of rdcvant andent sources in
the fidds nf liter:1turc, ll11'dicilll', philosophy, epigra
pl1YI iconographYl !cgis1ation, legal wills l:I:C. 1l1i1kes
clearh ¡In arCa of cultural swdics {hIt" excelfencc.
B. C;U"'¡ERAI. nVERVIEW
As ;'l11 clltírely incxofJblc dl'lllelH in rhe franll'w()rk
of hum:m existen ce, death was considered a sign rhat
l~vcn the Illost powcrfulllllll1<ln bL'Íng would ncvcr com
pletely master destiny in this world !10. [3-27; 2.81.
The yv{i)(h (JC1u"'Cóv!gnólhi sautt"n1 ('Know thyself') of
Ddphic ~ Apollo cal/s fnr all acknowlcdgcll1em of one's own J11ort<llíty and (o/lsequcnt power1essncss. or similar mcaning is the memento te IJOrninem C5se ('Re
membcr that YOl] are <1 hUIll;lJl being') rhat a sbve nscd
to whu;per during:l triumphal proccssion to the Rom,lll
bcing honuured with tbe ~ triumph. As <1 law of Na
ture, death was secn as analogolls ro rhe phenomena uf ,mimate and inanim~1te Nature (Arist. Spir. 1.7.47Rb 22 ff.), e.g. to thc chan~ing seasons of the yeal' and ro
thc destfllction of ciries by human violence ( -~ Conso
lati~). Tr<1Jlsported ro thc personallevel, cven the dcat\¡
of favourjtc~ dOl11cstic ;lllimals was mOlirned Ir 5J. Death in ~mtiql.lity W"b gencr;]/Iy thollghr of as <1 t¡"¡lnSI tion and dlélnge imo anuther form of exis[enee, rJther
than as ahsolute finaliry (Cie. ·rusc. 1,12) 1141. Popular
llletaphors for dC.Jth are (hcrdore ch,mge, journey, tak
illg one\ kavt, skep 13; IRI. As a c<111sall¡llk was ~H:
ccpted betwccnlife ::md post-mortal cxistcncc, rhe vicw
of death a.) ~H1 (vent to he wclcomcd, 01' feólred, 01' ac
cepted with indiffercnce, \Va." also cXl'rcssed in corre,·
sponding approaches to life.
110 nEXIll
That dcath, like scxuillity, was 5ubject to a strong
uhoo [ I . 774 ff.], is shown by rhe high level uf cultural
acriviry that govLTl1ed contu:cr with the corpsc :lnd el11O
tions <lccompanying cleath (d. as well ~ Burialj
> Mourningj ~ Dead~ culr uf rhc; ~ iaudatlo (u'Nehris;
~ Ncnia A.; > thr¿nos:> ekl)horá) in Grcek, Etruscan
and ROlllan cultures. In a relarively homogenous con
l"ept of rhe l.'S~L'l"ICC amI duracter nf Lkath, a r1ch culture of dcarh dcveloped in rhe MecliterraneJn. for Greccc, complcx burial rires were crucial from the c<ulicst item~
n{ cvidCJlL:L' I.t; 2. S l. \~/illl rhc J.'trUSGLm, dcath-cultllrc
WilS fur cxamplc ciisplaycd in a rieh fllnerary cultmc
( ,Lnllscans Il. C. anJ In. c,; ~ Grave painting<;;
~ Sareophagus) rh~1t, in irs ;1rtistic emph~lsis, is both <l
memorial ro rhc deae! :l11d an expressioll of ,1 pro·
llo11nccLi ze~r fuI' life ;lile! an eXf1ccrancy of an aftcrlifc.
Distinctively Ronull is ;1 funhcr ¡nst"i(Utionali7.~lr;Onnf hurla! r¡tes .\1ld ;l cl11nI1'<111y ver y advanCl:d form nt'
relllelllhering rhe de:1l1 (d. ~ /'IIidatio (uII(dn·is,
~ tvLtnes, )- imügh'les IJuliorum, ~ l.el1lurcs, ) ParentJlia) thar finds almost unbroken eontintlity in Christi·
anity in ;ln i11tcrlJretaúo christiana 12.6; 2.71, Evell if demh was undouhtedly more srrongiy visible in public consc¡ousncss in contrast ro conrcmponlry Euro-o
j1e<:lTl culture wherc i1' i,,, virtually 'L\eprivcc1 of .status' 1r I ~- tbere welT sti11 distincr tahoos (c. g. dispby of an
'l1gjy' death frolTI illrH'ss).
C. CRITERIA OF IH.ATlI
Already in anLiquity thei'e was a liveJy conrrovcrsy,
espccially in medicine ,-1l1U philosophy, as to rile criteria by which a human cOllld be consiclcred dtad or by which death cOllld be rcliably dcterminecl (mWE'iú OuvúT.ou/shneía lhattátou; Lu, signa mortis) !171. Thos(·
S;lIllC doctors who dttrihurcJ a fundalllental role to the
br:lill in boclily functiolls ( ~ Hippocrates 1(-;1, Galc-)o
nusct aL) sie!cd with Aristotic 161 (Part. an. 3,4 667,,-b)
in bd¡eving de;:lth to DC C<lt1scd by clrdiac arresr, even if rh:at ctluld be broughr ahour by other organs. Though as
they wcrc very familiar with conditions such élS ~ hy
sreria, asphyxia and coma, in which respiration and cnrdiac activiry could cease l171, rhey conceded tbat
derermining death hy rhcse crireria conld be difficult (ef.
Plin. HN 7dl, 1 241 L6,8,I 5í llnlike the situation roday,
determining dcath did nor come under the area nf com
petence of doctors but was p¡Ht of rhe burial ritual d. ) conc!al1wtio).
In philosophy rhere werc .several views aS ro what
death meant (synopsis of views in CIC. fusc. 1,H). Death
was gencrally seen as a separarion ofbody anJ sou], <lIld
that produced severa1 possibiljries ( -~ Sou!, cloctríne of
rhe); if rhe sun} is denied ,H1l'xisrcncc indepcndcl1t of thc bociy, the \-vhole person dies ( > Epicurus, ~ Epicurcan
Sehoo!); if " bodilcss smI! tS consie!c..ed püssibk (anil
rherc ~HC vJrying estimates for rhe durarioll: for eter
nity. in Plato's view, d. hl .... PkiÍdcJn, 'lIle! th:1t of ~ Py
t!ugoras [2.1 :md rhc Pythagorean School; oF limitedlo
durJtinn, for > StClicisrn), d~a(h is lirnitcd to the body,
\\'hich lS thOllght of as ir 1t werc <l iIletonyrny ror man
ESNA (,7
first referenee to E. comes feorn the rsr intermediate
period i E. did not become significant, however, untj]
the New Kingdom as the Jerarture poim for a caravan
ronte to Nubia. The príncipal deity was the ram Chnllm
(- ~ Chnubis), whose temple is E.'s most significant
monumento It was begull under the later Prolemies (VJI VIIl); rhe hypostyle room, rhe only part accessible
roday, dates from [he 1st cent. AD and was decorated
undcr rhe emperors Clalldius ro Decills (middle of the
Isr-midc/[c of the 3rd ceoL AD; names of most of the
CaC'S<lCS can still he fOll.lld). 11- contains the most recen¡
body of hiel'oglyphic inscriptions, n:m;lrkablc fOl" an
especially elaborate writing system.ln the Christiau era
E. was a bishopric. Ir is the birrhplace of • Pachomius,
fOl1nder of Egyptian monJsríeísm.
S. SAUNl·.RON, 1.A 2, JO-J;. K·f··W
Espioni.lge Procllring information about the pnlitical
and military sittwrLon uf the cnemy played 311 Lmportallt
pan in Grcek and Roman warfare (d. Thuc. 6,.12,3 f.).
Aside from statemcnts madc by dcsarers, ~ prisoncl"s
of war, 01" even merchants (d. Caes. Gal1. 4,20,3 f.) and
travdlers, army cornmanders and politicians rnade use
of rhe Iwowlcdge gainec! by spiC's. In Grcek texts, spics
are referred ro as X<lTÚOXorrDI/lwtáskopoi, althollgh the
distincrion bctwecn l'spionagt: and milirary intelligence
is mllrky (Hd1. 7,r45!.; Tlmc. (,,61d).ln Caesar, spies
(spead'1tores) al"<: disringnished from ~ exp/oratores
( :aes. G~~¡1. 2, T 1,2j eL, howcver, SAy,8). Thc tcrIn
spcculator is also llscd fOl" forcign spics (Liv. 1.2d3,1.).
On<: mllsr, howevcr, takc inw consic!cratiol1 that the
speculatores, who belonged to the ~ f)rincif)ales of each
lcgion in rhe late Rcpllblic and Prinl:ipate, ¡IJso had ro fuInIl orhe1' dutics (tomhs[onc of a s/Jeculator: AF 1945,88).
Espionag~ is fitsr mentioned in lIomcr: the ·rrojan
Dolon secretly trLes to board Agamcmnon 's ship in order to ea vesdrop on the Greeks (1-10m. O. la,} 14
4.59; Odysseus in Troy: Hom. Od. 4,242-258). Al
though the activ[ties of spics ~r(' hardly {'ver documen
ted, the measures taken against espíonage indicate that
ir was rcgarded as ti seriolls danger. In Rhodes, for in
stance, entering [he station of rhe Heet was punishable
by death (Stt. 14,2,5). The commander Chares 111
caught spies in his eamp by forcing cach soldier to name
his unir (Polyaenus, Strat. 3,1 j,1). Delegations weJT
oftcn used far espionage and fal" investigating rhe land of the enemy (Alexander [4]: Arr. Anab. 4,1,2).
