توجيه اللغة الانجليزية

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الكويت دولةالتربية وزارة

اإلنجليزية للغة العام الفني التوجيه

لمعلمي / التنشيطية الدورةالمرحلتين معلمات

والثانوية المتوسطةالدراسي 2008-2007للعام

إعــدادالعام الفني التوجية

اإلنجليزية للغة

الموضوعــــات فهرس

الصفحة التنشيطية الدورة موضوعات م

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كلغة- اإلنجليزية اللغة لتدريس العامة األهدافأجنبية

المتوسطة- للمرحلتين الخاصة األهدافوالثانويةاألهداف- صياغةالدروس- تحضير

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11مع- التعامل وكيفية المتعلمين نمو خصائص

الفردية الفروق2

17 المتعلمين- وحفز الفصل إدارة أساليب 3

25 التعليمية- الوسائل 4

33على- التركيز مع التدريس طرق استعراض

التواصلية الطريقةللمادة- المصاحبة األنشطة

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40اللغوية- والوظائف المفردات تدريس كيفية

االتصالية والتراكيب6

47المقروء- واالستيعاب التعبير تدريس كيفية

والترجمة والمسموع7

56بناء- / / المواصفات جدول والتقويم القياس

النتائج وتحليل االختبار8

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إشرافللغة العام الفني التوجية

اإلنجليزية

اللغة لتدريس العامة األهدافاإلنجليزية

للمرحلتين الخاصة األهدافوالثانوية المتوسطة

اإلنجليزية للغة العام الفني التوجيه2007-2008

(1) GENERAL GOALS OF TEACHING ENGLISH &

HOW TO WRITE VALID EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

AIMS, GOALS, OBJECTIVES & DOMAINS:

What are these terminologies mean to you?

ims are usually seen as very general statements of desired outcomes such as to develop good citizens, to develop critical awareness or to promote understanding.

Aims of teaching English as a foreign language, for example, are to develop the four language skills. Indeed, aims by themselves have often been regarded as too general and lacking in specificity. Aims are broad statements of what learning you hope to generate (philosophy of education)

A

oals, therefore, are mid point statements of desired outcomes. Usually they will refer to school outcomes. Examples of curriculum goals are to develop citizens

who are aware of their heritage or who can read critically. One of the goals of teaching English as a foreign language, for example, is to provide the student with opportunities to speak English. Obviously, goals are less general and less distant than aims.

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bjectives, on the other hand, are specific statements of desired outcomes. These objectives will guide the planning of each individual lesson. In other words,

objectives describe what the learners will be able to do at the end of the period. Objectives are statements of what you are going to teach.

Oomain: In planning objectives for an educational programme, a domain is the particular area or aspect of learning an objective or set of objectives.D

- Domains help pupils acquire:- different types of knowledge ( COGNITIVE ) - positive attitudes and values ( AFFECTIVE ) - different skills ( PSYCHMOTOR )

The general educational aims of any society are connected with:1- The social matrix of the society2- The spiritual and ethical aspects3- Contemporary educational trends4- The needs and characteristics of the learners5- Future prospects

ELT general goals of teaching English:1- Proficiency goals: - Promoting the four language skills.2- Cognitive goals: - It comprises the mastery of linguistic knowledge.

- It comprises the areas of intellectual abilities.3- Affective goals: - It comprises achieving positive attitudes, values

and principles.4-Transfer goals: -Transferring is the carrying over of learnt behavior from one learning situation to another.

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Examples of the proficiency goals:A-_Listening Skill:

1- Recognize the English phonemes receptively.2- Understand and follow what they listen to ( live or taped ), etc.

B- Speaking Skill:1- Speak correct English in terms of pronunciation and grammar.2- Express themselves, their ideas and feelings orally, etc.

C- Reading Skill:1- Read aloud correctly in terms of pronunciation, stress, intonation and

punctuation.2- Develop the skill of silent reading, etc.

D- Writing Skill:1- Write correct and meaningful sentences in terms of grammar and punctuation.2- Write simple sentences to describe objects and people, etc.

Examples of the cognitive goals:1- Produce correct utterances based on auditory stimuli.2- Present ideas and information orally and in writing.3- Identify and apply some rules of word formation.4- Detect and correct salient grammatical mistakes.5- Identify the meaning of some words through contextualization, etc.

Examples of the affective goals:1- Appreciate the values and teachings of Islam.2- Develop a sense of belonging to Kuwait.3- Show respect for their heritage.4- Have pride in the Arab culture.5- Develop a positive attitude towards learning English and other subjects, etc.

Examples of the transfer goals:1- Use the knowledge of English skills within the school environment and in real

life situations.2- Apply English language skills to other school subjects (cross curricular links).3- Attempt to explore other sources of learning.4- Transfer thinking skills from the target language to other fields of knowledge, etc.

- The Cognitive Domain:

It includes the mastery of linguistic knowledge as well as cultural knowledge. It comprises the areas of intellectual abilities.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives, first published in 1956 by a team of educational psychologists headed by Benjamin Bloom, models the progressive levels at which an individual learns new material. From the "lowest" or "simplest" cognitive level, to the "highest" or "most difficult" level, these are: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation.

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Bloom listed six basic objectives within the COGNITIVE domain:

1-Knowledge - remembering or recognising something previously encountered without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it. Sample observable verbs applicable to this level: (listen- match-describe-show-recognize-arrange-recall-read-write-define-tell)

2-Comprehension - understanding the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else. Sample observable verbs applicable to this level: (explain-summarize-understand-express-translate-classify-discuss-differentiate)

3-Application - using general concept to solve a particular problem. Sample observable verbs applicable to this level: (apply-choose-use-practise-solve-illustrate-complete-modify)

4-Analysis - breaking something down into parts. Sample observable verbs applicable to this level: (analyze-compare-diagram-differentiate-separate-transform-test-reorder-select)

5-Synthesis - creating something new by combining different ideas. Sample observable verbs applicable to this level: (compose-design-organize-synthesize-assemble-categorize-classify-combine-derive-join-modify-arrange-rearrange)

6-Evaluation - judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation. Sample observable verbs applicable to this level: (assess-judge-estimate-evaluate-value-criticize-measure-justify-rank-decide)

How to write valid learning objectives in terms of behaviour

Definition of behavioural objectives:

ehavioural objectives are the expected outcome to take place on learners after a learning session. Instructional objectives refer to descriptions of observable student

behaviour or performance that are used to make judgments about learning.BThe purpose of a behavioural objective is to communicate. Therefore, a well-constructed behavioural objective shouldn't leave little room for doubt about what is intended. A well constructed behavioural objective describes an intended learning outcome and contains three parts;

(1) conditions under which the behaviour is performed,(2) a verb that defines the behaviour itself, and(3) the degree ( criteria ) to which a student must perform the behaviour.

