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Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin http://psp.sagepub.com/
The Long-Term Stability of Self-Esteem: Its Time-Dependent Decay and Nonzero Asymptote
Farah Kuster and Ulrich Orth
Pers Soc Psychol Bull2013 39: 677 originally published online 10 March 2013DOI: 10.1177/0146167213480189
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SPXXX10.1177/0146167213480189Person alityand
r
A
F
Ab
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67/ Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)
sta*ility +ro,ides i&+ortant in$or&ation that hel+s under%
stand the de,elo+&ent o$ sel$%estee&' &ean%le,el sta*ility is
&ute -ith regard to the uestion o$ -hether the relati,e
standing i.e.' the ran(%order +osition o$ indi,iduals is sta*le
o,er ti&e. oreo,er' it is i&+ortant to note that the conce+ts
o$ ran(%order sta*ility and &ean%le,el sta*ility are theoreti%
cally and statistically distinct $ro& each other see "o*ins'raley' "o*erts' )resnie-s(i' 2001.
The Time-DependentDecline of Self-Esteem Stability
5s early as 1890' illia& a&es alluded to the sta*ility o$
sel$%estee& *y noting that there is a certain a,erage tone o$
sel$%$eeling -hich each one o$ us carries a*out -ith hi&
a&es' 1890' +. 306. #n $act' +re,ious research sug%gests that
sel$%estee& e:hi*its considera*le ran(%order sta*ility in
childhood e.g.' 5lsa(er !l-eus' 1992; arsh et al.' 1998'
adolescence e.g.' Bloc( "o*ins' 1993; alley Bach&an' 1983' and
young adulthood =onnellan' )resnie-s(i'
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Kuster and Orth 679
)he +resent research e:tends +re,ious studies in se,eral -ays.
irst' the longitudinal study design co,ered 29 years' -hich
allo-ed e:a&ining sta*ility across a ,ery long +eriod. Second'
the analyses include si: -a,es o$ data' +ro,iding $or sta*ility
esti&ates *ased on &ulti+le testretest inter,als o$ di$$erent
length and' conseuently' &any &ore data +oints co&+ared -iththe t-o%-a,e studies that are co&&on in the literature. )hird' -e
tested $or -hich &athe&atical $unction descri*es the ti&e%
de+endent decline o$ sel$%estee& sta*ility and -hether at long
testretest inter,als sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& a++roaches ero or a
nonero ,alue; no +re,ious study has addressed these uestions.
ourth' -e used data $ro& a large sa&+le -ith a *road age range
$ro& adolescence to old age' -hich ena*led us to dra- &ore
+recise and gen%eralia*le conclusions a*out the +attern o$ long%
ter& sta*il%ity o$ sel$%estee&.
#ethod
)he data co&e $ro& the Aongitudinal Study o$ IenerationsASI; Bengtson' 2009. )he ASI includes &e&*ers o$
$a&ilies that -ere rando&ly dra-n $ro& a su*scri*er list o$
a*out 840'000 &e&*ers o$ a health &aintenance organia%tion
in Southern age ranged $ro& 14 to 102 years. !$ the
+artici+ants' 91K -ere
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6/0 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)
nonlinear regression analysis "at(o-s(y' 1990. or theseanalyses' -e used the SPSS 20 +rogra& SPSS' 2011.
#n the second +art o$ the analyses' -e tested the S)5")S
&odel enny Hautra' 2001 using structural euation
&odeling. )hese analyses -ere conducted using the +lus 6.1
+rogra& uthNn uthNn' 2010. )o deal -ith &iss%ing
,alues' -e used $ull%in$or&ation &a:i&u& li(elihood esti&ationto $it &odels directly to the ra- data' -hich +ro%duces less *iased
and &ore relia*le results co&+ared -ith con,entional ðods o$
dealing -ith &issing data' such as list-ise or +air-ise deletion
5llison' 2003; Scha$er Iraha&' 2002. odel $it -as
assessed *y the co&+arati,e $it inde:
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6/2 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)
< 1 Dull Sa&%le
/
S t a i l i t y 6
. a : (.3
2
0
5 10 15 20 25
$etest #nter+al (years)
B 1 ;ale
/
S t a i l i t y 6
.a : (3/
2
0
5 10 15 20 25
$etest #nter+al (years)
> 1 De&ale
/
S t a i l i t
y
6
. a : (.2
2
0
5 10 15 20 25
$etest #nter+al (years)
Fig&re $% Staility o! sel!estee& as a !unction o! the test–
retest inter+al" !or the !ull sa&%le (Panel " res%ecti+ely)Aote' Para&eter a is the asy&%tote o! the e%onential decay !unction
-hen co&+uting the correlation *et-een a,es 2 and 3' the age
grou+s -ere *ased on in$or&ation $ro& a,e 2. e cre%ated the
$ollo-ing age grou+sM 14 to 19 years' 20 to 29 years' 30 to 39
years' 40 to 49 years' C0 to C9 years' and 60 to 69 years. e did
not include +artici+ants at age 70 and older in e:a&ining
di$$erences *et-een age grou+s *ecause $or these +artici+ants the
longest testretest inter,al a,aila*le -as only
12 yearsDin contrast' $or
the other grou+s' the longest
test retest inter,al -as 26
years $or the age grou+ 60%
69 years and 29 years $or
all other age grou+s;
conseuently' $or +ar%
tici+ants aged 70 and older'the +recision o$ the
+ara&eter esti&ates -ould
li(ely ha,e *een lo-. or all
su*sa&+les' -e co&+uted
testretest correlations only
i$ the correlation -as *ased
on at least 30 cases.