According to Procopius (3), Rome had always uscd
espionage (Procüp. Pers. r ,21,11): P. Cornelius [17 [ I Scipio used the n(;gotiations prior tu a batde in Africa
(203 Be) for spying on the enem)' camp (1,11,1. jO,4, r-J;
d. a150 3°,2,9,2 ff.). Espionage was even used in the
Civil War (BeI!. Hisp. 13; 20). Captllred spies had ro
face scverc punishments; thus, a Carthaginian spY hall
his hanJs cut off (Liv. L2d3, r), and in thc civil W~H'J slaycs rhar were dlscovered to be speculatores Were cru
cified, soldiers were bcheaded (lJel!. Hisp. 13; 20; d.
6~
Suet. Aug. 27,3). The specialized líterature n[ Greece
and Rome deals wirh espionage oniy briefly (Fronrin.
Str. r ,2; Onasander rO,9; Veg. ]\¡lil. 3,7~1.Jl.1). For the
procurement of polítical relevant information within
the Imperium Romanllln, the -~ fnanentarii were used
in rhe 2.nd and 3rd cents. AD., 8nd in late anríql1iry, the
~ agentes in rehus.
,Curiosi; ~ Secret police; ~ CommunicHions
J N. J. LAuSTlN, N. B. RANKOV, Exploratlo, 1 99,'i, 5460. llj.()"II1l[K.U/lA.
Esquiline Gener;!1 rerm far rhe hills Cispius aud Oppius
in ~ Romc (Varro, Ling. 5,4,-)). Flere was thc end of tbe
platea u thar extended ro the Anio~ and from it impor
tanr aqueducts (Anio vctus 270 Be, AqU~l Marcia J 44
Be, Aqua Claudia and Anio 1l0VUS AD 52) lecl into rlH'
city. Thc Anio nOV\lS rhar was iJlcorporatLd ilHo the
Porta Maggiore is lJarrieularly impressivc.
A hasty nnd cxhaustive redcvdopment started in
18"70/71 -.:aused largc-scale exposurc ami dcstrllerioll,
with which the Jocumentaríon proeess could not kcep
pace; as a result, the considerable nllmber of finds,
plans and photographs are nor mueh of a gllide to rhe
eorreJation of rh<: finds. 1i'<ldit'ion (Vano, Ling. S,49)
portrays the E. as nninhalJited in the <:arli(~r pcriod,
interspcrscd with groves of individual sacrt.lria and cov ..
ered with hnus<:s of kings like Tarquínius SlIpel'bllS
(Solill. 1,26). The regioll was said to havc hecn added to
the eity hy Scrvius Tultills (Liv. 1,44,J). Thc ten-itory
olltsidc the wall was organizcd as a pagus (CJL VI 3832~ .11 s77l. In the lare Republican period E. and Fagutal
still formcd the sccond region of the ciry (Vano, Ling.
S,so; Fest. 344), only to he divided lllJ in the Augustan rcform (7 RC) iuto rhe rbird (Oppins), fourrh (Fagnral)
and fifth ¡Cispius) regions. Only rhe iast of those re
U1 ined the name.
Fundamental to the scttlcment history is rhe scpara
tion between those pans Iying wirhin the Servian WaH,
with a resldential settlement, and rhe arcas beyond the
Wall, whcrt:> cxtcnsive necropoleis werc sítuated in th<:
Republican períod, but the topographic transírion be~
tween the two funetions remains uuexplaincd. No later
than the Augustan period, beginning withMaeccnas,
rhe zone outside the wall was occupied by a series of
park.') belonging to the aristocracy. Hornee memions a
cemerery of Rcpnblican Rome with mass graves for the
poor (Hot". Sal. 1,8,10) but its identification with rhe
variollsly located puticuli (Vano, Ling. 5,25) has nor
been entire!y settled. The lattcr were ar times linked to a
necropohs that was ~lttested from the 8th to rhe 1 st
cents, Be and was closed in the Augustan periocl. Whnt
has been transmirtecl to U5 is simply thar [he horti Mac
cenatis (Hor. Sal. 1,R,7f.; CJrm. 3,29,,'jf.; Epod. 9,3;
Suet. Aug. 72,2; Nefo 38,2) were sited on a necropolis
rOl' paupers and thar M<lecenas was able 1'0 "ótroll over ir,
just as he couId ove!" the rampan l nI' aggCl", of the Ser
vian Wall (Hor. Sato 1,8,10). In a similar situation,
partlr burieL! in the aggerJ lies the so-called Audirorium
h9
of Maecenas frorn the period arolllld 40 Be, which as
an extanr building COl1veys a snapshot of the high qllal
i[y of the architectmc anc! of its fittings. In this clcmoll
strative incorporation of a city wal1 inro a residential
distriet, a widespread phenomenon in Allgustan Italy
(cf. the Augusran suburban dwellings of Hereulanellm
3nd Pompeií), there was perhaps ro be found a a con
sciolls demonstl'J[ion of the nde of dOl1lestic peacc in
Italy rhat haLl been erea[ed by AUgllStUS. The horti Mae
cenatis constituted al1 importanf centre within Augus
tan Rome. Virgil'.s hous(' (Dollat., Vit3 Ve!'. '_1) was also
in the llcighbourhood 01' cven within the (olllplcx (Hor.
Sato 2,6,30; Epist. 2,2,65); likewise the houses uf Horaee alld Propertius anc! Horaee's grave (Suet.,
fragm. p. 1.98). Orher aristocratic parklands were es
tablished - the h01"ti F¡Japhroditiani. l,ilt'J1iani, l'llaiarú, [,ollillui ",Id Pal/afltiani ( 'Rome). They all gradually
passcd il1to rhc imperial domain. EspL'cially rieh and high-quality seulptural furnishíng."i were found here,
SOlllC of which have ended IIp in the Palazzo dci (:onscrvatori. A large number of sanctl1a,.¡t:s, divine prc
cincrs Jlld public pbces are lllt'lltioncd in litcra[ure,
with no possibiJity of fixing rheir loeation and oftcn
witb only dwir mention <10 a terminus ante quemo
C.Burl.ITI'J, in: LTllR:;, T<)l)~, L.14-L1S; IZlcllAlm<,oN,
[46. It l'.
Esscdarius, Essedum scc > War chariot
Essenes A. ETYMOUH;Y B. ANCIENT SOURCES e, TI-lE
QUMRAN FINDS D. HISTORY
A. ETYMOJ.OGY
Thc na me E. CEmrqvo(. 'EoO'all)].; Esscnoí, Essaíoi)
was probably applied by outsiders to the commllnity
rhar it describes. It represents an attempt to render in
Greck the Aramaic ~}(ls{1yya) (~syh is Qumranic, no'MJb.
attested in rhe non-Essene Ararnaic Levi Document: ud'
rn!1t1~r' sm ~syh nm !?wl ''Tnh) /'1m, 'and the name of the
devout will llOt be extinguished in eternity'; 4 Q 213<1
3-4 6). The Hebrew hasid that has the same meaning as
the Aramaic ~}'Jsayya' is also fOlllId, as pan of a place
descriptor of the settlerncnt uf Qumran that had at that
time bccn destroYt'd, in a lerter daring to AD ] 34/5 (m$d
'!sydym, 'fortress of the devnut'; Murahbatat 1= Murl
45 6) - alld this tends tu corroborar<: the etymology
suggested (cf.k vo!. 2,16411.
Il. ANCIENT So URCE'
Until modem times the E., as a Jewish religious
P<1rtYl were known to llS only from Greek and Latín
SOllrces (mainly ---+ Philo of Alexandria, Ql10d omnis
probus liber sit 7~-91; Pro Iudaós defensio (Euseb.
Pracp. evang. 8,11; d. Phil. De 'lita contemplativa Oll
rheTherapclltae);Jos. Bl 2,119-r61,Ant, Iud. 18,11
and 18-.u.; Plin. IiN ,),73; Hippolytus., Rcflltatio
9,r8,2-úl,2; orher rextual 50urces in ¡1; 71). 1'h<: pic
70 ES:,ENES
rure emerges of ;] community of about 4,000 people
(Phi!. Quod omnis probus líber sir 7\; Jos. An1. lud.
18,1.0) scatten:d rhroughollr Palesrinc. As wdl as tbe
large number of irs members (cL the Pharisees num
oered abour 6,000), the reporrs mentiouing Essene seer.s
and interprerers of dreams (Jos. El I,78; 2,Il1-l T 3,
Ant. Iud. 13,31I-313; 15,171-379; .l7d45-J48), as w(,ll as the Zcalot military commandcr caílcd 'John the
Essene' (Jos. BI 2,567) confírl11 rbJt th<.: E. were not a
'secr' in the sense of a fringe grollp having no influencc
o]l puhlic life [j<~; ·1') 1. The picrurc emerges Of;lll egJ.li
tarian group (though with a strict lllcrarchlCal s[rUL>
ture) characrcriz<:d by communal propeny, common
work programs, commun<11 meals and tlle idea of pu
riry. According to Jos. Anr. lud. r8,19 (Latin transla
tion and epitomcJj d. Phi!. Qllod omnis prohus liber sit
7-')) the E. did not partidp¡lte in Jerusalcm's sacrifícial
eult:. Moscs, the Tor;:¡h and ~cripruf<11 excgcsi~ (.Jos. Bl 1.,IJ6; 145; 1S2; Phil. QlIOc\ omnis probus liber sit
Ho-82) stood at the centre of Essenc helief. As well ¡lS a branch Jjvin~ in an Illllllarricc1 sta te, Josephlls mentions
a second grollp that ;:¡cceptcd marriage and intcrcoursc
sülcly foc the purpose uf procreation (m 2, [(,o!.). Spir
itually the E. were nored far thelr belief in desriny "nd
the doctrine of dl(' soul's immortality (Jos. Ant. Iud.
