Research methodologyDr. Amjad Idries

What is research and why research?

Research Concepts

In the broadest sense of the word•Research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

Difference between:

• They say,

• It might be,

• I imaging,

• I think,

• I believe,

• I am sure.

Research defined and described as ….

“…systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new and reliable knowledge”– Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps)– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable

This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines

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Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.

Research is notAccidental discovery :

1. Accidental discovery may occur in structured research process

2. Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not previously noticed

3. May lead to a structured research process to verify or

understand the observation

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Research is not … cont.Data Collection• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge• collecting reliable data is part of the research process

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Research is not … cont.Searching out published research results in libraries (or the internet)• This is an important early step of research• The research process always includes synthesis and

analysis•But, just reviewing of literature is not research (except

if it is systematic and structured).

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Research is…1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,

relationships and causes–What, how and why things occur–Are there interactions?

2. A process – Planned and managed – to make the information generated

credible – The process is creative– It is circular – always leads to more questions

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•All well designed and conducted research has potential application.

• Failure to see applications can be due to:–Users not trained or experienced in the specialized methods of

research and reasoning–Researchers often do not provide adequate interpretations and

guidance on applications of the research

• Researchers are responsible to help users understand research implications (How?)

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•Researchers from different disciplines have their own ways of viewing ‘their world’.

• This world view influences the different approaches that a researcher may take to further understanding.

• These differing perspectives will, in turn, influence the questions that researchers would pose and the methods that they would use in their research.

• These perspectives would lead them to develop distinct research agendas to further their knowledge and understanding.

• Researchers from the different disciplines would then have their own methodological approaches, or research tools, that they would employ to answer these questions.

• Different ways of viewing phenomena are often complementary. Thus, in addressing many issues in pharmacy practice and health service research, a range of researchers from different disciplines and backgrounds may be involved.

For your own research, you may like to broaden this to reflect on the following:• Your ‘world view’ and underlying perspectives and assumptions

regarding the nature of your research topic and the type of knowledge that will further your understanding.• How these may lead to the formulation of your research question

(identification of research priorities).

• What has informed your choice of methods for your study (methodology).

The Process of Research• The process is initiated with a question or problem (step 1)

• Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal with the question or problem (step 2)

• Then the research design is developed to achieve the objectives (step 3)

• Results are generated by conducting the research (step 4)

• Interpretation and analysis of results follow (step 5)20

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The Process of Research

Literature review • literature review is conducted in a given subject area before

a research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question.

Creativity in the Research Process

• Research is a creative process• “…research includes far more than mere logic … It includes insight, genius,

groping, pondering – ‘sense’ … The logic we can teach; the art we cannot”

• Research requires (or at least works best) with imagination, initiative, intuition, and curiosity.

• There are different types of creativity, characteristic of different situations – “applied” and “theoretical” most closely associate with economic research

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Fostering CreativityA. Look at things alternate waysB. Allow curiosity to growC. Set problems aside … and come back to themJ. Write down your thoughts

“… frequently I don’t know what I think until I write it”

K. Freedom from distraction … some time to thinkL. Question or challenge assumptions.M. Search for patterns or relationshipsN. Take risks

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Creativity may provide the difference between satisfactory and outstanding research

The concepts of reliability and validity are pertinent to all studies and at different stages of the research.

Reliability• Reliability refers to the extent to which procedures, measures and data

are reproducible or internally consistent.

• Problems of reliability may arise in relation to repeated measures on a piece of diagnostic equipment, uniformity between researchers in the collection of data, adherence of interviewers to an interview schedule, completeness in maintaining records of non-responders, care and attentiveness when observing events, consistency of questions in a questionnaire, agreement between researchers in the coding of data, etc.

Validity• Validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study are a true

reflection of phenomena under study.

• Do the instruments (e.g. questions in an interview, records maintained by an observer) actually measure what they are designed to measure?

