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04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 2
Pelajar dapat meningkatkan pengetahuan mengenai asas & teori penyeliaan personel, peranan penyelia personel, komunikasi, motivasi, kepemimpinan, pembangunan staf & latihan, keselamatan & kesihatan pekerja dan penilaian prestasi
HASIL PEMBELAJARAN Pada akhir kursus ini pelajar dapat:
Menerangkan konsep & prinsip penyeliaan personel
Menghuraikan peranan penyelia personel Menghuraikan elemen komunikasi, motivasi,
kepemimpinan, pembangunan staf & latihan, keselamatan & kesihatan pekerja, &penilaian prestasi
Mempamerkan kemahiran dalam mengendalikan penyeliaan personel yang berkesan
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 3
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 4
Setiap pelajar perlu: Komited dalam mempamerkan
kemampuan & potensinya untuk mendapat gred yang terbaik & pendedahan maksimum untuk menjadi seorang penyelia personel yang cemerlang
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 5
TUGASAN Menyempurnakan satu kertas kerja (30%)
berdasarkan mana-mana aspek daripada unit dalam modul
menggunakan kertas A4 langkau 2 baris dengan artikel panjangnya 20 muka surat.
UJIAN Menduduki 1 (satu) UJIAN PERTENGAHAN
semester yang akan ditentukan oleh pihak UPMET tarikh dan waktunya (30%)
Menduduki PEPERIKSAAN AKHIR semester yang akan ditentukan oleh pihak UPMET tarikh dan waktunya (40%)
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 6
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 7
PENYELIAAN PERSONEL
UNIT 1
Konsep Penyeliaan PersonelUNIT 2
Fungsi Penyelia Personel
UNIT 3
Komunikasi Dalam Organisasi
UNIT 4
Keperluan & Motivasi Pekerja
UNIT 5
Kepimpinan & Stail Pengurusan
UNIT 6Latihan & Pembangunan
UNIT 7Pengurusan Konflik & Tekanan
UNIT 8
Penilaian Prestasi
Pekerja
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 8
UNIT 1
KONSEP PENYELIAAN PERSONEL Objektif Unit Pada akhir unit ini pelajar dapat:
Menerangkan teori berkaitan dengan pentadbiran, pengurusan dan penyeliaan.
Menerangkan hubungan antara pentadbiran, pengurusan dan penyeliaan.
Successful SupervisorsSuccessful Supervisors Develop the ability to balance the Develop the ability to balance the
requirements for high work performance requirements for high work performance with the diverse needs of the workforce.with the diverse needs of the workforce.
The Challenges and Rewards of The Challenges and Rewards of SupervisionSupervision Getting diverse people to work togetherGetting diverse people to work together Increased responsibility that comes with Increased responsibility that comes with
climbing the management hierarchyclimbing the management hierarchy The unpredictable nature of the jobThe unpredictable nature of the job The sense of accomplishment from doing a The sense of accomplishment from doing a
job welljob well Managing organizational pressures and Managing organizational pressures and
conflictconflict
SupervisorsSupervisors First-level managers in charge of entry-First-level managers in charge of entry-
level and other departmental employees.level and other departmental employees. Working SupervisorsWorking Supervisors
First-level individuals who perform First-level individuals who perform supervisory functions but who may not supervisory functions but who may not legally or officially be part of legally or officially be part of management.management.
Foreman/forewoman, group/team leader, Foreman/forewoman, group/team leader, lead person, coach, and facilitatorlead person, coach, and facilitator
Scientific Management Approach (Taylor)Scientific Management Approach (Taylor) Focuses on determining the most efficient ways to Focuses on determining the most efficient ways to
increase output and productivity.increase output and productivity. Analyze the tasks using the principles of science to find Analyze the tasks using the principles of science to find
the one best way to perform the work.the one best way to perform the work. Recruit the employee best suited to perform the job. Recruit the employee best suited to perform the job. Instruct the worker in the one best way to perform the Instruct the worker in the one best way to perform the
job.job. Reward the accomplishment of the worker. Reward the accomplishment of the worker. Cooperate with workers to ensure that the job matches Cooperate with workers to ensure that the job matches
plans and principles.plans and principles. Ensure an equal division of work and responsibility Ensure an equal division of work and responsibility
between managers and workers.between managers and workers.