[H,J 8; d. '.1,.172; 15>.173, [JI 2,154-' 58). The depic
tion in Philo and Josephus is tendentious and infiucnced
by Grcck attitudc.~ (sce e.g. the dcscription of rhe E. as <1
philosophical school s'imilar to the Pythagoreans: Jos.
Am. lud. 18,1 J). The accoun! by Pliny rhe Elder (HN
5,73) is interesting from a geographieal perspeetive as
he describes rhe E. as a grOl1p settled on the Westcrn
bank of the Dead Se" norrh of 'En Gedi.
The Egyptian group of the Therapeutae described by
Philo in De vita contemplativa may be considered as eirher influcnced by the E. or as Q splinter group of
the E.
C. THE QUMRAN FINDS
Even befare the Qumrau finels, GINZBERG 12 J 1pos
rulated rhar the Damaseus Documenr (~ CD) found in
the -~ Geniza of the Cairo Ezra-Synagogue nod laccr at
~ Ql1mran was Essene in origin [211. The settlemem
<lnd textual fínds ar Qumran were firsr <:lscribed to the E. by SUKENIK 161 (1948). The Esscne origin of pan of the
QunHan MSS is suggesred by rheological concordance
(detcrminarion, life after death, central significancc of the Torah) anel Iifesryle parallcls (communal meals,
purLfying baths, hicrarchieal structure, three-year 'pro
barionary period' for new membcrs, commllnal proper
ry, mOllogamy, no spitring in assembly, oilas carrier of
impuriry; see i.a. liS; 3(,; ;811. Through the porrer),
found there, an ostlnkon recently found in Qumran
[171 and a fl". rhar documents the application of hal
akhic regulations froOl rile comn1L1nity rules of Qumran
(far 4 Q477 see 118]), rhc5errlcmenr ofUírbet Qumr:m
is inseparably línked wirh rhe MSS finds.
The Esscne texrs of Qumran sketch a portrair of radic:1l TorJh-ob.scrvancc, a dualis[je world vis ion ,-lnd
FS'iENF<; 7 1
a commllnJty marked by short-term eschatological
cxpectancy and seeiug ¡tseH as Lhe only legitimate rem
n,-lnt of God's choseo pcople who had by then faUen
inta transgression. In their church scrvices the E. experi
enced communíon with the angels. Tbcir view of histo
ry was based on predestination and on the division of
history imo epochs. The concept of two Ivfcssíabs is intcrcsting from all CSCh:lloJoglc ..d point. of view. A~
well as ro che Davidic Mcssiah, it looked to a priestly
> Mmiah (1 QS IX 11; CD XII 23; XIV '9; XIX lO; 4
Q test; d. CD XX 1) "nd w," pmbably influelleed by
Zach 4. ConsÍsrenr with the norion of being a remnant, tbere
can be found, along with tbe lexeme yahad ('new'), self
descriptive tenl1s like 'pearle of the new covcnant'
(hbryt ¡'¡'dsh; en VI '9; VIII 2.1; XIX 3i; XX l2; "1' plying ro all ear!ier stagc uf the f.) or simp!y 'the lraguc'
(hhryt; c.g. 1 (~S I r B.20.¿4 ami passirn). BeLansc uf the
lee)' importancC:.' of duali!-illl and ~ eschatology the
Qumran com!11ul1lry has been repearedly charactcril.cd
as apocalyptic (secc.g.ll.í; 2.2.]), however the complete
abscncc of apocalypses in the Essene rcxts arglles
against rhis (d. 1'4; 33; 3 \ 1). The central role of Torah
ohscrvancc, the rheme uf purity aml calendary isslIes, as
weU as 1:IJ(, grcilr il1lportancl::: of rhe pri<:sts, aH sllggest
instead rhar rbe E. wcre a group determÜlcd by pricsts.
That if> shown especially clearly lJl 1 QSa 11 11-2.2.
whcrc, in the eschatological assemhly of God's coml11u
nity, the priests cake precedellce over rhe Messíah both
01'1 entry ami dllring 11ll' meal. It may finally have ~:d.<;(J
bren a conscquCIlL'C of dw pricf>t!y infhll'llcc on rhe
Fsscne community that it adhcn.:d ro the ohl, solar cuit
calendar that had not hern in use sincl' the ~ Haf>mo
naean period ~for rhe dífferent solar and luniso!ar ("alen··
dan; in the 'astrollolllical book of Enoch' ¡astr En :::: 1
llen 72-B21, 'llook orJl1bilees·l.Jl1hl and the calendar
texts from qllIDran see lB; 27, vol. l. 53fLI).
Esscne tcxts are regarded essenrially as scriprnr<-11 ex·
egesis: rwo of the most import~nt commllniry rules (for
rhe Essenl' ~ J-'-Ialalcha sec r29; 3 [1) bear rhe title mdrs {h }tUJl'h lJ'f)nun ('definitivc cxcgcsni oí rhe Torílh'; sec in
the Oamasclls Documenr :rvrss frolll Cavcrn 4: 4 QIY
11 2Of. par 4 QLY 7 II 1 \) and mdrs lmshyl '1 'Ilsy htwrh bmtndhym lhsyb mkl 1" wlhhzyq hkl 'sr ,wh 'Direetions
for the instructor for aH men of the Tora h who ha ve
dedicated themselves ro ("11m frol11 evil and ro c1ing fasr
to evcrything rllat he has con'lDlanded'; sec in the MSS
ofcommunity rules from Cavcrn 4: 4 QSh 51 par 4 QSd
1 r t). The cornmunity's histQry and its cschatological
hupes afe dcpicted in conseclltÍve interprerations üf the
texts of the prophets and oí the psalms (consecutive
peshJrim) 01' in interpret;Hions (Jf thematically com
piled written quotations (tbem;1tic peSb'H'lm). Both thc
matic and consecutive resharim were dlUS regarded as
inspired and eapahle of scriptllraJ exegesis only jn fol
lowing the 'teacher (Jf ¡llstice' (1 QpHab Il "-1 1; VII 3-5). The Essenes also tcnJed to eompose their poetic
liturgic.lllitet'<:lturc fro!11 quot;ltjons from, and alluslolls
tu, rhe Scripturcs ( ). Exegesis)
72.
D. H¡STORY
(For the 11lstnry of the E. see 134; ,~\; '3]): The ao
cient accounts abollt the E., the excavations aml tlle
Esscne texts from Qumran allow a sketchy reconstrl1C
tíon of the Esscne movement. The main li[crary sources
are the 5horr outline of nrigins in CD I Sff. and thc
eschat<llogical t'c;llization of Bíblical texts in the history
uf the E. tbrough Pcsarin,:.: After the Macc<lbean Jorra
than, following the Hdlcnisric bigh priests Jasoll,
Menelausl Alcimus and ;:m interim predecessot whose
n.1Il1t' has not sllfvlvrJ (on th;:Jt ~T(' 1, 'i )), W;\S ;1ppointcll
high priest in J.5 2. Be ([ M<.lcc 10,15-21), his predeees
sor left rhe Temple with a followi.ng f1'o01 tbe pricsdy
group and joined a Chassidic rriestly group callillg
itse1f 'the new covcnant'. Thar group prohably leh thc
Temple 20 yeal'S earlier;H the time of tlw so-ealled Hel· lenisric rcligiolls rdorms. From tb<: 1111ion of the two
grouJls there devcloped the Esselll~ cOlnlllunity (rhe rtlct
that Josephus mentiolls the E. fol' the firsr time c1uring
Jonath<1D's rcgime, in Ant. lud. r, 1 171-- , 7 ~, would
sllpport thar his[oncal gencsis; d.[1 ! 1). The CHiS l'-S for
the J 52 Be: schism werc rhe lunar calendar lIseJ by
Jonathan and the faet th;1t he W;;lS 11m an OniaJ ;lllJ
thus !lot of the ptic.'itiy family that alone was snpposcd
ro provicic tlw hig:h priest. In the Essenc tcxts of (~lHn
ran, Jonathan's predecessor ís dcscrihed only as 'tcJch
er of jllstice'. The doctrinal songs thar he cOl1l\1osed in
the [Jodayot and rhe aCCollnt in I (~pl-Iah XI 4-H, ¡.'I., document rhe cünflicts :'lIld crises associ;Hcc\ with the
schism. Tbe Saddllce;lll rcligiolls P;ll'ty developcd larcr
froll1 those pricsrs WllO staYl'd wit"h rhe Templc.
Quite soon ;:¡[rer rhe creation uf the E. a dispute arosc
over the cnrrcct illt('rpret~tí()n nf the '1'01';111. Under Lhe
Ieader whom the E. cal1cd a 'man uf dcrision' and 'm¡JIl
of Jies\ a grollp split off frotn thc E. They werc
dcscribed as tllOsc 'who interpret aiming for smooth
thíngs' ('51' dr,( !Jhlqwt or dwrsy hlqwt, eD I 18 ¡¡nd
fJassim). As the tenn involves a play on wonls 0\1 tlJc
eemral beliefs of Pharisaism (> Halakhah ami
). Mídr;:¡sh) and as the group so described was in 4
(~pN<lh )-4 I 6f. connected with rhe persccmion of
Pharisees hy > Alexander 116] lanoaeus [301, rhe
schism rnentioned in en I rúf. may weJlluve brollghl
ahollt the birth of Pharisalsm.The halakhie and c"¡eo~
dary ísslles of contention with the Pharisees were im
pressively set Ollt in an carly 1etter from rhe Essene com
mnnity to the high priest in Jerusalem (4 QMMT),
As attested by the allcient sources in their rcports of
the Essene movement having 4,000 members (see
ahove), the E. Ljulckly developed into a relatively large
religious party wbose influence should in no way he
underestim<1ted (d. 1,6; 1') 1)· Srructural precnnditions
in Qnmran, [he (s('veral~) cllcampments mentioncd al
el) VII 6 (and pass;'n). Philo (QlIod omnis pro bus liber
sit 75) and.Josephu .... (Bl L,124 AnL lud. 18,T9) suggcst,
Jl1 contrast to Pliny (HN 5,T7) thett ['he Essene l11ovc
ment was not restrictcd tD the settlcmcnt <lt QunHan or
the Dead Sea. In eXC1vdtions at 'En d-Ghuwcir, HiClm
el-Sagha amI Jerusalem, graves have ber[l fOllnd
7J
re~embling those in the cClllctcries oE Qumran, tims pOll1tmg to Essene settlements ollts¡de Qumran l39J.