)he results $or the age
grou+s are sho-n in )a*le 2
and igure 2. 5lthough the
,ariance e:+lained -as lo-
in t-o o$ the age grou+s
age 14%19 years and age 40%
49 years' the ,ariance
e:+lained -as relati,ely
large in the other age
grou+s. #&+ortantly' the
e:+onential decay $unction
+ro%,ided a *etter $it to the
data than the linear and
uadratic $unctions' in all
age grou+s. 5gain' all
+ara&eters di$$ered
signi$icantly $ro& 0' e:ce+t
$or the rate o$ decay in the
age grou+ 40 to 49 years.
)he asy&+tote +ara&eter
ranged $ro&
.3C to .C9 across age grou+s.
Fo-e,er' signi$icant di$$er%
ences e&erged only $or the
age grou+ 20 to 29 years
-hich had the lo-est
asy&+tote' -hen co&+ared
-ith the age grou+ 40 to 49
years z : 2.98' p .0C' C0 to
C9 years z : 2.06' p .0C'
and 60 to 69 years z : 2.14'
p .0C. 5lthough &ost o$ the
di$$erences *et-een age
grou+s -ere nonsigni$i%cant'
the esti&ates $or the
asy&+tote tended to *e higher
in &iddle adulthood in
+articular at age 40%49 years
than in adolescence and
young adulthood'
corres+onding to the $ind%ings
*y )resnie-s(i et al. 2003.
or the rate o$ decay' there
-ere no signi$icantdi$$erences *et-een age
grou+s. !,erall' the e,idence
suggests that the e:+onential
decay $unction o$ long%ter&
sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& holds
across gender and age i.e.'
the e:+onential decay
$unction +ro,ided a *etter $it
than the linear and uadratic
$unctions' and that the +ara&eter esti&ates are
si&ilar across gender and
rela%ti,ely si&ilar across age
grou+s.
ong-#er!
Staility of Self-
stee!* #esting
the Stale #rait
,o!ponent of
Self-stee!
#n the second +art o$ the
analyses' -e tested -hether
struc%tural euation &odeling
o$ the indi,idual%le,el data
yields e,idence that a sta*le
trait co&+onent underlies the
long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%
estee&' -hich -ould +ro,ide
an e:+la%nation $or the
nonero asy&+tote o$ sel$%
estee& sta*ility. or the
analyses' -e used theS)5")S &odel enny
Hautra' 2001. )he &odel
includes three sources o$
,ariation in the o*ser,ed sel$%
estee& scores see igure 3.
irst' a +er$ectly sta*le trait
$actor in$luences sel$%estee&
at each &easure&ent occasion
in the sa&e -ay. Second' sel$%
estee& is in$luenced *y
occasion%s+eci$ic
autoregressi,e trait $ac%tors.
)hird' at each &easure&entoccasion' so&e ,ariance in
sel$%estee& re&ains
une:+lained *y the &odel'
-hich is ca+tured *y the
latent error ,aria*les.
#n addition' the &odel
includes the $ollo-ing three
assu&+tions. )he assu&+tion
o$ stationarity i&+lies that the
,ariance e:+lained *y each
source is the sa&e at each
&ea%sure&ent occasion. )he
assu&+tion o$ inde+endence
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i&+lies
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Kuster and Orth 6/3
<
S t a i l i t y
>
S
t a i l i t y
S t a i l i t y
1
/
6
.
2
0
1
/
6
.
2
0
1
/
6
.