Functional ApproachFunctional Approach Asserts that all managers perform similar functions Asserts that all managers perform similar functions
in doing their jobsin doing their jobs——the universality of management.the universality of management. A manager’s authority should equal that manager’s A manager’s authority should equal that manager’s
responsibility and that the direction and flow of responsibility and that the direction and flow of authority through an organization should be unified.authority through an organization should be unified.
Five functions of management (Fayol)Five functions of management (Fayol)1.1. Planning:Planning: Setting down a course of action. Setting down a course of action.2.2. Organizing:Organizing: Designing a structure, with tasks and Designing a structure, with tasks and
authority clearly defined.authority clearly defined.3.3. Commanding:Commanding: Directing subordinates’ actions. Directing subordinates’ actions.4.4. Coordinating:Coordinating: Pulling organizational elements toward Pulling organizational elements toward
common objectives.common objectives.5.5. Controlling:Controlling: Ensuring that plans are carried out. Ensuring that plans are carried out.
Human Relations/Behavioral SchoolHuman Relations/Behavioral School Focuses on the behavior of people in the Focuses on the behavior of people in the
work environment in the belief that:work environment in the belief that:1.1. if managers used the principles of scientific if managers used the principles of scientific
management, worker efficiency would increase management, worker efficiency would increase and productivity increases would followand productivity increases would follow
2.2. if managers strove to improve working conditions, if managers strove to improve working conditions, productivity would increase.productivity would increase.
Hawthorne StudiesHawthorne Studies Hawthorne EffectHawthorne Effect
The fact that special interest shown in people The fact that special interest shown in people may cause those people to behave differently.may cause those people to behave differently.
Quantitative/Systems ApproachesQuantitative/Systems Approaches Use mathematical modeling as a foundation in Use mathematical modeling as a foundation in
attempting to quantitatively describe the attempting to quantitatively describe the interrelationships of variables through data, interrelationships of variables through data, data can be manipulated and outcomes data can be manipulated and outcomes predicted.predicted.
Develop mathematical models as series or Develop mathematical models as series or collections of interrelated variables or parts that collections of interrelated variables or parts that can be analyzed and used in decision making.can be analyzed and used in decision making.
Are frequently found in large organizations Are frequently found in large organizations where sales, costs, and production data are where sales, costs, and production data are analyzed using computer technology.analyzed using computer technology.
Factors And Trends Affecting Factors And Trends Affecting The Role Of The SupervisorThe Role Of The Supervisor
DiversityDiversity The cultural, ethnic, gender, age, educational level, The cultural, ethnic, gender, age, educational level,
racial, and lifestyle differences of employees.racial, and lifestyle differences of employees. Population and Workforce GrowthPopulation and Workforce Growth
Continued growth in both.Continued growth in both. Better educated but many employees lack basic Better educated but many employees lack basic
skillsskills Changing Age PatternsChanging Age Patterns
The workforce will continue to grow older.The workforce will continue to grow older. Generation Xers (1964Generation Xers (1964––1981)1981) Boomers (1946Boomers (1946––1963)1963) Matures (before 1945)Matures (before 1945)
Effective supervisors must be adaptable Effective supervisors must be adaptable and be able to maintain their perspective and be able to maintain their perspective in the face of rapidly changing conditions.in the face of rapidly changing conditions.
Supervision: A Professional Supervision: A Professional PerspectivePerspective Supervisors manage their firms’ most Supervisors manage their firms’ most
important resources—human resources.important resources—human resources. Supervisors who want to be more Supervisors who want to be more
effective:effective: Can develop the habits of highly effective Can develop the habits of highly effective
people people Recognize the need for continuous self-Recognize the need for continuous self-
development and renewing the four development and renewing the four dimensions of their naturedimensions of their nature——spiritual, spiritual, mental, social / emotional, and physicalmental, social / emotional, and physical
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 21
UNIT 2
FUNGSI PENYELIA PERSONEL Objektif Unit Pada akhir unit ini pelajar dapat:
Menerangkan fungsi utama penyelia. Menerangkan delegasi autoriti yang
boleh dibuat oleh penyelia.