Lltrlc LS known of the furt:her coutse of ESSéllt' !listory.
Rderence to the persecurion of Pharlsees by the Has·
monean rulcr Alexal1der [161 bnllaeus (4 QpNah 3-4 I M. I, together with a fr. interprcted as an undelivered
message of grcetings ro I1m1 (4 Q44S), makes ir possiblc
th<1t rhCIT was a rapprochement with rhe Hasll1<mac,llls
during IliS period in afhee (10,-7" BC). The legendary
aecount of an F:.'s predicl'ion of Herod the Great's ruJe
(Jos. Ant. luJ. 1')'.37 S--.' 7N) cUllld hint at jJ(jlirical influ
cnce O!l that klllg. Thc cnd of the Fs~ene Olovement can
prohably be set during the Isrjcwish War (AD 60-7001'
74) - the archaeologieal fil1ds at Qumran and the
account of Essene martyrs in Jos. Bl 2,1 .52.f. both pnjnr
to rilat. The fact that a Zealot milir:lry coml1l<lndcr was
ca!lec! lohn the Essene (Jos. BI 2,\67), togetllCr with
ROl11an PLTSCCUtÍOIl of the E., makes it not Ilnproh;lblc
that the E. took P:H't 111 the Ze,llot liberation struggle.
The E" who Wl'l'C actllally p;)cifisl, would thu~ have
SCLll it as the final struggle, describt:d in the rule of war,
against the powers of darkness. Wherher remnants of
the Esscne movcment werc absorbed iuro early Christi
anity aod Rahbinícal 1mbism LS "matter of eontentioll
but cannor ll(' rulnl OUl ;lltogcthcr.
F.J)ITlnN~: ! A.AIIAM, (;'1, BIJHU-IAIW, Ant. Hcric!l(, übcr die I'-,., ~1971. 2 K.BEYEH, Die aram. Texte vom 'I(llTll )\·1I.:cr, vol. 1--2., l')g4-1~94 .1./.11 CIlAIUF.... WOHTII (cd.), The Prmcel'on Theolngícal SClllinary Dcad Sea Scrolls PrnjccL, vol. 1fr., TInl n. 4 Discovcril's in rht: .!ude:lIlIJescr\, vol. [ff., I~) HE!. (:::o IlJD 1 H.) .'i F. (;AR cíA MARTiNE/., E.J, c:. 'l'1(;CIIELAAR, The Dc,td Sea Scrolls Stlldy LditiOI1, VOIS.l·-1" !9~)7/H (, F.I .. SUKENIK, Tlle Dcad Sea Scrolh of the l'lchrew University, 19S5 (Hchr. 1948) 7 e;. VERMES, M. D. (;OODMAN, The F'iscnes Ac· cording ro rhe Classical'soUfces, 1989. l.n¡,',HATUltF: 8 M.ALBJ\NI, Zur Rckonstruktioll cLnes vcrdrangte.n K(¡nzcpts: Dcr 364-Tagc-Kalende~ U.1 dcr~
gegenwarIlgcn Forschung,w: Id. et al. (ed.L Stuches 111 the Book of JlIbilees, J 997,79-12.5 9 T. S. l.h~i\lL, ]osephus' de,<;Cfiptions of the E~scnes illllstnltcd by thl' 0(':](1 Sea SLrolls, 198H 10 R.BEIH;MEfEll, Die Esscllcr-Benchte ucsFbviusJoscphus, 1993 1J O.BETL,S.V.E.ulldThe~
rapeurell, TRE JO, ~86-391 12 CH. BUHCl-IARD, BibJiogr. Zl1 den Hss. WHll Toten Mecr, vol. 1-2., ] 957-19úS 13 PH. R. C\l.LAWAV, 1'he His[()ry of rhe Ql1mran CommunitYl 1988 14 J.CARMIGNAC, Qll'cst-ce que PApo· calyprl'qlle? Son emploi ú Qlllllnln, in: Revue de Qumran 10, llj79-19HT, 3-B 15 J.]. COLLlN~, Apocalypricism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, J997 16 F. M. CItOS:>, lhe Ancicnt Library of Qumran, .11995 17 F. M. CHOSS, E. EsHU., OstraC:l from Khirher Qllmr6.n, Ill: IEJ 47, 1997, J 7-2.8 18 E.Fsl-IEL, 4Q477: Thc Rcbukcs by rhe Overseer, in: Joufllal nf ]ewish Stlldies 45. T994, 11 r-f22
19 1-·1.-J. Ftd~HY, s.v. QUlllran, NCLlCS Bibdlexikon, in pnllt 20 F. G1\RCÍA MARTíNEZ, D. W. PAltHy, A Bíbliography of the Finds In che Desert of Judah 1970-95, 1996 21 LGINzIH·:n(;, Fine unlwkannre jüd. Sárc. 1922 22. M.Hl·N(;Fl,[lIdclltUJl1 lInd Hellefll~ml1'i, ':'1'-)7")
23 B.JONGLLlNC" A Classificu Bihliography' of rhe FinJ ... jn rhe Desen of }udah 19'iR-'T969, r97T 24 A.LANCE, H.LlCHTFNIWRC;I:.R, s.,' Qlllllran, TRE l~. 4')-79
25 W' S. I.ASüR, Bibljo~r<lpby of the Dead Se:] Scrolb
[."TATE l-\F(;ISfER74
194H-19'J71 (958 26 E.I.(JH"E, Die Tcxre allS Qumran, ¡T9<~1 27 ¡.MA1L',R, Die Qllmr:m F.: Die-- Textt' vom Toten Meer, vol. 1-3,1995/6 2fl .1.'1'. MILlK, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness 01.! lH.iaea, 1959 29 L. H SUIIFF¡vlAN, The Halakhah al Qumrall, 1975 30 Id., Pharisees and SadJucees in Pesllcr Nahum, in: M.BRErr" LER, M.fISI--lBANE (ed.), Min~ah le-Nal.1aulll, FS Naburn M. Sarna, 199"), 272.-2YO JI Id., Reclaiming the De,lJ Sea Suoll .... 1994 12 Id..111U J. C. VANDEltKAM (~d.),
Eucydopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2000 .B H. STEGE"
MANN. Die Bed. der Ql1mr;lnfullde filr die ErfrH'schung del' Apoblvprik, 111: D. Hn J,JlOI M (ed.), Ap(1GdyptlCl~1ll IJl
rhe Iv!edirerranean World <lile! lhe Ncar Fasl, '1989, 4') 'iS30 34 Id., Die Enrstehung ucr Qumrangcmeinde, rhesi ... Bonn [971 JS Id., Die Es!:ocncr, l'¿urnran,JohanJ1cs uel Taufer und Jcsus, "1994 36 Id., The Qumran EssenesLoc~J Melllbcrs of tht Maín Jewisb Ullion ín Late Second 'fcmpk Times, in: l TUl'.lWLJ.E BAHREHA, L. VLC;AS I\.luN"
TANER (ed.), The Madrid (Jumr<tn Congrcs.'i, (9Y2., l-!1"
166 17 (;. STl~MBI'.l((;El(, PhansátT, SadJllzacr, F' l , 9L) t
Hl J. C. VANDl'nJ(AM, Tlll' Dcad Sl:~ Scrolls Toeby, 1l)94 39 B. ZISSU, sLlh 'c¡brym hp'V-!rym' hhyt ~PP' - 'uwr 'rky'wlwgyr lqhyit 'Y':lyym?, in: A. FAIJ,;r {('d.), Nl'W SrllJles on JerllfOalcm. Procecclings of thc Sccond Confer l'llCe, J 99ó, 32.-40. ¡\IU
Estate register In contr;)Sr ro Lhe ~ bnd register rhar
existed - probably hased on Jn Old Egyptiall modcll JI - in PtolcT1laic and Roman Egypt (and, Ll'l <tntiquity,
possibly only thcre) as ,1 safcguard for priv;]cc property
trans,lCtions, the prim.1ry purpose of esta te regisrcrs
(ER) JI1c\ similar registers was the levy of Iand !.1xes as
wdl as the admlnisrratioIl uf sLatt' leases. Thus, <11mosr
inevitahly, r¡wy werl' JUSi as widesprcad a:"¡ those very
fonns of stat"C ¡ncome. A prereljlli..,ítc for staning Llp archives or books with record:;- of the sizc and location
of properries is <1 knowledge of sllrveying tcchniqucs
iJlld tbe ;wailability uf <1 profc.ssioll 01 ~ sUl'vcyors.
Howcver, We lack a c\irect tr<lnsmission nf an EH.
(tórma) for allcLent Rome z1l1d ltaly where OUI' knowl
edge of this profession is by far rhe bese From a much
earlier period a so-caBed 'estllte register-texr' of
Urnamml1 (rule1'ofUr in Mesopotamia 21 11-2.094 Be) mentions ('he precisely sllrvcyed district borders of his
kingdom. In oth('t respeets as well, EH. werc app(lr~!lrly
widcspread in Mesopotam.ia and possibly even in gen
er"luse [2. 571. ER in Egypt are treated i.u. 111 the 'Offi
cial rcgubrions for rhe vizjer' from the middle of rhc
2nd nüllennium Be r5 j. According ro it the mosr senior
official in the whole kingdol11 had the respoosibility.
amongsr otber things, for proceedings concerning
fields l checking the survey reslllts and administering rhe
ER and bounci;,uy maps. At first glance it is thercforc aH
rhe more Jstounding thar tl'chnical evidencc of an ER is
eomplctcly lacking fol' rhe Ptolemaic pniod in Egypt.
