1.When observation studies are most useful. 2.The distinctions
between monitoring nonbehavioral and behavioral activities. 3.The
strengths of the observation approach in research design. 4.The
weaknesses of the observation approach in research design. 5.The
three perspectives from which the observer-participant relationship
may be viewed in observation studies. 6.The various designs of
observation studies.
Slide 3
Observation and the Research Process
Slide 4
Selecting the Data Collection Method
Slide 5
Selecting an Observation Approach
Slide 6
NONBEHAVIORALBEHAVIORAL Record analysis Physical condition
analysis Process or Activity analysis Nonverbal observation
Linguistic observation Extralinguistic observation Spatial
observation
Slide 7
Record analysis is the extraction of data from current or
historical records. Data mining is a type of record analysis.
Physical condition analysis is the recording of observations of
current conditions resulting from prior decisions. relate to a
safety audit or an analysis of inventory conditions or an analysis
of food preparation areas in a restaurant.
Slide 8
Process or Activity analysis observation by a time study of
stages in a process, evaluated on both effectiveness and
efficiency. relates to any organization that tracks time related to
activity or process steps and stages.
Slide 9
Nonverbal the most prevalent and refers to recording physical
actions or movements of participants. Linguistic the observation of
human verbal behavior during conversation, presentation, or
interaction.
Slide 10
Extralinguistic
Slide 11
Spatial the recording of how humans physically relate to one
another.
Slide 12
Strengths Securing information that is otherwise unavailable
Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting Securing environmental
context Optimizing naturalness Reducing obtrusiveness Weaknesses
Enduring long periods Incurring higher expenses Having lower
reliability of inferences Keeping large records
Slide 13
Whether the observation is direct or indirect. Direct
observation occurs when the observer is physically present and
personally monitors what takes place. Indirect observation occurs
when the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or
electronic means. The Observer-Participant Relationship may be
viewed from three perspectives: 1)Whether the observation is direct
or indirect 2)Whether the observers presence is known or unknown to
the participant 3)What role the observer plays in the events or
effects of events recorded.
Slide 14
Whether the observers presence is known or unknown to the
participant. Concealment shields the observer from the participant
to avoid error caused by the observers presence. A modified
approach involves partial concealment. Whether the observer should
participate in the situation while observing. Participant
observation, exists when the observer enters the social setting and
acts as both an observer and a participant.
Slide 15
Slide 16
Simple observation Its practice is not standardized, as one
would expect, because of the discovery nature of exploratory
research. System observation It employs standardized procedures,
trained observers, schedules for recording, and other devices for
the observer.
Observation checklist It is a measuring instrument for testing
hypotheses of class 4 studies.
Slide 19
Specific conditions, events, or activities that we want to
observe determine the observational reporting system. Observation
may be at either a factual or an inferential level.
Slide 20
FactualInferential Introduction/identification of salesperson
and customer. Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of
customer. Time and day of weekConvenience for the customer.
Welcoming attitude of the customer. Product presented.Customer
interest in product. Selling points presented per product.Customer
acceptance of selling points per product. Number of customer
objections raised per product. Customer concerns about features and
benefits. Salespersons rebuttal of objection.Effectiveness of
salespersons rebuttal attempts. Salespersons attempt to restore
controls. Effectiveness of salespersons control attempt.
Consequences for customer who prefers interaction.
Slide 21
General guidelines for the qualification and observers.
Concentration Detail-oriented Unobtrusive Experience
Slide 22
The data collection plan specifies the details of the task. It
answer the questions who, what, when, how, and where
Slide 23
The characteristics of the observation must be set as sampling
elements and units of analysis. Event sampling The researcher
records selected behavior that answers the investigative questions.
Time sampling The researcher must choose among a time-point sample,
continuous real-time measurement, or a time-interval sample.
Slide 24
Time-point sample Recording occurs at fixed points for a
specified length. Continuous measurement Behavior or the elapsed
time of the behavior is recorded.
Slide 25
Any of the following could be defined as an act for an
observation study: A single expressed thought A physical movement A
facial expression A motor skill
Slide 26
Slide 27
Innovative observational procedures that can be both
nonreactive and inconspicuously applied. Of particular interest are
measures involving indirect observation based on physical traces( )
that include erosion ( )and accretion( ). Physical trace methods
present a strong argument for use based on their ability to provide
low-cost access to frequency, attendance, and incidence data
without contamination from other method or reactivity from
participants.