If any one of these three components is missing, the objective cannot communicate accurately.

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Why stating objectives:

- A behavioural objective is the focal point of a lesson plan.- Without a behavioural objective, it is difficult, if not impossible to determine exactly what a particular lesson is supposed to accomplish. - It provides criteria for constructing an assessment for the lesson, as well as for the instructional procedures the teacher designs to implement the lesson. - To clarify the changes in student's thinking and knowledge you want your students to achieve. - To inform students of what is expected of them.- To help determine the most appropriate teaching strategies and content to achieve these changes.- To assess pupils’ understating.- To observe and evaluate our teaching at the end of the lesson.- To make it clear in mind the techniques the teacher is going to use.- To select an appropriate time for lesson presentation.

Guidelines for writing behavioural objectives:

- Begin each objective with an “action verb” which depicts definite, observable behaviour and describes what the learner will be doing, i.e., identify, formulate, list, describe, recall, etc.- State each objective in terms of student performance rather than teacher performance.- State each objective as a learning product, outcome or terminal behaviour rather than in terms of the learning process.- State only one outcome or behaviour in each objective.- Make objectives clear and brief.- Describe the important conditions under which the learner will be learning.- Indicate how the learner will be evaluated.

Objectives should be SMART:

S pecific : They should state clearly what the student should know/be able to do, and at what level.M easurable : You should be able to measure whether you are meeting the objectives or not.A ttainable or achievable by the students.R ealistic : Can you realistically achieve the objectives with the resources you have?T ime-appropriate : Or achievable within the time-span of the lesson/course.

Examples of valid objectives:

- At the end of this lesson, learners are expected to

- use the comparative forms of short adjectives in sentences- classify ten items under three categories- match four utterances to their responses- write sentences in the simple past

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Examples of invalid objectives:

- At the end of this lesson, learners are expected to be able to…

- listen, read and role play a dialogue- present the new vocabulary- revise the simple past tense- teach the passive voice

Examples of valid objectives:

- At the end of this lesson, learners are expected to

- use the comparative forms of short adjectives in sentences- classify ten items under three categories- match four utterances to their responses- write sentences in the simple past

References:

1- Basic Training for Trainers by Gary Kroehnert – McGgraw-Hill 19952- English Language Teaching Objectives, Syllabus and Guidelines 1990 – MOE Kuwait3- Educational Objectives, their Categorization, Formulation & Measurement 2005 by Sakina Ali

Compiled & Prepared by: Reda Sheha

ELT SupervisorHawalli ELT Supervision Board2007-2008

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LESSON PLANNING-What is a lesson plan?

A lesson plan is a framework for a lesson. If you imagine that a lesson is like a journey, then the lesson plan is the map. It shows you where to start, where to finish and the route to get there.Lesson plans are the product of teachers’ thoughts about their classes; what they hope to achieve and how to achieve it.

-Why is planning important?

Without planning, a lesson could be just as chaotic and could leave the students with no clear idea of what they were doing or why. This uncertainty is not good for effective learning or class discipline.

Here are some more reasons why it is essential to plan:

-Planning is a sign of professionalism.-Planning is a way to help gain the respect of your students.-Planning gives you the opportunity to tailor your material and teaching to your class.-Planning encourages teachers to consider ( ESA) Engage, Study and Activate points and ensure they are included in the lesson.-Planning gives the teacher a chance to predict possible problems in the class and think about ways to deal with them.

-How to plan ( prepare ) a good lesson ?

(a) A good lesson planning has to refer to the course, number of unit and the number of the step being taught. Unit … / Step …

(b) Each lesson ( specific period ) should have an “objective“ or “sub-objective” to be achieved.

(c) A successful teacher must get his materials "aids" prepared, well examined and valid before the period.

- Always remember that “Aids” are only aids when they aid.

e.g. listening to the tape more than once.

(d) A sound lesson planning should include and stress “New Language items". The teacher has to categorize them according to the technique of presentation.(e) Before introducing new vocabulary items, a teacher has to make sure of their pronunciation. Accurate pronunciation of the teacher is essential.(f) A personal touch of a teacher is required, keep to the instructions but never be book-bound. (g) Don’t prepare too much or too rigidly. A good lesson should have a beginning, a middle and an end.

(h) "Evaluation", after having finished the lesson, is an essential part of a lesson planning. It should include:

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-Objectives: ( achieved or not )-Pupils’ reaction ( response )-Teacher's reaction ( response )

-What are the principles of planning?-ObjectivesOne of the main principles of planning is establishing a clear objective for your lesson. It is important that objectives are realistic. If the subject is too difficult for the students, then they can become frustrated and lose motivation. However, if the subject is too easy, the students may become bored. Bored and frustrated students can often cause discipline problems. So it is important when planning to think about your particular class.

-You may find it useful to bear these points in mind:

• What do students know already?

If you are planning to introduce completely new language items allow more time than if you are revising or extending a topic the class are already familiar with.

• What do students need to know?

If the students are studying for an exam, for example, then you may need to focus on different skills and language than for a General English class. Do your objectives suit that need?

• What did you do with the students in their previous class?• How well do the class work together?• How motivated are the students?

All these factors are important when deciding realistic objectives for your class.VarietyAs we have seen, it is important to try and keep the students engaged and interested. Providing variety in a lesson and a series of lessons is a way of achieving this. Repeating the same kinds of exercises can become monotonous and demotivating for students. Where possible it’s a good idea to try and vary the kinds of activities, materials and interactions. If you don’t build variety into your plan the danger is that students will switch off at some stage.