That is precisely rhe reason th;::Jt the land regisrer (bihll-Othélul enkt2seón) was origillally rcgarded as an EH.
(d. also 13.751). In the Ptolemaic periodl ho\,¡vcver, a
st'pararc ER may have bccn snperfluülls, as on rhe one
h3Jld rhe authorirles cOllld access the bnd regt.srer dt
<1(1)' time and on the other hand, becau'>c (lf a spec1fiL'
QUIRINU~ ,59
Quirinus [1] Roman deity A. NAME B. OR1GIN AND FUNCTlON e. CULT
A.NAME The etyrnology of the name (Q. from ,¡. co-uir-inus as
with ¡.- Quirites from ", co··uirites, 'the roraliry of the
citizens') makcs its bearer rhe prorecror of rhe Roman
cirizenry. The age and importance of Q. afe documcll-· ted by the mention of hi~ (lamen ( ". J-,'lmnines) in founh
pm,itioll of rhl' pricstly hicrarchy ( ¡. l{ex sil(J'orum)
transmitrcd 10 fesr. 299 f. 1.. Nevcrthelcss, his narure remains opaque: Bis origin is connected with the
iounding of the eity of Romc anel the first Roman eitizenship; however, beca use Q. was equared with rhe deified >Romulus [1.], probably from the 3n:l eent. IIC, rhe original identity nf the god was hl11rrcd.
B. ORJ(;IN AND FlJNC'L'ION
Thc llames of thc rhn~e {Lamines maiores (Dia/is,
Martialis, Quirinalis) have kd to the gods ¡.lllppirer, p Mars and Q. (who are associated with them by
name) bcing scen as an archaic triad, which is sllpposed 1·0 have beeu subsequently repbecd by the Capitoline rr¡~ld (luppitcr, .~ luno and • i\J[inerva) [ l. 2<~ l. llow· cvef, rhe inrerpretation uf I"his 'original triad' has
changecl ovcr 1:he eourse of the 1.oth CC11I:. [n the i st half
of rhe cent., a Jualistic model of rhe scttlemenr of Rome predominared (d. Iz.. J .~o6, J 309-.[.) 12.1): In rhe early period o{ Romc ( • Romc 1.), the ¡. I..ariui from the Palatinc ane! 'Romulus' introducce! thcir gods, JBlong
whom luppiter held the highest tank, whilc the ,Sabini ftom the Quitinal, the 'Hill of Q.', btOught
theirs, including Q.; mOfeover, aecording ro the Iiterary rradirion, ..~ Numa Pompilius stcmlllcd from Cures,
trom the name of which sorne ancicnt erymoJogists detived Q. This model leaves the quesrion of Mms, the
legendary father of Romullls, opell. For some hisrorians, Mars was the Latin, Q. rhe Sabinc god, whik
luppitet >toad above the whoIe. G. DUMÉZIL [3] suggested a complercly diffeJ'enr inrcrpreration of rhe rriad of gods: aeeotding to his global hypothesis of a funetionaJ rhrce-way divü;ion in lndo-European societies, he
saw Q. as the god of material prosperity, whieh faeilitatee! the life of the eitizenry. However, the Iron Age finds of recenr decades in LatiuIl1 have rehabilitated thc assumption oí a mixeJ settlcment of Rorne in the early period; rhis also supports rhe rhesis of rhe ropographic roots of rhe different cults in che separate regions of
Rome (el. 14; 5. 73-801). In the historieal era, Q. is the god of rhe polítieal
organizarion of the Roman cirizens in one of their divisions, rhe -l· cU1"iae, whosc name ('~ co-uiria) c1early
shows the rclatíonship ro rhe godo The assimilation of
ROJ11ulllS, the deified foundC'f of rhe city, \Virh Q. can also he berter undersrood wirb r!lis in mine!. The rcla
tionship of Q. ro Nlars, particularly the role of each as war gocl, was alrcady discussed ín anriquiry (Li\',
5152,7; Dion. Hal. Anr. Rom. 2..,48,2; Fes!. 238 L.; d.
360
[2. 1306-1309J;-> SaIii [2]). Servius ptoposed a division oi power (Serv. Aen. 6,8\9 f.; cf. 1,1.9'.): Q. is a Mars who guards peaee and is hononred wirhin rhe city,
while rhe war god Mars receives a culr oursiJe the city. On the other hand, 16] sees Q. as a god who appeared only after rhe emergen((~ of rhe urbs in order to ensure
its proteetion (custodia), while Mars was the protecror of rhe ager Rotntllws, OH which war was often ncccs
sary; thus, Q. is not, as l3J hol"s, the protector of the carrIc and fields who guaranteed rhe materiallifc of the Rornans, bccallsc he did no[ lcavc the urhs.
C. CULT Q. had several sancruarics in Rome: I-Jis main temple
srnod on rhe ¡. NIons Quirinalis, in rhe neighbourhood
of sanctuarics of Sabine deities ([ 7. '39-' 44; 8]; cf. [') 1). The festival of the god, the Quitina lia on 1. 7 Feb
nwry, tell on the "ame day as tile festival of the > Fornacalia, bur rhe two wcrc not l'Olllrningled; the Quirinatia, which do not have an agraria n characrcr, was a fesrival of the [uriac.
1 C;.'W¡SSOWA, Hcl.ig,ion und Kulnls del" Hümn, 1 1912
2 CKOCJI, <;. v. Q., RE :';'-4, 1306-IV.1 3 DUMÍ:ZIl.
4 C. AMPOJ.O, L:1 nascit'<l de1L1 citt<'¡, in: A. MOMT(;L1ANO,
!\.SC!IIAVONI'. (ell.), Sm]"iil di l{oma, vol. 1, IlJH8, 151
180 S l.l CnRNEU., 1'he Ikg,innings of Rornc, 1995 (, A. MM;J.)ELAIN, De la royaurl' cr du Jroir Jc ROllmtus a Sabinus, (99)" 7 A.ZIOLKOWSKl, The ·Icmp1cs of MidRcpuhliC<\ll R{une, 1.992 B F.COAltELLl, s. V. Q., acJcs, l:rUR4,IH)"·-IH7 l)ld.,s.v.Q.,:-.acdlllJ"Il,ITl.JR4, 18 7·
A.nu'
[2] (Kugí'voS; Kyrínos). Sophisr frorn Nicomcdia 1 born
about AD "70 (?), student of >Hadrianus [l.], whose work he may have edited (cf. Philostr. VS 2,29,621). Philostralus [5-81 praised his powerful oratory ami his
lack of greed and sclf-asscrtion as an aduocatus fisci (probably under Septimius Sevcrus and in an eastern províncc); Philostrarus quotes bons mot;s but no spe
eches, and notes that Q. died aged 70. PIR Q 55. ¡. Second Sopbistic E.no.
13] Rhetor of the 4th eenl". AD from Antioehia, known only from Libanius. He held high-Ievcl administrative offiees, was probably governor in Lycía, Pamphylia and Cyprus (Lih. Ep. 366); he declined the offiee of a prae
(ectus Galliarum in 355 (386,6f.1. His son Honoratus
studied with Libanius (300, 3'0, 366). In 163, Q. retired ro bis esta tes in Cilicia ancl died there approxi
mardy ane year later (I 24 3; 13°3; 1327).
PLRE 1, Quirinus M.W.
Quirites P01mlus !\(J1né111US Quirdes (or, [;:¡ter, Quiri~
ttum) was rhe officiai rerm fur rhe Roman cirizenry. Ir contaills rbe name of the ciry (Romanus) and rhat ofthe
> IJOpu/uS (Quirites), as Wilh >Ardea (Ardeates
RutuLz) ane! ~ Lavinium (Laurelltes Lavinates), where
the name oi the city stood alongsirie that of the people living rhere. Thé singular form, Quiris, snrvives only in
arehaie formulae (Fest. 304' ol/us Quirís).
3 (;1
The erymalogical derivarion of the rerm is sri11 displlted. The Romans themselves wishcd ro separare Quirites neither from rhe god --¡. Quirinus nor the Quirinal
HiII ( ,Mons Quirinalis), and attributed the double term to the fllsion of the Sabine eommunity (~.> Sabini) on the Quirinal with the Palatine eity of Rome (Fest.
304). Both the Hamo of the Sabine eity' Cures and the name Juno Curis or Quiris atresred rhere ilnd elscwherc
eould fit sueh a Sabine etymology (derivation fmm Cures already in Varro, Ling. )",) 1; d. also Varro in
Dion. Hal. 1\nt. Rom. 2.,48 ane! [1]1. Others derive the word from ':·co-uirites, which could mean 'aUmen' 01"
'en tire eommllnity' r,.. l.17ff.l.
1 W.EI.SENI-IUT, s. v. Qlliris, Q., Curis, Cur(r)itis, RE 24, 1.")24-1 3~ ~ 2 P. Krtl~)·~cIIMJ~R, Lar. Q. und quiritare,! in: Glorta 10, 191.0, -1<17-1.'i7 .1 A.PJtOSlJOCIMI, Curia, (~.
e il sistema di Qllirino, in: ()srraka 5, 1996, 24.'1-3 J 9. IU,A.