Major Functions of Supervision
Introspection
Research Training Guidance Evaluation
• Studying the teacher-learner situation
• Improving the teacher –learner situation
• Evaluating the means, methods, and outcomes of supervision
Supervision
Emphasis on Administration Emphasis on Curriculum Emphasis on Instruction Emphasis on Human Relations Emphasis on Leadership Emphasis on Evaluation
Administration Dimension of Supervision
The Administrator Administer process, programs and
services, and personnel Task planning, setting, and prioritizing of
goals, establishing standards and policies, budgeting, allocating resources, staffing, coordinating and monitoring performance, conducting meetings, and reporting
Administration of Process Initiates the planning of programs
and strategies Long-range: on in-depth needs
assessment, based on clear goals and objectives
Short term: immediate needs of the incoming school year
Administration of Budget- prepare and administer the
approved budgets- Is business poles apart?1) Capital Budget2) Personnel Services3) Operating Expenses
What is management?
Management is not carrying out a prescribed task in a prescribed way: Management is: Setting directions, aims, and objectives Planning how progress will be made Organizing available resources Controlling the process Setting and improving organizational standards
Valuable Practices
Learning how to run a successful business Automating your facility Sound financial planning Establishing effective marketing and
public relations strategies to promote your services
Knowing, implementing, and often exceeding licensing standards
Being aware of legal issues Developing a work plan (assigning
roles and responsibilities). Action plan
The Manager and his Roles
(1) integrate its resources in the effective pursuit of its goals
(2) be agents of effective change (3) maintain and develop its
resources
ETHICS AND THE MANAGER The manager is the leader and has
potential powerbase
Whether the staff are happy or unhappy with their work
Their work priority Standard which they observe and
reflect
Mangement: Art or Science
Art art is based on the fact that
a man, receiving through his sense of hearing or sight another man's expression of feeling, is capable of experiencing the emotion which moved the man who expressed it.’
Science The scientific nature
of management is reflected in the fact that it is based on a more or else codified body of knowledge consisting of theories and principles that are subject to study and further experimentation.
Organizational Goals
There should not only be a clear sense of direction but also markers whereby we can assess progress from the broad to the more specific.
Goals
Targets
Success Criterias
Milestones
Models of Organizational Behavior The Classical Model Emphasizes characteristics such as rationality,
high job specialization, centralization, a command system, a tight hierarchy, strong vertical communication, tight control, rigid procedures and an autocratic approach.
• Rational Systems: A Machine Model• Individuals can be programmed to be efficient machines.
Workers are motivated by economics and by limited physiology, needed constant direction.
Rational Systems Model
Frederick Taylor – “Time and Motion” studies.
Henri Fayol- administrative behavior consist of Planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
Luther Gulick- POSDCoRB - principle of homogeneity
Rational Systems: Concepts and Propositions
Goals Division of Labor Specialization Standardization Formalization
Span of Control Hierarchy Exception
Principle Coordination
Humanistic Model respect for the individual and other
human values, job breadth, consultation, consensus, decentralization, loose project organization, flexible procedures, multidirectional communication, management by objectives and a participative approach.
Natural Systems
Natural System “the fundamental problem in organizations was
developing and maintaining dynamic and harmonious relationships”.
Mary Parker Follet Natural-systems view focuses on similarities
among social groups, thus driven primarily by the goal of basic survival-not goals of the institutions.
Individuals are never simply hired hands but bring along with them their heads and hearts.
Concepts and Propositions
Survival Individual Needs Specialization Formalization
Informal Norms Hierarchy Span of Control Communication Informal
Organization
Comparison
Rational Systems Structure without
people Formal Structural
arrangements Organizational
demands
Natural System People without
organization Informal Social groups
trying to adapt Human needs
Open System: An Integration
A reaction to the unrealistic assumption that an organizational behavior can be isolated from external forces.
Organizations are not influenced only by the environment but also dependent on them.
“The opens systems model stresses reciprocal ties that bind and interrelate the organization with those elements that surround and penetrate it. Indeed, the environment is even seen to be the source of order itself”.
Social System
The school is a system of social interaction; it is an organized whole comprising interacting personalities bound together in an organic relationship, interdependence of parts, clearly defined population, differentiation from its environment, a complex network of social relationships, and its own unique culture.
Social Systems
Key Elements of the Social Systems Model
Structure Culture Politics Environment Outcomes
Systems Model: Management Cybernetics Stafford Beer Has taken the metaphor of living organisms a
stage further. Human physiological is applied to industrial organizations. It states that there are 5 tiers of the subsystems in the central human nervous system, which have their counterparts in the organization. The successful survival of the human is an evidence of the effectiveness of such a system. Diagnose in what respects they fall short and strengthening the subsystem that seem weekly developed.