FlexibilityHowever well you plan you never actually know exactly what’s going to happen in a class until it happens! Exercises may take longer or shorter than anticipated, the students may be more or less interested in a topic than you imagined, something unexpected may happen during the lesson. Careful planning is very important but teachers need to be able to adapt their plan during the lesson to suit the circumstances. The teacher needs to be flexible enough to be able to leave the plan if such opportunities arise.

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Main Points related to Lesson Planning

Problem anticipation and suggested solutions is a part of daily lesson planning. It aims at getting the teacher acquainted enough with his main tasks to be achieved during the period. It is all in all related to the difficulties that might face the students / pupils while the teacher is doing his best to achieve the learning objectives requested. The teacher feels or guesses such difficulties (problems) while preparing his lesson before getting into the class. It isn't a must to have the same problems for all classes and it isn't even a must to have problems in every lesson. Suggested Solutions should be realistic and avoid monotonous sentences as: more drilling, more practice, more time and things of the like. Be specific and to the point when looking for either problems or their solutions.

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Wrap-up / Feedback means the information and recommendations provided to a teacher by his class students / pupils about his / her performance based on the results of that teacher's evaluation and designed to help the teacher improve his/her performance and make decisions concerning professional development and improvement. It has to be a varied activity not just a repeated procedure pre-introduced or taught through the lesson. It could be a mini task such as ask and answer, fill in, multiple choice, role-play, pair work,….etc.

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Evaluation is the process of reviewing one's own behavior and student learning outcomes for the purpose of monitoring and changing one's own teaching performance. It starts with implementing the plan in the classroom, the students' response and reaction to the new material and the teacher necessitate evaluating the techniques and the plan and, sometimes, taking instant decisions on the spur of the moment. It has to shed light on successes and areas of difficulty or even failure. It helps a teacher to boost his/ her successes and face difficulties appropriately.

Evaluation, after having finished the lesson, is an essential part of a lesson planning. It should include:

-Objectives: (achieved or not)-Pupils’ reaction (responsive or not) -Teacher's reaction (satisfied or not)

Compiled & Prepared by:Magdy Hamed Ali / ELT Supervisor

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المتعلمين نمو خصائصالفروق مع التعامل وكيفية

الفردية


(2) CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS

Characteristics of Learners in the Intermediate Stage

(10-14 years of age)

-This stage is a transitory one between childhood and adolescence. A boy or a girl is usually sensitive and self-conscious. He or she often has daydreams and is sometimes absent minded. A pupil in this stage tends to isolate himself from others and to indulge in imaginative thinking. Intellectually a pupil’s abilities, skills and special interests begin to develop. This fact emphasizes the importance of close observation of a pupil’s distinguished abilities, inclinations and tastes. This stage is called “The Observation Stage “ in the French system of education in which pupils are directed to different types of education in the next stages of study.

Health and physical education and various school free activities should be paid special attention in an intermediate school because of their importance in directing and developing a pupil’s physical and intellectual skills. School free educational activities enable a pupil to acquire different experiences and establish his skills through practice.

The intermediate stage is the stage of educational orientation. Teachers are entitled to estimate a pupil’s behavior and achievement in all aspects and get acquainted with his abilities, skills and to direct him to the type and branch of education that best suits him (vocational, theoretical, scientific, literary etc.

Paying a special attention to guidance and supervising at school. A teacher should be a guide for a group of pupils. He should be in close touch with them, study their social conditions, try to solve their problems and help them pass through this critical stage easily and peacefully. The social worker at school can also play a vital role in this respect.

Characteristics of Learners in the Intermediate Stage (10-14 years of age):

*-Characteristic:

1-A boy or a girl is usually sensitive and self-conscious.

Educational Applications

*- Paying a special attention to guidance and supervising at school. A teacher should be a guide for a group of pupils. He should be in close touch with them, study their social conditions, try to solve their problems and help them pass through this critical stage easily and peacefully. The social worker at school can also play a vital role in this respect.

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*-Characteristic:

2-He or she often has daydreams and is sometimes absent minded.


*-This fact emphasizes the importance of close observation of a pupil’s distinguished abilities, inclinations and tastes. This stage is called “The Observation Stage “ in the French system of education in which pupils are directed to different types of education in the next stages of study.

*-Characteristic:

3-A pupil in this stage tends to isolate himself from others and to indulge in imaginative thinking.


*-Health and physical education and various school free activities should be paid special attention. Directing and developing a pupil’s physical and intellectual skills. Free educational activities enable a pupil to acquire different experiences and establish his skills through practice.

*-Characteristic:

4-Intellectually a pupil’s abilities, skills and special interests begin to develop.


*-Teachers are entitled to estimate a pupil’s behavior and achievement in all aspects and get acquainted with his abilities, skills and to direct him to the type and branch of education that best suits him (vocational, theoretical, scientific, literary etc.

Compiled & Prepared by:Magdy Hamed Ali / E.L.T. Supervisor

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Characteristics of Learners in the Secondary Stage

This stage of education is complementary to the previous two stages (the primary and the intermediate stages) . An adolescent’s personality gradually reaches maturity. Among the most important factors affecting this transformation are home, school and social treatment.

This is the place of gradual natural and comprehensive growth of teenager’s physical and intellectual characteristics. He experiences some emotional and temperamental changes. He is usually moody because of his unstable emotions frequently swinging from a state of mind to another, i.e. from satisfaction to dissatisfaction, from happiness to misery and indignation and from tendency to shun other’s company to a sense of social belonging.

These changes are usually the result of his thoughts, fancies, and personal problems. In this stage a teenager’s behavior and social characteristics take their shape. He craves for independence and freedom. He tends to depend on himself and stick stubbornly to his personal views and opinions. Teenagers’ different views, obstinacy and intransigence sometimes lead to conflicts with their parents.