2
0
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25 $et est te r+al (years)
Fi
g&r Aote'Para&eter
a is the asy&%tote o! the e%onential decay!unction
that the three sources o$ ,ariation
are uncorrelated i.e.' the sta*le
trait $actor is uncorrelated -ith the
autoregressi,e trait $actors' and
the error ,aria*les are
uncorrelated -ith the sta%*le trait
and autoregressi,e trait $actors.
inally' the &odel includes the
assu&+tion o$ a $irst%order
autoregressi,e struc%ture $or the
occasion%s+eci$ic latent $actors
i.e.' the autore%gressi,e trait
$actors. S+eci$ically' the
autoregressi,e structure accounts
$or the $act that the correlation
*et-een
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$
o
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D
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6/. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)
Stalesel$%estee& see )a*le 4. )he standardied esti&ate o$ the
autoregressi,e e$$ect' -ith a testretest inter,al o$ 1 year as=rait
unit' -as .9C. )o su&&ari4e' the S)5")S &odel $it the data
,ery -ell' suggesting that a sta*le trait $actor is needed to
e:+lain the long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%estee&.
e1 e2 e3 e. e5 e6
Disc&ssionS1 S 2 S 3 S . S 5 S 6 #n the +resent research' -e used data $ro& a large longitudi%nal study -ith &ulti+le assess&ents o,er 29 years to in,es%
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Kuster and Orth 6/5
Table (% Dit o! the S=#H
S=
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6/6 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)
"osen*erg' 1986; )resnie-s(i et al.' 2003. )he structural
euation &odeling analyses suggested that the sta*le trait $actor
accounted $or 28K and the autoregressi,e trait $actor $or 43K o$
the ,ariance in sel$%estee&. )hus' although a large +ro+ortion o$
the ,ariance -as accounted $or *y the autoregressi,e trait
co&+onent and latent error ,aria*les' a*out one uarter o$ the
,ariance o,er 29 years -as e:+lained *y a +er$ectly sta*le trait$actor. #nterestingly' the only other study using a trait%state &odel
$or sel$%estee& -hich -e are a-are o$ yielded relati,ely si&ilar
esti&ates =onnellan et al.' 2012. #n the study *y =onnellan et
al. 2012' -hich e:a&ined sel$%estee& in adolescents and young
adults across 19 years' the sta*le trait $actor accounted $or 3CK o$
the ,ari%ance and the autoregressi,e $actor accounted $or 49K.
oreo,er' =onnellan et al. $ound' as -e did in our study' that a
&odel that o&itted the sta*le trait $actor $it the data signi$i%cantly
-orse than the &odel including the sta*le trait $actor. ith regard
to the +resent research' the i&+ortant conclusion is that *oth
studies i.e.' =onnellan et al.>s and ours suggest that a su*stantial
+ro+ortion o$ ,ariance in sel$%estee& is co&+letely sta*le o,er
long +eriods and that a co&+letely sta*le trait $actor is needed to
satis$actorily e:+lain indi,id%ual di$$erences in sel$%estee&.
i!itations and +uture Directions
5 li&itation o$ this research is that the sa&+le is not re+re%
sentati,e o$ the +o+ulation o$ the Jnited States. )here$ore'
$uture research should re+licate the analyses in other' ideally
nationally re+resentati,e sa&+les. oreo,er' $uture research
should e:a&ine the long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& in
sa&+les $ro& other cultural conte:ts c$. 5rnett' 2008;
Fenrich' Feine' ?orenayan' 2010. or e:a&+le' indi%
,iduals $ro& 5sian and estern cultures di$$er in the ty+ical
structure o$ the sel$%conce+t and in their need $or sel$%estee&
Feine' Aeh&an' ar(us' itaya&a' 1999; ar(us
itaya&a' 1991; *ut see Sedi(ides' Iaertner' )oguchi'
2003' -hich &ay ha,e conseuences $or the long%ter& sta%
*ility o$ sel$%estee&.
#n the analyses o$ testretest correlations' -e corrected the
o*ser,ed correlations $or attenuation due to &easure&ent error *y
using coe$$icient al+ha. 5n i&+ortant assu&+tion underly%ing
coe$$icient al+ha is that the ite&s &easure a unidi&ensional
construct; i$ the &easure is not +er$ectly unidi&ensional' al+ha &ay
underesti&ate the true relia*ility Sch&itt' 1996. )hus' *y using
al+ha' -e &ay ha,e o,ercorrected the o*ser,ed cor%relations to so&e
e:tent. Fo-e,er' in this research' using uncorrected correlations -asnot a ,ia*le o+tion *ecause' as descri*ed in the "esults section'
testing the ti&e%de+endent decay o$ sta*ility needed to account $or
the $act that sta*ility euals 1 -hen the testretest inter,al euals 0.
?e,ertheless' $uture research on the decay o$ sta*ility coe$$icients
should consider alternati,e ðods $or esti&ating the relia*ility o$
the &easures used e.g.' de+enda*ility esti&ates' see 5nusic' Aucas'
=onnellan' 2012; le,el o$ sel$%
estee& in adolescence and
adulthood.