Management Cybernetics
examine the health or viability of an existing organization
evaluate the proposals for new organization structures; and
clarify the purpose of committees or roles.
Management Cybernetics
The model can be used in three main ways:
examine the health or viability of an existing organization
evaluate the proposals for new organization structures; and
clarify the purpose of committees or roles.
Contingency Model
Organizations should be different from one another and from part to part.
Organizations left to themselves organization departments and individuals tend toward specialization, carving out a more distinctive niche for themselves.
Effective Integration
Each unit or individual can report to a manager who is made accountable for synergizing the two roles
a third unit or individual seen by the other two as understanding their roles and standing as a midway between them, act as intermediary
some kind of training or image exchange can be undertaken to help each unit understand more accurately why the other units behaves as it does.
Interdepartmental groups or task force to resolve issues between departments. Tis can be temporary or permanent
Hallmarks of Effective Schools Professional Leadership Shared vision & goals Learning Environment Concentration on Learning and
Teaching High Expectations Positive Reinforcement Monitoring Progress
UNIT 3KOMUNIKASI DALAM ORGANISASI Objektif Unit Pada akhir unit ini pelajar dapat:
Menerangkan proses komunikasi yang perlu dilalui oleh penyelia.
Membincangkan kaedah pengucapan awam yang berkesan
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 53
Communication
Communication - the evoking of a shared or common meaning in another person
Interpersonal Communication - communication between two or more people in an organization
Communicator - the person originating the message
Receiver - the person receiving a messagePerceptual Screen - a window through which we
interact with people that influences the quality, accuracy, and clarity of the communication
Communication
Message - the thoughts and feelings that the communicator is attempting to elicit in the receiver
Feedback Loop - the pathway that completes two-way communication
Language - the words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used & understood by a group of people
Communication
Data - uninterpreted and unanalyzed facts
Information - data that have been interpreted, analyzed, & and have meaning to some user
Richness - the ability of a medium or channel to elicit or evoke meaning in the receiver
Basic Interpersonal Communication Model
Event XMessage
• Context• Affect
Perceptual screens
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Perceptual screens
Communicator Receiver
Influence message quality, accuracy, clarityInclude age, gender, values, beliefs, culture,
experiences, needs
Reflective Listening
Reflective Listening - the skill of listening carefully to another person and repeating back to the speaker the heard message to correct any inaccuracies or misunderstandings
This complex process needs to be divided to be understood
What I heard you say was we will understand the
process better if we break it into steps
Reflective Listening
Emphasizes receiver’s role
Helps the receiver & communicator clearly & fully understand the message sent
Useful in problem solving
Reflective Listening
Reflective listening emphasizes the personal elements of the
communication process the feelings communicated in the message responding to the communicator, not
leading the communicator the role or receiver or audience understanding people by reducing
perceptual distortions and interpersonal barriers
Reflective Listening: 4 Levels of Verbal Response
Affirm contact
Paraphrase the expressed
Clarify the implicit
Reflect “core” feelings
One-way vs. Two-way CommunicationsOne-Way Communication - a person sends a message to another person and no questions, feedback, or interaction follow
Good for giving simple directions Fast but often less accurate than 2-way communication
Two-Way Communication - the communicator & receiver interact
Good for problem solving
Five Keys to Effective Supervisory Communication
Expressive speaking Empathetic listening Persuasive leadership Sensitivity to feelings Informative
management
Barriers to Communication
Physical separation Status differences Gender differences Cultural diversity Language
Communication Barriers - factors that block or significantly distort successful communication
Defensive Communication
Defensive Communication - communication that can be aggressive, attacking & angry, or passive & withdrawing
Leads to injured feelings communication breakdowns alienation retaliatory behaviors nonproductive efforts problem solving failures
Nondefensive CommunicationNon-defensive
Communication - communication that is assertive, direct, & powerful
Provides basis for defense when attacked restores order, balance, and
effectiveness
Two Defensiveness Patterns
Dominant Defensiveness - characterized by active, aggressive, attacking behavior
Subordinate Defensiveness - characterized by passive, submissive, withdrawing behavior
Defensive Tactics
Defensive Tactic
Speaker
Example
Power Play Boss “Finish this report by month’s end or lose your promotion.”
Put-Down Boss “A capable manager would already be done with this report.”
Labeling Boss “You must be a slow learner. Your report is still not done?”
Raising Doubts Boss “How can I trust you, if you can’t finish an easy report?”