Adolescents usually indulge themselves in prolonged arguments. They revolt against traditions and dispute rigid customs and rules. They tend to make use of their groupings against adults. This inclination to mass and regroup could be exploited in directing teenagers’ activities towards social reform, scientific and technical development, boosting loyalty to their homeland and nation. It is not right to check a teenager while discussing a certain subject or issue.

The best method is to open a free dialogue. It is also wrong to castigate or punish him for his tendency to discuss or argue. The emotional and psychological problems that occupy a teenager’s mind add to his restlessness and confusion and make him in an urgent need of security and assurance. Concerning a teenager’s cognition ability, it is assumed that this stage is a continuation of the previous stage (the intermediate stage). Here a teenager’s talents, distinguished mental abilities and intelligence reach their peak. He becomes more interested in reading and research to upgrade his academic achievement. He is also eager to listen to the radio and watch TV and cinema films to get more information and become more enlightened. In this stage a teenager tends to spend more time thinking, imagining, meditating and indulging himself in daydreams, that is why many adolescents (both males and females) are absent-minded.

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Characteristics of Learners in the Secondary Stage:Characteristic :

1-The adolescent personality gradually reaches maturity.


*-They should be treated as grown up. Their abilities should be carefully observed and directed.

Characteristic :

2-Teenagers discern comprehensive physical and intellectual growth.


*-Sportive clubs and libraries should be provided.

Characteristic :

3 Their talents, intelligence and mental abilities reach their peak.


*-In this stag Islamic principles should be rooted in their behaviour.

Characteristic :

4-They are more interested in reading and research to upgrade their academic achievements.


*-Provide them with appropriate books and other media to satisfy their greed to knowledge.

Characteristic :

5-They are eager to listen to the radio and watch TV to get more information and acquire more experience.


*-There should be special constructive programmes on radio and TV to address their minds and realize their requirements.

Characteristic :

6-They tend to spend more time thinking, imagining, meditating and indulging themselves in daydreams.


*-Collective and side meetings should be held to discuss problems and envisage effective solutions.

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Characteristic : 7-They are moody and emotionally unstable.


*-We should try to ensure security and assurance.

Characteristic : 8-They are restless and confused. Educational Applications

*-Psychological guidance should be always available to help them solve their problems.

Characteristic : 9-They crave for independence and freedom.Educational Applications

*-Respect their desires and treat them as mature persons.

Characteristic : 10-They tend to depend on themselves.Educational Applications

*-Entrust them and let them do things by themselves.

Characteristic : 11-They are stubborn argumentative and obstinate.Educational Applications

*-Give them chance to argue and express their views. We should listen to them and value their thoughts. We shouldn’t castigate or punish them. We should open free dialogues with them.

Characteristic : 12-They revolt against traditions and dispute rigid customs and rules.


*-Teach them the value of traditions.

Characteristic : 13-Some of them are absent-minded. Educational Applications

*-Eye contact, addressing pupils by names, setting up a positive learning atmosphere, collective learning, group and pair work …

Characteristic : 14-They tend to group against adults. Educational Applications

*-The tendency of grouping could be exploited in directing their activities to social reform, scientific and technological development and in boosting their patriotism and loyalty to their nation.

Compiled & Prepared by:Magdy Hamed Ali / ELT Supervisor

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الفصل إدارة أساليبالمتعلمين وحفز


(3) CLASS MANAGEMENT & MOTIVATION

I- Class Management“The more power you give to your students the less they will try to take it away from you”

Just as students function at different levels in reading and math, they also function at different levels or stages of discipline. No learning takes place unless there is a sensible degree of class control.

What is Class management? It is an ongoing process of managing students’ behavior. It is a multi-factor process

(use the board to fill in diagram by trainees)

Classroom setting Body language

T-S Rapport Setting rules

Learner involvement interest and

In activities motivation

Frontal teaching x group Good lesson plan

dynamics Those few minutes left

Classroom setting: a. Arrangement of seating The choice of seating depends on number of class members ,activities to be tackled and level of learners. shape - shape - in rows

b. classroom atmosphere: Decorating classroom walls with posters and magazines is so beneficial, the attractive presentation of the material focuses the learners’ attention , arouses interest in what they learn.

Body language: Face gestures, voice tonality, body movement, eye contact are all means by which the teacher is able to manage an acceptable amount of discipline in the classroom. Non verbal messages can sometimes do miracles.

Teacher-pupil Rapport: Establishing good relationship with pupils is not as simple as it seems. For, some teachers tend to exert an effort in order to create a strong bond with their pupils on the expense of class control while others do exactly the opposite. Teachers need to be patient, understanding, helpful .However , they should be strict enough, firm , and set rules and

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Class Management

regulations that have consequences if violated. Sarcasm and humiliation is be avoided.

Setting rules: Teachers need to establish some class routines for collecting homework, distributing papers, etc. The teacher’s self discipline is the key. Model the behavior you want in your students.

Learner involvement in activities: Educators emphasized that response to student’s misbehavior is most effective when it maintains or enhances the student’s dignity and self- esteem and encourages the students to be responsible of their own behavior. a. Relate material to students’ lives, experiences, and current events.b. Create anticipation, use the element of surprise.c. Engage students in group work and role play as misbehavior occurs because

students find “acting out “ more interesting than a boring lesson.

Interest and motivation: once pupils are interested in what the teacher says they become motivated and willing to learn.

Frontal teaching x group dynamics: Frontal teaching group dynamics Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher

The frontal teaching occurs when the teacher addresses the whole group ,who respond in union or one by one. The time involved in active communication is limited . It is perhaps an attractive method for teachers because discipline in the classroom is very easy and the students are so quiet. Newer approaches to teaching languages offer different possibilities of classroom dynamics which make class activities much more communicative and efficient.

A good lesson plan: planning a lesson which is suitable to level , interests , age group of learners can save time , effort and guarantees learning .

Create W.I.I.F.M for the students: (what’s in it for me) they must generate the reasons to do things.

Keep the body moving: Switch off the brain by movement games such as funny says, hands up …etc.

Let students know you care: by attending some kind of outside of class activity that they are in, like sporting events, a play, etc.