Quiza. City in ¡. Maurcrania Caesariensis, northcasr
of Portus [5] Magnus on thc right bank of the OucJ
Chclif (Plin. EN 5,I9: Q. Cenital1a; Ptol. 4,2,3: Ko\iil;", xOAwvLa/l(oúi"za koLó11íaj 1t. Anr. J. 3,9: Q. municif)ium), l1lodern El-Bcnian. J)uu1nlJih are attested for
AD 'L8 (ClI. VIII 2, 9697); there is also l1I.ention of a disp(uIlctorl reíp(ub/icae) Q(uizellsium) ('eomptroller
of the eity of Q.', CIL VIII 2, 9699). Inseriptions: CIJ.
VIn 2, 9697-97°3; suppl. 3, 2J 5 r4f. Significant ruins survivc.
AAAIg, !ea[ 11, no. 1.; P. CADENAT, Q. ct' Milla "., in: Libyea 2, 19.~4, 243-248; I-1.TREIDLER, s.v. Q., RE 24,
T.33"1· W.lHJ.
Qurncsh see ~ Comisenc
Qumran
1. HrSTORY 01.' FlNDS 11. SETrt.EMENT IlI. SURROUNDING AREA 1V. NATURE AND fUNCTlON OF
THE SETTLEMENT
1. HlSTORY 01' FlNDS
Thc settlcmcnt of Q, on rhe norrhwest shore of the DeaJ Sea, c. 20 km sourheast of --~ Jernsalenl, rcceives
its na me from Wiid¡ Q., at the end of whieh it Iies. After Bedouins diseovered rhe first scrolls in nearby caves in
1947, the settlement of Q_ itself was excavated in a roral
of five ca,mpaigns, 1951-1956 [11; 28; 29; 30; 3d, and digs and surveys have been carried our very recendy 15; 1.8; 24; 26J. The l::lirbat Q. site essentially eonsists of tbree eomponenrs: a IOO m x 80 m building complex,
three ccmeterics and nUlllerous caves, sorne artificial and SOlne narural, in nearby and broadcr environs.
11. S¡'TTLEMENT
The c~1fliesr settlement al I:lirbat Q. dares bcfore rhé Exilie Periori (Iron Age 11). The rectangular bll.ilding, with a forccourt and a large ronnd cistcrn (d. sire plan), resembles lsraelire fortresses in the Negcv dnd the
~ 67~ QUMRAN
Judaean desert. Tbc ceramies date from rhe 8th cent. Be t'O rhe heginning of rhe 6rh. This dassificarion is confirmeJ by a Im/k-seal impression (/m/k = 'for the king')
and a palaeo-Hebrew osrrakon, rhe wriring on which dates to the late 7th or eady 6th eent. Be. The !ron Age sire could have been part of a ring of fonifieation built
by Uzziah (790-740) and is ealled S'·kaka in Jos l 5: 6]
(ei. 3 Q'5 IV '3; V 2·5-'31 [II. Hirbat Q. experienced irs mosr intensive sertlernenr
in d~c Graeco-Roman Periodo Accordinp; to M llrabha \l! 45,6 the pL.lcC Wá::; calleJ lvl"~(/(i !JilSídi1l (Aramaic, 'fort of the devout') in this periodo Phase la is hard to date beca use of irs short c1uration and rhe paucity of ceram~
ies, scarcely distinguishable from finds in subsequenr strata. Essenrialiy, rhe L'arlier building remains WC'rc llscd and rwo mOre cisterns WCfe added to rhe lron Age
one. Phase lb was originally dat"cd ro the reign of
>Hyrcanus 121 I (J 3.\/4--l04 BC) [29], yiclding a beginning for Phase la in rhe time of.Jonarhan (T 60-J 4L
Be) or Simon ( '42-J 3514 BC). Re-interpretation ohhe numismatic aud ceramic fincis, howcver, makes ir mOJ"e
likely that the beginning of building (Phase la) dates to the period of Hyreanus I and the beginning of Phase lb
to the reign of >Alexander [¡6J.1annaeus (1.03-76 Be) [3; 27]· The insrallation rhen grew to its greatcsr exrent
"l>.()f c. J.oo m x 80 lll. Ir consistcd of a main building with a massive tower (site plan no. 2), internal courtyard ancl
comIllunal rooms; to tbe south there was a large assembly room (no. 9), whieh aIso sl'rvee! as a diniug hall, wit"h an annex wherc more than 1,000 piecL's of crock
ery were found (no. lO). Southcast of the assem.bly room there wcrc rwo pottery workshops (no. 6) ane! a
firing oven (no. 7). A huilding wcst of tbe central couftyard consisted of a further internal courryard ane! st'Orerooms. Betwccn the t\'Vo buildings lay tbe three cisterns from Phase la and workshops. In ae!dition, furrher cisterns and several miqua)ot (rirual baths) and a eOlTI
plex water installation (no. 14) were found. In the arcas around the building animal loanes (mostly of sheep and
goats, but also oxen) Came tO Jight. The end of Phase lb is marked by earthquake damage anel traces of fire. DE
VAUX [29J has interpreted them in the eontext of the
great carthqllake of 3"1 Be (.Jos. An!. ludo 1 S,5,1.-1 22; Jos. BI 1.,1.9>3-370). MAGNESS [I7! has shown, however, based cm a re-evaluarion of rbe numismatic finds,
that the fire can be set no eadier than 9/8 Be.
Tbe coin finds show rhar rhe sertlement was nor rehuilt until under ,Herodes [31 ArcheIaus (4 BC - AD 6) (Phase 1I). The building and its disposition hardly altered. The inkweIls and the 'writing desk', whieh have
becorne famoos, are from this periodo The size of the
large assembJy room in the somh of rhe eonlplex sug·· gests rhar rhe population of rhe sertlerncnr in Phases lb
and II was about 200. The faet that the latest Phasc II
coins date to the 3rd year of the first Jewish War (AD 68) whereas thc earliest Roman coins are from the years
AD 67-68 and rhar in this period Romall troops werc stationed inJericho IJos. Ant. ludo 4,8,7, § 433) Ieads to the deduetion that the settlement of Q. was destroyed
QUMlZ¡\¡"¡ ;6) 36;364 Vi6 QUl\1RAN
r-- -----..- ...--.-..- ..- ..-.--.. by Roman troops 1lI AD 68_ A smaL! part of the settlc
mCI1t' was sllbsequently rebuilt as aRoman garrison
(Pha,e UI), Becduse rhe latest COITIS from this phase date .~ ro AD 72.-73, the garrison may hav0 been withdrawn e o .~ ~
again after the conquest of the fonress of. Masada. ~ ~ ~ On the basis of hnds of coins fmm the secolld Jewisb O 8 8 ~ E" e
War the rnins were used in this period by .lewish resist_ -€~:e
ancc groups as a hiding-place. ~ i3.. tl.O[~~ i _ ~ ·6 E-62 O" Q;
u «l e111- SUR[(OUNDING AntA
hnrnedi<11cly adjaccIH ro ,h(' budding comp1cx thercHU hUí wae ccmeterics, a main OllL' (e. [, j 00 gra ves) and two o ~ rol Ir,<'1 '1 \(1 ~ secondary ones (each 1 5-30 gr~lVcs) t"hesc latter, ac
cording to the most reccnt studics) o[ more recCnt date
and of Bedouin origin L14 In all, 5 J graves [2 J; 26; '-9 [ ha\'t becn opened. The hcads o[ [he eorpses are all urí
~
enred ro the sOllth. Thc hodies themsclvcs lie in graves
1.2--1.0 m Jeep undcr rhe l'astcrn wall in a hollow cm'·· o
·00 ;¡J cred with stonc ~labs. SOlllt: graves cOlltained more thnn
onc skcleton. WhCfl';lS ir W~lS original1y assulTled that~~
1: apan [rOln <l IHImher of eXl'eptions around the edgc, ~ only rnen 's skcletons were hurieci in the main (l'mereryeS ji [29.1, more recenr anthropological studics of rhe skel
ctons have shown that Women anrl children wcrc not~~l~jL~
buricJ oill)' in the sccondary CClTlctcrics. C;ravé 2..4 ('ven
<lO eontaillcd the skclctons of borh aman and ;] W01l1311
\l) [21]. Nonc of the lIlost reccntly investig;][ed skelerons Cl ~
.~ u x belonged to individnals who had carned their livings by -.. 00 ~
I ~~ pbysieall,lbolJr [2 J j. Ccmcteries with the same type of
grave h:1VC brell founcl not only in 'Ain al~(juwair,~ ~.~ ~
O UJ E E J::Iiyam al-Saga, Jericho (Tall al-Sultán) ami in rhe southO I OJ ~
~ ~t---- ';;;"~~ of modcrn Jerusalcm (Rait ~afafa) 1 r; 2; 9; 13; :.u.; 331,ti ~~~ ~~~ but are known aIso from thc Nab3tacan rcgion in the
1St an<1 2nd cents. AD (lJirh:.n Qa¡sun, al-Faifa) andi ji~~~~i~
possibly t)irhat Sakina and al-Had¡ta) [19; w]_ lJnlikeE ~18 ~~~.§
:::J c·~,-·~~~:g the Q, sitcs, in a small nurnber of the graves of HirhatO ~:i~oaus:
Qaisün there are grave goods (jewellery and "dOCll
ments) and five tornbstoncs. In rhe cnurse of cxca vati
on8 in the neighhourhood of Q., DE VAUX found sorneJI ~ e 11 40 ollce-inhabitcd cJ.ves, with the ceramics of 2.7 caves
corrcsponding 1'0 Q.'s ensemble o[ ceramics and, with
some probability, having becn made there [29- 54 LI_ Ir was in eleven of thesc caves that the Q_ MSS were found
- mostly by Bedouills and rarely by areh.1eologists (~> Dead Sea (textual findsl; ~, Esscnes)_ Some caves
were artificiaUy knocl<t'd. into the mar! terraces of Wadi
Q- (e.g_, 4 Q; S Q; 7 Q; 8 Q; 9 Q; lO Q)_ Later exeavations found further caves and the rcm<.1ins of a tcnt
(118] and H. ESHEI. in [24]), which shows that the char
acteristic living quarters wcrc t'ssentialIy caves and ~ tents. Besidcs thc ceramic finds) 311 ostrakoll very rec
--:/ ~~-.::::---- rt\ emly found in Q_ 151 and a fragll1C11r showing tiJar regu
z-....,¡( lations from the community rules (1 QS; -4 QS'\-I; 4
QD'-h; S QD; 6 QD) of Q_ (for 4 Q477 see [8]) had been1~;Íi~~~'~ ~
transfened there also prove rhe connexion between the:~~" / caves and tbe serrJemcnt.'>/ " -~
4~C:! //? CAín Fasl]a: At 'Ain Fas~al ahout 3 km to the south
• ., of Q., a courtyanl wirh workshops \Vas found: a build
ing, to which a pen and a shcd to the south :.llld basins Ll1
an enclosure ro rhe north werc conncctcJ.