Defensive Tactics
Defensive Tactic
Speaker
Example
Misleading Information
Employee “M has not gone over with me the information I need for the report.” [M left C with a copy of the report.]
Scape-goating Employee “Morgan did not give me input until just today.”
Hostile Jokes Employee “You can’t be serious! The report isn’t that important.”
Deception Employee “I gave it to the secretary. Did she lose it?”
Non-defensive Communication: A Powerful Tool Speaker seen as centered, assertive,
controlled, informative, realistic, and honest Speaker exhibits self-control & self possession Listener feels accepted rather than rejected Catherine Crier’s rules to nondefensive
communication1. Define the situation2. Clarify the person’s position3. Acknowledge the person’s feelings4. Bring the focus back to the facts
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication - all elements of communication that do not involve words
Four basic types Proxemics - an individual’s perception & use of
space Kinesics - study of body movements, including
posture Facial & Eye Behavior - movements that add
cues for the receiver Paralanguage - variations in speech, such as pitch,
loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, & crying
c
c = social 4-12’b
b = personal 1.5-4’
Proxemics: Territorial Space
Territorial Space - bands of space extending outward from the body; territorial space differs from culture to culture
a
a = intimate <1.5’
dd = public >12’
Proxemics: Seating Dynamics
Seating Dynamics - seating people in certain positions according to the person’s purpose in communication
Cooperation
X O
Non-Communication
O X O
Competition
X
O
X
CommunicationO
Examples of Decoding Non-verbal Cues
Boss fails to acknowledge employee’s greeting
No eye contact while
communicatingManager sighs deeply
Boss breathes heavily &
waves arms
He’s unapproachable!
My opinion doesn’t count
I wonder whathe’s hiding?
He’s angry! I’llstay out of
his way!
SOURCE: Adapted from “Steps to Better Listening” by C. Hamilton and B. H. Kleiner. Copyright © February 1987. Reprinted with permission, Personnel Journal, all rights reserved.
New Technologies for Communication
Informational databases Electronic mail systems Voice mail systems Fax machine systems Cellular phone systems
How Do New Technologies Affect Behavior? Fast, immediate access to information Immediate access to people in power Instant information exchange across
distance Makes schedules & office hours
irrelevant May equalize group power May equalize group participation
Communication can become more impersonal—interaction with a machine
Interpersonal skills may diminish—less tact, less graciousness
Non-verbal cues lacking Alters social context Easy to become overwhelmed with
information Encourages polyphasic activity
How Do New Technologies Affect Behavior?
Strive for message
completeness
Tips for Effective Use of New Communication Technologies
Build infeedback
opportunities
Providesocial
interactionopportunities
Don’t assume
immediateresponse
Is themessage
reallynecessary?
Regularlydisconnect
from thetechnology
Providesocial
interactionopportunities
04/20/23 PENYELIAAN PERSONEL 79
UNIT 4
KEPERLUAN & MOTIVASI PEKERJA Objektif Unit Pada akhir unit ini pelajar dapat:
Menerangkan keperluan dan motivasi pekerja.
Menerangkan pendekatan untuk membentuk pasukan kerja yang bermotivasi.
Why is Motivation Important?
Under optimal conditions, effort can often be increased and sustained
Delegation without constant supervision is always necessary
Employees can become self-motivated
Motivated employees can provide competitive advantage by offering suggestions & working to satisfy customers
Bottom Line
Motivation is accomplishing things through the efforts of others. If you cannot do this, you will fail as a manager.
MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
I. Need Approaches:
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
- McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
II. Cognitive Approaches:
- Expectancy Theory
- Equity Theory/ Social Comparison
- Goal Setting Theory
III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY OR OPERANT CONDITIONING : How Rewards & Reinforcements Sustain Motivation Over Time
(Behavior Modification)
SELF- ACTUALIZATION(using all of one’s abilities)
ESTEEM (self and from others)
SOCIAL/AFFILIATION
SAFETY/SECURITY
PHYSIOLOGICALMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Model
“Issues” with Maslow’s Need Model
1. Businesses typically do well satisfying lower order needs.
2. Model stipulates that there are 5 needs and that the order is “fixed”. Research indicates some may only have 2-3 need hierarchy; others 5-6. The order may also be inverted and meeting needs outside of work not accounted for.