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Those few minutes left: Teacher must always be prepared with some extra activities that reinforce a certain skill on one hand and keep pupils busy on the other hand.

Time Management : As teachers become more and more accountable for student’ success, taking advantage of every minute of class time becomes crucial , Efficient use of class time increases students’ performance and decreases teacher’s anxiety .

Plan a good lesson having in mind certain tasks to be tackled. Set a realistic time limit for each task baring in mind the difficulty and

the length of the task in addition to the level of your students.Write time limits beside each task in the written lesson plan and abide by

it. Do not get carried away with an activity because students are interactive and motivated.

Procedure Ss Time Overall task timingIntroducing vocab items (4 items) 10 minAllowing Ss to listen for general information 3 min 5minReading for detailed information 5 min 8 minRole-playing 5 minTackling the matching exercise 5 min 8 min

Note that length , difficulty of the exercise and the text in addition to the level of your class should be taken into consideration when setting the time limit.

Discipline philosophy

"Every once in a great while try to truly understand what it must be like to be a student in your own class…. You might never teach the same”

Disruptions are a normal part of living.

The normal class disruptions are part of school, life and our reality. Treat them as enjoyable challenges and sources of curiosity. It is easier to adapt your understanding of the world to reality than to try to change the world to your point of view. “School is life”.

Low stress, high challenge

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The worst learning environment is high fear and high stress. An acceptable amount of discipline is the best environment for learning, not the well-disciplined class.

The best discipline is the kind nobody notices The less students realize they are being disciplined the better. Keep “learning” as the “class event” .The more outraged you become about discipline problems ,the more they occur. If you are upset who is in control? Remember ! “Where the attention goes, the energy flows”

Problems are usually spontaneous expressions Respond non-verbally, non-traditionally to most of them. Save the lectures and rule discussion as the last resort response.

“Successful teaching requires constant personal growth and professional risk-taking”

DiscussionWhich method is commonly used by teachers?Which method is the most appropriate for primary stage?Which is the most advanced?

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Discipline modelsDiscipline models

Behavior modificationIdentify reward and

punishment. Keeps track

of student behavior .*

Brain-based disciplineTeacher emphasizes learning as activity of choice. Does “invisible discipline” by changing activities ,giving students appropriate emotional and linguistic

Personal influenceBased on teacher- student relation. Build up relationships ,then use them to modify behavior.**

Logical consequencesTeacher helps students to understand what they did and why .Then a student explores alternatives and consequences.**

Self-awareness trainingTeacher trains students to observe their own behaviorSo they know when they’re behaving counterproductivelyTeacher role is active at first ,then students get involved **

Cooperative DisciplineUse of groups and teams, plus student and teacher relationships. Emphasizing prevention and group norms. ***

My vision is a world of confident and capable learners who love to learn and have fair, unlimited and equal access to learning. Its is common knowledge that the attitude and personal inclinations of the learner are of significance in determining whether he will learn effectively or not. Motivation is essential to success ;that we have to want to do something to succeed at it. If motivation is so important ,therefore ,it makes sense to try to develop our understanding of it.

Avoid motivating your students; instead lead them to an addiction of their own greatness.What is Motivation?

It is some kind of internal derive which pushes someone towards something to achieve a goal. In other words, it is the will and want to do something. The main idea of motivation in to capture the child’s attention and curiosity and to channel their energy towards learning. Motivation is simply the key to learning . Lack of motivation is perhaps the biggest obstacle faced by teachers , counselors , school administrators and parents.

Types of Motivation:

Extrinsic motivation: is caused by any number of outside factors, for example, the need to pass an exam, the hope of financial reward, etc.

Intrinsic motivation: comes from within the individual. The person might be motivated by the enjoyment of learning process itself or by the desire to make himself feel better

Sources of Motivation:

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Extrinsic

Intrinsic

We are all gifted….some just haven’t opened their gifts

How can learners be motivated?

Motivate your self:Make a special personal highlight every day, think of the difference you make in the others, set goals to your self.

Rapport with your students :“Your success as an educator is more dependent on positive, caring, trustworthy, relationships than any other skill, idea, tip, or tool in this book.” The teacher-students relationship must be taken into consideration. A relaxed friendly atmosphere can encourage a lot of learning to take place. “a smile is contagious.”

Learning Environment:Researchers suggest that your learning environment should be changed every 2-4 weeks to keep the brain curious and learners engaged.

Presenting or communicating : “You are never the main event; the real show is your student’s mind” The stand and deliver method is dead, the teacher is no longer the center of the show instead he should work back stage to coordinate a well organized performance that paves the way to a life-long lasting play.

Plan your work and work your plan:Are you planning a lesson or planning learning? , The old way is “plan what there is to teach and teach it” the new thinking is “What there is to learn and how to learn it”

Positive wordings: A common pattern of ineffective teachers is the use of negation- telling learners what not to do- the best teachers put most of what they say in the positive form.

Handling wrong answers:Use some possibilities such as; “hotter-colder” game – non-verbal clues – “your answer is a good effort”

Be in your students’ shoes:The teacher must be fully aware of her pupils’ involvement, attitudes, and learning aptitude. The teacher must have an idea of her pupils’ aspirations, feelings and creative abilities to cater for them in activities tackled.

Cooperative learning:The group process may be the best means of promoting low-stress learning .

Team work ----- they may cooperate but the aim is to produce an event .Cooperative learning----- they may work as a team however part of the explicit team experience is to learn collaborative skills.

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Use Energizers and sponges:What is the difference between energizers and sponges?

Ask students to name as many objects in the classroom as they can. Ask students to write one question they would feel comfortable answering, without

writing their names, on an index cards. Put them in a bag, have students draw cards, and ask another student the question on the card.

Ask your students if there are any songs running through their heads today. Encourage them to sing or hum a little bit, and ask others to identify it.

At the end of the class, erase the board and challenge students to recall everything you wrote on the board.

Bring a cellular phone to class, and pretend to receive calls .Students can only listen to one side of the conversation, they must guess who is calling you and why.

Bring a fork, knife, spoon, bowl, plate and pretend different kinds of food and allow to guess what kind of food you are eating.