IV. NATURE AND FUNCTION 01' TEL:. SFTTLE
MENT
The rationaJe of the settlement at (~. has bcen under
srood varioLlsly as that of a military fortress [7i IoL a
villü rustica 16J, an Esscnc cult sire built in a Hasmo
naean villa 11 LJ, an Essene fine leather tannery and
serol! faetory [27], a Zadokid splinter group's sehonl
illg centre 12. sI ( • Z<.lJok 1 sons of) Jnd a fortified cus
toms statinn \\,it'h assoeiated road house and integrated
haspiee [4J- On tbe otber haud, the col!ection of exeeedingly sobre lTr;ll1lics I J h 1and the WJLer instalhtiolls
which, e.g., in comparison to thc Hasmonaean-Hero
dian uillae uf .Jericho, were obviously orientcd 3t the
purity rcquircments of a religiolls comrnunity l171 c!C3rly indicare th3t the rationalc for Ihe setdf'lllent ,-H
Q. W3S for it to serve as [·he centre of ;¡ rdigiOlls COIll
mnnity, Llsing m least some of thc caves for homes and a lihLUY· Tile transfn, rccordcd by 4- Q4T7, o.f thc como tllunity rules in rhe scttkmcnt of Q. speak to dwt Sl'tt
lcmcnt's Ess('nc char;lcrcr ( ~ EssenesJ (communis opi
nio, esp. [27; 2.9]). Thc cemctcrics of 'Ain al-c';uwair,
Ij.iyam al-Saga and .Jericho make furrher Essene settlc
meuts aroulld Q_ likely; f¡nds at naif SafMa poiut to an
Essene settlemcnt in JerusalcOl. Thc Nabatacan paral"lds COLtlel point ro Nahara('Jn cultural inflllcncc on tbe
Essene l11ovcment, pDssibly through mCmbl.TS from thc
Nabatacan diaspora, nnd this could be confirmed by
the Nabataean mannseripts 4 Q23S and 4 Q343
~ Dead Sea (texrual fillds); > Essenes (with map)
I P. BAR-Au( )N, Another ScttlemcrH of che Judeill1 Dcsl.·lt Scct at En-c\-Ghuwdl' 011 che Sho1'cs of the Dead Se<ll in: BASU 2.2.7, J 977, 1-2. ') 2 C. M. RENNETr, Tümbs of rhe J{onKIII Period, in: K. M. KENYON ku.), Excavarions al"
Jericho, vol. 2., 196.'),516-545 3 P.R. CALLAWAY, The Hismry of che Q. COffimuniry, 1988 4 L. CANSDAl.E, Q, and rhe Essenes, J997 S F. M. CROSS, E. ESHEl., Ostraca
from Khirbct Qumrán, in: IEJ 47, 1997, 17-28
6 R.DoNCEEL, P.DONCl~EI_.-V()\}r¡~~ The Archacology of Khírbet Q_, in, M_ 0_ WISI' et al, (ed_), Methads of lnvcscigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Q. Sire, J 994l I-38 7 G. R. DRIVER, The Judean 5c1'ol1s, 1965 8 F. ESHEL, 4Q477: The Rebukes by the Oversecr, in: Journ. of Jcwish Stud. 45,1994, llJ-I2.l. 9 H.EsHEL, Z. GIl..EENI-IlH, ~iam El-Sagha, a Cemctery of the Q. Typc, in: RBi lOO, I993, 252-259 10 N.GOLB, Q., 1994 11 L.HARDlNG, R. DEVAUXlG. M. CRAWFOOT, H.]. PLEN
DERLbITl-l, Thc AIchaeological Fincls l 1ll: DJD 1, 195.5, 3-40 [2 J.-R.HuMBERT, l.'Espace Sacré .1. Q., 111: RRi
lor, 1994, ] 61-2.1 T 13 K. M. KENYON, Excavations ..1t Jerieho, vol. j, 1981, I73f. 14 E_-M.LAPEROlfSSAZ,
QOUl1lrall, 1976 15 .J.lv.lAGNESS, The CQJ1ullunity ar Q. in Lightüflts Potter}', in: see [6], 39-50 16 Id., A Villa ar Khirbcr Q.?, in: Rev. de Q. 16, 1993/4, 397-<119 17 Id., The Chrunology of rhe SenlemelH <'It Q. in tbc Hl'foJlan Penod, in: Deae! Sea Discovcries 2.. J ~~ 5, 58-6.5 18 J. PATRICH, Khirbel Q. and the ManuscripL Finds of rhe: Judaean Wilderness, in: sce [6], 73-95 19 K.D. Po LITIS, Thl" Nab<.1tJ.can CClllctcry at Klurbct (¿azone, in: Ncar Eastern Archaeology 62.]~, 1999, 11.8 ).0 JeL, Reselle Excavations at rhe N"b<ltaeJ.D C:emctery at Khirbct QazouC' T996-1997, in: AnnllaJ ni the Department of Antiquitics of lardan .p., 1';198 .. 61T-614 110.RdHRER
QUMf<AN ,67
ERTL, f. ROBRHIRSCH, D.HAHN, Über die Graberfelder von Khirbct Q., insbcsondere die Fundc der Campagne 1:956, 1: Anthropologische Datenvorlage und Ersrauswerrung 3ufgrllnd der Collecrio Kurth, in: Rev. dc Q. J9, 199912000, 3-46 22 D. RESHEF, P.SMITH, Two Skeleral Rcmains fram l:Iiam e1-Sagh:1, in: RBi 100, 1993,260-1.69 23 f. ROHRHIRSCH, Wissenschaftsrheorie llnd Q., 1996 24 A. ROITMAN (ed.I, A Day atQ., '997 25 L. H. SCHIFF
MAN, Recbiming rhe Dead SCJ Scrolls, 1 Y94 26 S.H,
STECKOU, Preliminary Excavarían Report, in: Rev. de Q. 6, 1967-1969, 323-344 27 H.STEGEMANN, DIe Essene1", Q., JohanOl's del" T;iufcr lwd ]esl1s, j] 1)94 Zf: R. DE
VAUX, Archéologie, in: D]D 3.1, 1962., .1-)6 29 Id., Al' chacology and che Deacl Sea Scrnlls, 1973 30 Id., FOlli]· les de Kbirbcr QUl11rán et de Ai"n Feshkha, vol. 1, 1':194 31 Id., Die Ausgrabungen von Q. llnd En Feschcha, vol. la,19y6 32J.E. ZIA~, The Cemeterics oE Q. ami Celib:lcy: Confusiolll.aid to Rest?, in: Dl'ad Sea Di~C()Veries 7, 2.000, 220-253 33 B. ZISSO, 'Q. Type' Graves in JCIll
salenl:' Arehaeoiogical EvideIlte for an Essc.ne Communi1Y?, in: Dead Sea Discoveries 5, 1998, 1.')8-J7I. AlU.
Qurnran. Aramaic. QA (= llasrnol1aicJ LS rhe name given ro rbe ) Aramaic in which rhe texrs fOllnd in
>Qumran werc written (1 st cent. BC to 2nd ccnt. AD),
which, howcver, are nor quite unifonn in theír langl.lagc. QA has rhe characterisrícs of a srandardizcd lit
cr<Iry language (whicb a150 reappears larcr in Aramaic ) Biblc rransladons, such as largum Onqclos1Targum
Jonal"han: note rhe pronouns i:wd infinirivcs). Yer ir also still had linguistic features based un >Official Aramaic aud also th,' Aramaic oithe Bibk. QA shows the cadieS[
índicatiol1 for rhe dcvclopment 01" rhe subsequcnr Western Aramaic di<llecrs, cspccially rbe Chrisrian-Pa1csrinian Aramaic ( ~ Palcstinian~Aramaic). for example in orthugraphy (tcndcney towards plenc spelling) and morpho!ogy. QA is still almost entircly free of Greek ami Latin words, bur the Hchrcw subsrrare, which sub··
sequently became ;] characreristic fearure of Wesrern Aramaic, is already bccoming more obvious in loan words and nOlln formation,
Ext3nt texto indude translations of [he boolcs ofJob, Tobir and Enoch, a Gcnc.sis Apocryphol1, and rhe Tcstamcnt of Levi. Inro rhe samc linguistic group also
belong the doeuments (papyri) fOllnd in Nabal Hever, Wad¡ Sayyal ami Wacl¡ Murabba'al. No comprcbensive
srudy of QA exists. , Aramaic;" Nabaraean; -) Palmyrenc; , Papyrus
K. BEYER, Die aramaischen Tex[c vom Toten Meer, voJs 1
and 2., 1984/1994; J.A. FnZMYER, The Dead Sea Scrotls. Major PubJications and Tools fur Study, 1977; J. T. MTlIK, Díscoveries ín the ]udaean Dcsert, vol. l, 195 5.