3. Model not developed from average employees
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Need Growth Needs NeedProgression Regression
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
Herzberg’s Theory Rests on 2 Assumptions
1.) Being satisfied with one’s job is equivalent to being motivated; “a satisfied worker is a motivated worker”
2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants based on work with accountants and engineers
Herzberg’s 2-Factor Theory
Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene* Factors:
Pay, fringe benefits Working conditions Quality of supervision Interpersonal relationsJob Environment Factors
* Poor hygiene can make you, sick, but good hygiene won’t necessarily make you healthy
Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors:
Work itself, responsibility
Advancement Recognition
Job Content Factors
Assessment of Herzberg
Contributions 1st to argue that job
content/job design was important
Job enrichment (the work itself) as a job satisfaction strategy
Model appealing and easy to understand
Criticisms May be “method-bound” by
self-serving bias Some individual differences, like desire for
pay, rejected as a motivator. Also, not everyone wants an
enriched job Assumes satisfaction
(presence of motivators) = motivation
WORK PREFERENCES OF PERSONS HIGH IN NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND POWER
INDIVIDUAL NEED WORK PREFERENCES JOB EXAMPLE
High need for achievement
High need for affiliation
High need for power
- Individual responsibility
- Challenging but achievable goals
- Feedback on performance
- Interpersonal relationships
- Opportunities to communicate
- Control over other persons
- Attention
- Recognition
Field sales person with challenging quota and opportunity to earn individual bonus
Customer service representative; member of work unit subject to group wage bonus plan
Formal position of supervisory responsibility; appointment as head of special task force or committee
A Comparison of Internal Need Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s Hierarchy ERG Two Factor Acquiredof Needs Theory Theory Needs Theory
Self- AchievementActualization Growth Motivator
Esteem Power RelatednessBelonging Affiliation HygieneSecurity ExistencePhysiological
THE GOALS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES ARE TO EXPLAIN THOUGHTS ABOUT EFFORT:
1.) the decision to expend effort
2.) the level of effort to exert
3.) how effort can be made to persist over time
Expectancy Theory
Involves 3 cognitions/perceptions:
1. Expectancy - the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance. E link
2. Instrumentality - the perceived probability that performance will lead to rewards. I link
3. Valence - the anticipated value of a particular outcome to an individual.
Effort Performance Rewards or Outcomes
E link I link
EXPECTANCY THEORY(Text adds “Personal Goals” after Outcomes)
E P Expectancy or P O Theory Valence What is the probability What is the probability What value do I placethat I can perform at that my good performance on the potential the required level will lead to outcomes? outcomes? (see if I try? next slide)
Instrumentality
Effort Performance Outcomes
Motivation toExertEffort
Level of Performance
orProduction
Money (+9) Promotion (+6)Job Satisfaction (+1)Peer Disapproval (-8)
ELink
ILink
EXPECTANCY THEORY
Effort
-Earn high grades
-Feeling of accomplishment
-Learning something
practical
Partial Test of Expectancy Theory as Used in Simulation
E
Rewards or Outcomes
Implications for Managers
Need to offer employees valued rewards (high valences)
Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E link (Provide tools, info, support)
Need to make sure that you follow through with reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain the I link (Differential rewards for performance)
What is the basis of equity theory? …the thinking process by which one
makes a decision to exert effort is a function of social comparison
Based on individual perceptions of outcomes (what your receive from expending effort to complete a task), job inputs (what you bring or contribute to the task) and perceptions of a referent person.
Equity Theory: The decision to exert effort is a function of social comparisonInvolves 3 relevant perceptions:
1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task. (e.g., pay)
2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task.
3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a REFERENCE PERSON.
If: Outcomes Self Outcomes Reference Person
=
Inputs Self Inputs Reference Person
Then equity exists.
Restoring EquityUnder-reward:
Increase outcomesReduce inputs
Over-reward:
Increase inputsReduce Outcomes (?) -criticism of equity theory
Other Options:
Leave situationAlter perceptionsChange reference person
REASONING BEHIND GOAL SETTING
Direction - specific goals direct your focus to relevant activities
Effort - need to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficult goals - assumes people are goal driven
Persistence - specific, difficult goals encourage you to persist longer at a task than would be the case without such goals
Only possible exception is high “uncertainty avoidance” cultures.
Motivation as a Form of Learning: The Law of Effect
Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be repeated
Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or toward punishment tends to be avoided
The type of reinforcer & the timing (schedule) of reinforcement are key
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