Ask each student to choose a famous character then work in pairs to interview each other.

Bring in some snacks which you think students haven’t tried before, invite students to taste them and give their opinion.

Copy a dialogue from a comic book, white out parts of the dialogue or the whole dialogue, make copies for the students then have them supply utterances for the characters.

Copy interesting pictures of people let each student choose one and write what this person might be doing, saying, or even thinking of.

Describe something in the classroom and have students identify it. Play a listening activity with lights turned off. Ask each student to bring an item that is not needed at home. Advertising this item

trying to convince students to buy it. Supply each student with a copy of the entertainment section in the newspaper and

ask them to decide where they would like to go this weekend. Write “Tell me something I don’t know “and ask students to tell you about

something you know nothing about. Practice story telling that students help in building sentence by sentence orally. Use headless sentences that learners fill in groups or pairs ………are good friends

of man. Body machines: role play how a machine works; computer, typewriter, etc. Commercial breaks. Use brainstorming round a word

“Teaching well is a high-risk career, if you’re not risking, you’re not growing and if you’re not growing, neither are your students”

Prepared by Maha Al-Ibraheem

ELT Supervisor, Farwaniya ELT Supervision

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2007-2008

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التعليمية الوسائل


(4) (4) TEACHING AIDSTEACHING AIDS

I- Introduction:

here are many different ways in which a trainer can make the learning experience more interesting and memorable for learners. One technique is

to use teaching aids. Instructional material in the form of teaching aids should support the lesson plan and assist learning. Teaching aids use the senses of hearing (through audio tapes, CDs) and sight (through visual aids such as handouts, worksheets/books, overhead transparencies, videotapes and PowerPoint presentations). Research indicates that whilst only about 12% of what we learn comes from hearing, 75% comes from what we see.

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II- The Rationale behind using teaching aids:

1- People learn best when they can see as they learn.

Have you ever heard this saying?

I hear and I forgetI see and rememberI do and understand Ancient Chinese proverbs

As the Chinese proverb suggests, learners learn better when they do things. This seems to be a fact of human nature. If leaner hears something, but does not see something or do something to learn it , then that learner will not learn well. If a learner can hear and see and do, he/she will learn better, will under stand better, and will remember better.

2- Visual support provides sensory stimulation, which is necessary for our brains to grow.

Stimulations mean exciting someone or making him/her curious.Sensory stimulation means exciting children through the five senses: seeing , hearing , smelling, touching ,and tasting. For example, to teach mango in English, bring a mango to class. Ask your learners to hold it, feel it, smell it, and taste it. By stimulating children through their senses, children's brains actually grow in a way that they can accept this kind of information, as they grow older.

3- By using visual materials, children can learn by doing.

Sometimes we call learning by doing Activity-based instruction. With activity based- instruction, our learners don't just sit and listen to us lecture. They learn by doing group work, problem solving, projects drama. They learn by singing, playing games,

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and having fun. Almost always, this requires the use of some kind of instructional materials.

4. They help learners understand the concept behind an idea.

With wall materials, our learners can see a picture - for example, of the earth. With manipulative teaching aids, our learners can hold a model of the earth (a globe) and understand how it works - where countries are, the concept of north and south, even what is on the other side.

5- Teaching aids are flexible:

You can put flash cards on the wall, but if you take them off the wall, they become manipulative teaching aids. You walk around the room with them. You can change their order easily. You can even turn them upside down!

6- Teaching aids can easily be changed into learning aids.

In fact, all teaching aids can become learning aids when put in the hands of learners. With manipulative aids such as artifacts, pictures, games and puppets, this is easily done.

III- Examples of teaching aids:

whiteboards slides flip charts Blackboard or WebCT diagrams PowerPoint pictures /flash cards / graphic organizers.

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video cassettes/DVDs overhead transparencies audio cassettes

When designing the structure and content of a lesson, remember to consider all the activities in the lesson and all the possible means of assisting learning.

IV- Preparation and good practices in designing teaching aids:

A- General recommendations and good practices:

A well designed aid should:

promote perception promote understanding help reinforce the spoken word aid memory retention through repetition - but repetition through a different

medium motivate and arouse interest through requiring students to use different senses to

learn make effective use of the teaching time available to learn be simple - do not crowd information onto the page or screen be to the point, and well related to the lesson plan be interesting and attractive

B- Checklist of good practice for the preparation of overhead transparencies

Remember that overheads should not transmit all the information students need, but be a basis for reminding you of the main points of your presentation and aid students in structuring their notes:

keep design and layout simple – use no more than six bullet points use one topic for each transparency use a main heading and subheadings use simple words or keywords rather than sentences use upper and lower case use a sans serif font such as Arial or Comic Sans – they are easier to read if you are using colour do not use yellow or light green – they do not show well at

the back of a large lecture theatre use wider spacing between sentences and paragraphs depending on the size of the room in which you will be using the transparency,

the type size should be at least 18 point, preferably 24 point. use no more than two font sizes

C- Checklist of good practice for the preparation of PowerPoint presentations

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PowerPoint is an extremely popular presentation package and an alternative to using overhead transparencies for the production of interesting and visually attractive presentations. There is a temptation to use PowerPoint just because it exists. Refrain, for technology should not drive the selection of the teaching aid, but the particular teaching aid should be chosen according to its fitness for purpose in that particular teaching situation.

The main advantage in using PowerPoint is the flexibility, both in terms of the content of the presentation and the way in which the information is displayed. Graphs, drawings, tables and organisational charts make your presentation more interesting, but as a general rule keep presentations simple and clear. PowerPoint, like overhead transparencies, is most effectively used to emphasise the main points you wish to make. Many of the guidelines relevant to PowerPoint presentations are similar to those used in preparing overhead transparencies - here are additional points to remember:

limit the number of slides, for example, no more than 12 for a ten minute presentation

ensure text contrasts with the background, but avoid patterned backgrounds if you are using pictures, charts, tables and diagrams, ensure you are complying

with copyright law standardise position, colours and styles use only one or two animation or transition effects

D- Data projectors

Some tutorial rooms now have ceiling mounted projectors connected to a control desk situated near where the lecturer usually stands. This type of projector produces a clearer and stronger image, and the integration of the control equipment, which can include a video player as well as a computer, makes it easier to use than separate units - an OHP, a PC and LCD panel.