• Potential problems in validity arise, in particular, in relation to data collection and the development of instruments.

Generalisability (external validity)• The generalisability is concerned with the extent to which the findings of a

study can be applied to individuals beyond the sample. Many studies involve samples rather than a whole population.

What is a scientific approach?

1. What are the expectations from your side as student?

2. What is a scientific approach?

In your methodology you need to justify your approach and methods in

terms of their scientific basis

The ultimate goal of research• The ultimate goal of research is to improve our

understanding of professional practice and medicines use, to inform the development of services to meet health and pharmaceutical care needs of patients and the public.

Understand first, then applyPossessing a conceptual understanding that enables you to:

1. Critically evaluate current research and advanced scholarship, and

2. Evaluate and critique relevant methodologies.

3. Use this knowledge to select and apply techniques applicable to your own research.

4. Demonstrate an understanding of how established techniques of research contribute to the development of a discipline and its application

• Applied research, by its very nature, is often designed to achieve pragmatic rather than theoretical goals.

• It is important to demonstrate how the work is underpinned by a scientific approach, which may, or may not, be germane to a particular discipline, and that the findings of the research are clear and dependable.

At the university real-life studies have not yet gained a similar status as the work in the lab.

natural science education at university

• The difference between •……………….positivism, in which the real world is ‘out there’

and can be described…………………….

•…………….. and constructionism in which we all construct the real world ourselves mainly through the attribution of meaning.

• There is something very uncomfortable, maybe even schizophrenic, about the characteristics of researching pharmacists.

•Within pharmaceutical science there are two main approaches for research: in the laboratory and in the field.

• The first approach relates to natural science, and the second approach relates to social science.

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Disciplinary, Subject-matter, and Problem-solving Research

From the lab to the field• Important part of the work within pharmaceutical science is performed

in laboratories.

• Interesting characteristic of research performed in a laboratory is that

the objects being studied are isolated from the outside world.

• Elimination of environmental influences is vital in a laboratory setting.

• In field research it not possible to ignore how the environment influences

the objects.

•A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable.

• The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.

What do you think?•A community pharmacy may be regarded as, - a drug-delivery shop?- a business?- an information shop?- a working place?- an expertise centre for medication?- a social place?- or all possible combinations of such perspectives.

What do you think?•Where you should do your research and why?

Scientific appraisals tends to focus exclusively on methodology and methods!

Logical thinkingWhy this study?

Subject-matter research“research on a subject of interest to a set of decision makers “• Tends to follow subject-matter boundaries within a discipline.

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Problem-solving research• Designed to solve a specific problem for a specific decision maker, and

Often results in recommendations on decisions or actions.

• Problem-solving research is holistic – uses all information relevant to the

specific problem, while disciplinary research tends to be reductionist.

• Disciplinary research is generally the most “durable” (long lasting);

problem-solving research the least durable.

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Analytic vs Descriptive Research

• Descriptive Research – the attempt to determine, describe, or identify something• The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge or information together

• Analytic – the attempt to establish why something occurs or how it came to be• All disciplines generally engage in both

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•Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.

•Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.

•Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.

Problem—Obstacle—Idea

Hypothesis or theory development

Observation—Test—Experiment

• In terms of design, studies may be descriptive or experimental. Examples of

quantitative studies may be:

1. Assessments of the frequencies of events.

2. Establishing the proportion of people in a population/sample who hold

particular views or attitudes.

3. Audits of professional practice and use of medicines, requiring assessment

against set criteria.

4. Assessment of rates of adherence among particular populations.

5. The timing, duration and resources associated with activities.

6. A comparison of prescribing patterns and rates between hospitals.

7. Examination of associations between variables in a dataset, e.g. number of

medicines prescribed and reports of medication-related problems, or

attitudes and population characteristics or experiences.

8. Randomized controlled trials in which differences in outcomes between

groups are measured and compared.

9. Studies that involve the application of statistical procedures.