<..K
Quocl idola clii non sin! ('That idols are nol gods'). An apologeric trearise in rhyrhmic form from rhe mid-4rh
cent. AD, attributed to ' Cyprianus 12] but based on Lactanrius [lj. Contenrs: 1-7: Rcjcetion of the clllr of thc gods as a demonic illusion, llar rhe cause or rhc grearnesS oE Romc; 8-9: Discuvery of the one God; 10--14:
1v1ission, work, passlon and resurreetion of Christ; 15:
.1 68
Cal! to follow. The main sourees are-' Minueius fU r] Felix and Tertullianus, Apologeticum (see aiso De_o)
spectaculisL as wcU as Lacrantius (Divmae i71stitutio
/les, De ira del, Epítome), Cypríanlls (tidc based on Ad
Fortunatum J, condusion based on Ad DemetríanumL
also pagan SOllrces, e.g. Virgil. Since Hieronymus (Ep. 7°,5.2, commendarory) and Allgusrine and into rhe 20rh ccnr. rhc 'pockct:sizcd apology' was thoughr ro be
the worlc of Cyprian. t- Apologists
EU¡1"lON: W. HAR"IT1., C:~EL J.I, 19-,3!.�
L.ln~RATORE: LHECK, Pseudo-Cyprian, Q. und Lactanz,� Epirome divinaruITI institutiollllm, in: M. WACl-IT (ed.),� Panchaia, FS K. Thraede, J 995, q8-r 55; A. WLOSOK, in:� HLL§481.j. r..I1E.�
Quoclvultdeus. Burn toward the end uf the 4th eent.,
deacon from 4 I7'-42.1 , and in 4.~"7 (a.ccording lO \s1as
carly os 4 j 2/j) bishop 01' Carrhage. He encouraged
~ Augusrinus (AlIg. Episr. 2.21; 223) ro wrire De haeresibus (Jcdicared ro Q.). After Carrhagc was conque
ted by , Gciserieus kl9), Q. was cxilecl ro Campania because uf his prorests against Gciscricus' policy on rcli
gion (Victor of Vita ',15 CS!'L 7), where he died (today his tomb is in the N~rks carhcdra1). Ar least r3 psclldoAugustinian scrmon~ are currcntly attribured ro him
(see 13. 1.1-161), alongwith the excgetical work De promissiuni!Jus et praedicatiul1ibus Dei, which was tl"aditiollally bclievcd ro hnvc hecn wrir[cn by ~ Prospcr Tiro (arguing ag;1inst Q.' amhorsbip: 1411.
EDlTION,',: 1 le BRAUN, ceL (,0, [976 1 Id., sebe, 1964, rol-102- 3 A. V. NAZZARO, Q., Promessc e pre~
diziolli di dí 0, 1.989 (with 11. transl. and coml11.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: 4 M.SIMoNETn, L:l produi'jone lette~
raria latina fnl Romani t' barhari (sec. V-VIII), 1986135 f. S W. STIWBl., Notitiolae Quoc!vultdc<lnac, in: Vigiliae Chrjstianae 52., 1998, J 93-2°3. T.fo.
Quotation marks SCl' , PUl1cru:ltioD
Qur'iin (](oran) A.DEFINITION B.OllIGIN C. STItUCTURE ANO
FüRM - LANGUAGE AND STYLE D, CONTENT
E. COMMENTARIE5 AND 1"RANSLATIONS F. TI-lE
QUH' AN WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK üF THE HI5TO
RY OF ANClEN"!' IDEAS AND GENRES
A. DEFINITION
The s"cred book of the Muslims, the word oI God,
rcecived through the prophet ' Muhammad e. AD 6 IO-6}2.
B.ORIl;IN
The divine revela tions had alre,dy been eolleeted in oral and writtcn form by the faithful during tbe lifetime
(lf the propbel, but il was the 3rd ' Calipb ,Othman ('Utman; 644-56) who eompiled thelll in their ultimate, unchangeable, canonical formo
~69
C. STRUCTURE AND FüRM - LANGUAGE AND
ST,¡·tE
The 1 [4 Suras (loan word from Talmud;e Júrah 'se
quence, line'l are roughly organized aeeording to length from rhe longest ro the shorresr, with tbe exceprion of the first one, the 'opening' ial-fatiha), a short prayer. Eaeb Sura eonsists of individual verses. It is only partly possiblc ro esrablish a sequence of revelations baBed on thematic and srylistic crireria, even the disrinction be
rween rhe Mecca and Medina Periods (meanin~ hefore or ahcr tIJe ~ Hcjira) i~ no1' cHtirely deae.
Tbt Arabie of the Qur'an is a formal standard !anguage in rhymes. Tht text first consisted purcly of eonsonanrs, which al10wed diffcrent interpretarions. In rhe
2lld half of the 8th cent., the [ext was complctely furnished wirh added vowels and recitation signs.
D. CONTENT
The Qur'an conrains rules and instrucrions for aH arcas of life, thus ir is rhe primary soun.:e of Isbmic law, fairh, and rules of conduce Early on, rhe goodness and
omnípotence of the one God (Allah), lhe Lasl .Indgemenr, and norions of paradisc were the main focus. Larer, we find nn increased engagemenr wirh specific ]ewish and esp. wirh Christian tOpiC5, parr of WhlCh are
legcnds of prophers (í.a. Abraham, Mosl..:s, Salomoll j
Jesos). An originaJ scripturc from hcaven is undersrood
to be [he origin of the sacred texts of Jews and Chrisrians as wcll ('owncrs of scripture'). In rhe Medinensic Period, th(> rclationship ro owners of scripture deterio
rares and abroga1'ions parrially revise previons sratcmcnrs abour rhcm.
E. COMMENTARIES AND TRAN5LATIONS
The need for inrcrpreration concerning SOl11e of rhe tevelarions soon gave rise ro rhe Qnr'an exegesis as an indepcndenr literary genre. On the other hand, tramilar¡ons were prevenred ar firsr due ro rhe explicir referenee to Arahie in the Qur'an itself and due to tbe dogma rhat it is li1'erarily inimirable - despire a growing need
for them cinc ro the rapid expansion of> IsJam. The firsr Latin translarion of rhe QurJan was complered in tI43 on Petrus Venerabilis' iniriarive (Cluny). l1.SCHO.
F. THE QUR'ÁN WITHIN THE FHAMEWORK üF
THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT IDEAS AND GENRES
The word qur)an is of Syrian origin « qeryallii, 'pericope reading'). Correspondingly, the Qurlan indicares
,\70 QUSAf
borh in form and conrcnr rkH rhe origins of Islam art ro be found in Late Anriquiry. In rnis context, ir is dcbatable bow mueh Christian and Jewish hymn poetry had
been adopred inro the Ql1l·'an. This quesrion, however1
musr nor be dismissed alrogerher since rhe reccprion and further development of traditional Christian aud Jewish rhemes in Islam has llar only been lcnown for a long rime, bur Islam rcgarded irself as thc heir and, at
rhe same rimc) as rhe genuine represenrarive of rhe original Illonotheistic re1igion inangllrared by )- Abraham [l J. The lingllisric cbaracrer of lhe Qur'an poinrs into this direetion as well: based on Old Arabic (prose rhymes sag' were also used hy 'pagan' fortune-tellers,
b,hhan), the spceific religious voeabulary is eharaeterized by many horrowings from Hebrew ((illiyün <
(mlyón 'nppermosr heavcn') and Syrian (~alat < ~elü!a,
'prayer" masgid < masg'·g.ii, 'place of prayer'), second~
arily from Ethiopian and Old Arabic as wcll (rahman,
'God thr merciful'; original name of 3n old soutb
Arabic gDd}. Aside form rbese loan words, many coneeprs and srories apparently reached Muhammad by l;\fny of oral SOl.1rces. Esp. obvious is the Qur'an's christologiea! docetism (, Doketai) and the presenee of seveml Haggadic stories ( >Haggadah; thus in the only narrativc Sllra 12 'Ylisnf'). Th.c larcr, Medinensic Suras, on the orhcr hand, were shapcd afrcf commentaries of
[he .Jewish ' Halakhah. In its entirety, bowcver, tbe Qurlan presents an inn4)Varive and quirt original uniry and can be regarded as rhe suecl'ssful atrcmpt to newly formulare an Arabie rcligious idcnriry in Lare Anriquiry
based on rbe Jewish/Chrisrian religions ycr in constanr dialogue wirb rhe lattce.
H. BOl\ZIN, Dcr Km.m im Zcita!ter del" Reformation. Studien zur Frühgeschichtc der Arabistik und lslamkunde ín Europa, 1995 J. DAMMEN McAuLIFFE (ed.), The EncyclopaC'dia of rhe Qur'<l.n, 1999 J. W. HIRSCHBERG, Jüdischc und cbristlische Lehren im vor~ und frühislamischen Arabien, 1939 J. HOROVITZ, Koranische Untersllchllngcn, 192.6 1'. NAGEL, Der Kor,:m: Einfiihrung - Texte - Erbiu[erungen, 1998 A. NEllwnrrH, Koran, in: H. Gi\'rJE (ed.), GrundriE drr arabischen Philologie 1I (Literatnrwiss.), 1987, 96-lJ5 TI-I. NÓLDEKE, f.SCI-IWALLY, G.BERGsTnAS~ER, O.PRETZL, Geschichte des Qorans, ~ L938 (rcpr. 1961) R.PARF:r, Dcr Koran. Übersctznng, L9631966 W.M. WA'JT, HelL's Introduction to the Qur'an: Completcly Revised ami Enlarged, ] 970 A. T. WELCH ct aL, s.v. ~ur'jn, El 5, 400a-432b. ).N
Qusae see--) Kusac
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