The main tip about data projectors is that they usually require several minutes to warm up before they are ready to display images. Always set them up before beginning the class.

E- LCD panels

This aid has been largely superseded by data projectors. But, since many smaller teaching and training rooms may not be fitted with data projectors, the following guidance is provided. A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) panel connected to a PC and placed on an overhead projector will enable you to project computer generated images onto a display screen for the whole class to read. To be effective LCDs usually need to be placed on an overhead projector which contains a very much more powerful lamp than is available in the usual type of projector.

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F- Videotapes

As with any teaching aid it is important to make adequate preparation:

devise an appropriate spoken introduction explaining why you are going to show the videotape to the class

give clear instructions as to what activities you expect students to be doing while the tape is running - should they make notes or should they concentrate on listening and watching

discover if a student manual is supplied with the videotape and which can be copied and distributed to students to form as a permanent record of the instruction provided on the tape – this good practice for students with disabilities

set up the equipment before the lesson and run the tape so that the 'lead' into the beginning of the instruction is as short as possible and the class (and tutor) are not left wondering whether the tape is going to play

before the lesson check that sound and vision levels are adequate at the back of the room

The use of video provides an alternative medium for learning and can add variety to a presentation, saving a great deal of tutor effort, especially if the principles of library or database use have to be repeated to many groups over a short period of time.

G- Videos, DVDs and audio tapes

Videos, DVDs and audio tapes can be useful ways of reinforcing, introducing or filling in detail on the subject being taught. These can be shown to the class as substitute for a lecture or presentation and used exactly the same way with the participants free to take notes as they choose. They can also be used more interactively as follows:

they can be used in conjunction with an exercise sheet which requires the class to fill in details from the visual/aural experience

time is allowed for discussion before and/or after the showing

H- Drawing:

Sketching on the board in class is something that most teachers do. As the saying goes, "a picture paints a thousand words". This is especially true in a language learning situation - ESL EFL in this case - where a quick

sketch can help students focus and generate language related to the sketches.

The key to drawing quickly is the fact that humans usually fill in the missing information. The difference between "happy" and "sad" is one simple stroke - the smile or frown. There are basically seven

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expressions which can be quickly expressed in a few strokes of the marker or piece of chalk and cover quite a wide range of situations.

Here are the other five:

Laughing

People usually tip their head to one side when laughing and open their mouths in a good chuckle.

Example: Why is he laughing? What Joke has he heard?

Anger

Slang the eyebrows down and raise the shoulders, open the mouth in a shout and you have one angry character!

Example: What happened to Tom? Why is he so angry?

Pain

Three crossed lines and a small open mouth - ouch.

Example: Have you ever bitten into a lemon? Can you describe the taste?

Sleep well

Put me into the horizontal and I'll close my eyes for some sweet dreams.

Example: Do you remember any dreams from last night?

I- Flash cards:

a- Flash cards are pieces of paper or cardboard with words or pictures on them. We usually use flash cards in a lesson to teach or reinforce certain ideas. Flash cards can also be posted on the walls to aid instruction.

b- How to make flash cards : You can make flash cards by using any cardboard you can find, or a regular piece of paper (A4). It is best to use a whole sheet so all learners can see what is on it. (You can use half sheets or quarter sheets if the flash cards are

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used by learners in groups.) We will talk about three kinds of flash cards: language, maths, and picture cards.

c- How to make language flash cards: Write words on flash cards to teach Mother Tongue, English, and spelling. There are various types:

single word cards, phrase cards and sentence cards.

How to use language flash cardsYou can use single word flash cards:· as sight words: hold them up and ask learners to say them for practice.· for handwriting: hold one card up at a time while the test of the class writes them on a piece of paper.· as sentence parts: hold two or three cards up and ask learners to make a sentence.· to label objects in the classroom.

You can use phrase cards as sentence parts, for sequencing and to make a story:

You can use sentence cards to make a story, for drills and to practice reading skills

Note: You can do these activities in small groups. You can also ask learners to play the role of teacher.

How to make picture flash cards : There are two ways to make picture flash cards. Either draw pictures of common scenes, or use pictures and photographs. You can cut pictures out of magazines. You can use post cards. Use any pictures you can find.

How to use picture flash cards : You can use picture flash cards: to create stories to teach numbers to teach sequencing to teach classification to teach synthesis or evaluation to teach position in space to teach one-to-one correspondence

Prepared byELT SupervisorMahmoud Al-Najar2007-2008

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التدريس الطريقة –طرقالتواصلية

للمادة المصاحبة األنشطة


(5) APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING

An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It is the WHY.

A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. A method is procedural. Within an approach, there can be many methods. It is the HOW.

The syllabus is the contents of a teaching programme. It is concerned with WHAT is to be learned.

A procedure is an ordered sequence of techniques.

A technique is implementational “ what actually takes place in a classroom.” Techniques must be consistent with a method and in harmony with an approach.

Elements that constitute a method

Approach: refers to Theories about the nature of languageTheories about language learningTheory of language:There are at least three different theoretical views of language:The structural view: “language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning”. (Audio-lingual / Silent way / TPR ) The functional view:“Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning” (Communicative movement in language teaching )The interactional view:“Language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals” (Cooperative learning )Theory of language learning:Two questions need to be answered:What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning?What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?Process-oriented theories build on learning processes, such as habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalizations.Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place.

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Grammar Translation Method ( G T M )

It focuses on developing students’ appreciation of the literature of the target language as well as teaching the language.Students read passages and answer questions that follow.Teacher-centered classesGrammar rules are presented deductively.Vocabulary is learnt from bilingual word lists.

A paramount use of translation exercises.The mother tongue is used as the medium of instruction.Focus on reading and writing.

The Direct Method ( D M )

The learner should be actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations.Students are encouraged to think in the target language.First speaking is taught and then reading and writing.Grammar rules are not taught. They are acquired unconsciously through practical use.