5n i&+ortant uestion is
-hether cohort di$$erences inthe &ean le,el o$ sel$%estee&
&ight ha,e con$ounded the
ran(%order sta*ility o$ sel$%
estee& in the $ull sa&+le. #$
&ore recent generations
syste&atically ha,e higher
sel$%estee& than +re,ious
generations' then these
di$$erences &ight +osi%ti,ely
*ias sta*ility esti&ates.
Fo-e,er' although the
hy+oth%esis that there has
*een a secular increase in
sel$%estee& in the +ast
decades has intuiti,e a++eal
)-enge
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Kuster and Orth 6/7
re+licated relati,ely -ell -ithin age grou+s' -e *elie,e that
our $indings on the sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& are not con%
$ounded *y +ossi*le generational changes in le,el o$ sel$%
estee&.
)he +resent research raises the i&+ortant uestion o$ -hich
$actors contri*ute to the long%ter& sta*ility o$ sel$%estee&. irst'genetic $actors &ay +lay an i&+ortant role. )he *est a,aila*le
e,idence is +ro,ided *y longitudinal *eha,ioral genetic studies
cIuire et al.' 1999; ?eiss' Sedi(ides' Ste,enson' 2002. or
e:a&+le' using longitu%dinal data $ro& a*out 2C0 +airs o$ t-ins'
si*lings' and ste+%si*lings' cIuire et al. 1999 $ound that
genetic $actors e:+lained large +ortions o$ sta*ility in glo*al and
do&ain%s+eci$ic sel$%estee&. Second' the $indings *y cIuire et
al. suggest that en,iron&ental $actors also contri*ute to the sta%
*ility o$ sel$%estee&; as discussed *y B. . "o*erts et al. 2008'
role continuity &ay account $or a sta*le su*Eecti,e en,iron&ent'
there*y +ro&oting sta*ility o$ +ersonality traits. inally' in
addition to genetic and en,iron&ental in$luences' +erson
en,iron&ent transactions &ay contri*%ute to the long%ter&sta*ility o$ sel$%estee& B. . "o*erts et al.' 2008. or e:a&+le'
one o$ the +rocesses o$ +erson en,iron&ent transaction is
attractionM ost +eo+le are attracted to en,iron&ents that &atch
their +ersonality e.g.' their le,el o$ sel$%estee&; S-ann' Stein%
Seroussi' Iiesler' 1992' -hich contri*utes to the sta*ility o$
indi,idual di$$er%ences. Si&ilarly' indi,iduals are selected into
social and -or(%related roles that &atch their +ersonality' -hich
also increases sta*ility. 5nother transactional +rocess is that +eo%
+le tend to selecti,ely attend to and search $or in$or&ation that
con$ir&s their *elie$s a*out the&sel,es' including their sel$%
e,aluation Sedi(ides' 1993; S-ann "ead' 1981. oreo,er'
so&e +ersonality characteristics elicit reactions *y others that
rein$orce the eliciting characteristic; $or e:a&+le' it is +ossi*le
that +eo+le -ith lo- sel$%estee& e,o(e social reactions that
contri*ute to the &aintenance o$ their lo- sel$%estee&. urther
+ersonen,iron&ent transac%tions' as discussed *y B. . "o*erts
et al. 2008' include &ani+ulation and attrition. #n $uture
research' it -ould *e highly interesting to e:a&ine to -hat
degree these +erson en,iron&ent transactions contri*ute to the
long%ter& sta*il%ity o$ sel$%estee&.
inally' -e note that the +resent research introduces a
ðod that can *e used $or esti&ating the decay $unction o$
sta*ility' and the corres+onding asy&+tote and rate o$ decay'
$or any indi,idual%di$$erences construct. "esearchers can
co&+are the +ara&eters across a large set o$ constructs such
as +ersonality traits' attitudes' cogniti,e a*ilities' and
*iological characteristics. no-ledge a*out the di$$erential
sta*ility o$ constructs has i&+ortant i&+lications $or theory
*ecause it hel+s to e,aluate to -hich degree constructs should
*e categoried as traits. #&+ortantly' in each study' it should
*e tested -hether the decay $unction +ro,ides a su$$iciently
good $it to o*ser,ed sta*ility coe$$icients. 5lthough +re,ious
research i&+licitly suggests that
sta*ility coe$$icients decay
e:+onentially o,er ti&e see
ara' arsh'
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19.
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Kuster and Orth 6/9
Ientile' B.' )-enge' . .' ara' 5. .' arsh' F. .'
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690 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 39(5)
"o*erts' ". @. A.' Bengtson' G. A. 1996. 5$$ecti,e ties to +ar%ents in
early adulthood and sel$%estee& across 20 years. Social Psychology
"uarterly' &*' 96%106.
"o*ins' ". .' raley' ".
Recommended