The Audio-lingual Method ( A L M )

Developing listening and speaking skills as the foundation on which to build reading and writing.The learners repeat patterns until they are able to produce them spontaneously.Students interact during chain drills or when taking roles in dialogues.

Total Physical Response ( T P R )

It provides an enjoyable learning experience, minimizing the stress that accompanies learning a foreign language.Grammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasized.Understanding precedes production.Spoken language precedes the written word.

The Eclectic Approach ( Eclecticism )

It allows language teachers to absorb best techniques of all the well-known language teaching methods into their classroom procedures.

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Communicative Language Teaching

The communicative approach emphasizes the learner’s ability to use the language appropriately in specific situations. It tries to make the learner communicatively competent.Principles:Language is used to express one’s needs.Relaxing atmosphere.Group work is encouraged.Teachers assist learners to motivate them.Integration of skills.Errors are considered inevitable in the process of learning. Characteristics:CommunicationIndividualizationSocializationEnjoymentCommunicative ActivitiesCommunicative purposeCommunicative desireForm (contents) rather than forms ( structures )Variety of languageNo teacher interventionNo materials controlTips for communicative activitiesGuessing gamesSituational practiceSelf-directed dialoguesA mixer (find someone who …)PuzzlesCrosswordsCommunicative activities features• information gap: An information gap exists when one learner in an exchange knows something that the other doesn't. If we both know today is "Tuesday" and I ask you, "What is today?" our exchange isn't really communicative.• choice: In communication, the speaker has a choice of what to say and how to say it. If the exercise is tightly controlled so that students can only say something in one way , the speaker has no choice and the exchange ,therefore , is not communicative.• Authentic material: Another characteristic of the communicative approach is the use of authentic material. It is desirable to give students an opportunity to develop strategies for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers.

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General viewEach of the above mentioned approaches has advantages as well as disadvantages.Each approach served the purpose in the time when it was considered the best one available. Since our aim is to have our learners “master the foreign language, no matter what approach we adopt”. We should adopt an approach which makes our learners master the foreign language in listening, speaking, reading and writing with understanding. Such approach is not only structural or only functional but co- joins both. We should not deny the fact that there are learners of English, who learned the language through any of these approaches and they could master the language. Thus, any activity inside or outside the classroom would be of crucial importance in order to enhance the learning and development of students.

CO-CURRICULAR & EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

CCAs and ECAs are activities that education organizations create for school students. They serve to promote a variety of activities which all school students should attend alongside the standard study curriculum. Such activities are believed to provide all level learners with the opportunity to develop initiative, leadership and responsibility. They play a significant role in the total educational development of children and teenagers. These programmes channel the interests and talents of learners into positive efforts for the betterment of themselves and the community as a whole.

Co-curricular Activities

Co-curricular activities form an important part of the academic curriculum. They are mostly held inside the classroom. They are teacher-oriented activities. The teacher monitors and guides the special efforts which are made to tap the talents of learners.

What can be done in an English class to enhance the learning experience?Arts and CraftsUsing arts and crafts in the classroom can be an excellent way to facilitate language learning with young learners. For mixed age and level classes, arts and crafts activities can supplement a course book which isn't always appropriate for all students. It's useful to show students an example of the end product. They will then have a clear idea of what they are going to make.

Project WorkProject work is becoming an increasingly popular feature within the ELT classroom. Common projects are class magazines, group wall displays about students' countries and designs for cities of the future. A project involves students in deciding together what they want to do to complete a project whilst the teacher plays a more supporting roleSome advantages of project work are:- Increased motivation would make learners become personally involved in the project.- All four skills, reading, writing, listening and speaking, are integrated.

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- Autonomous learning is promoted as learners become more responsible for their own learning.- There are learning outcomes, learners have an end product.- Authentic tasks and therefore the language input are more authentic.- Interpersonal relations are developed through working as a group.- Contents and methodology can be decided between the learners and the teacher and within the group themselves so it is more learner-centered.- Learners often get help from parents for project work thus involving the parent more in the child's learning. If the project is also displayed parents can see it at open days or when they pick the child up from the school.- A break from routine and the chance to do something different. - A context is established which balances the need for fluency and accuracy.PortfoliosThese are a great way to help students review what they have done over the term or year, organize and assess their work. The students choose a certain number of pieces of work they want included in the portfolio.

Extracurricular Activities

Extracurricular activities are mostly held outside the classroom. They are student-oriented activities. The involvement in extracurricular activities helps learners discover and share talents, develop character and competence. There are abundant opportunities for students to get involved in a rich array of extracurricular activities outside the classroom, to explore their passions and interests. These activities are an integral part of student life, reflective of the school’s commitment to not only intellectual growth, but to the development of each individual’s creative, social and emotional well-being as well.

Extracurricular activities include:

Trips : Excursions might be a nature walk around the neighbourhood, visit to the zoo, the Kuwait Towers, the Entertainment City, The National Museum, Water Plant or The Scientific Centre …etc .

Parents in the classroom: Curriculum is enriched each year by parents who volunteer to bring their expertise, talents and passions to the classroom. Occasionally, a parent-guided project may be tied to a unit of study; other times, it might simply be an enriching experience for the learners. In all cases, teachers work with parents to make the activity timely, educational and age-appropriate. E.g. a doctor’s presentation on the human body and senses; an artist’s instruction on primary and secondary colours; a chef‘s demonstration of culinary skills ;a poet or an author’s reading .

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School assemblies:Children and teenagers participate on a regular basis in school morning assemblies. Programmes include the national anthem and the school broadcasting in which learners show their talents and interests. Talents are also shown through sport activities. School competitions:Participants voluntarily take part in different competitions such as story telling, letter writing, reading, survey, drawing, poster making and oral fluency …etc.Student council:Student council is composed of elected students from different grades. Elections are held each year to give more students a chance to build their leadership skills. The student council participates in various community service activities.

Conclusion: Teachers and school administrations have to think seriously and plan for their co-curricular and extracurricular activities since they undoubtedly benefit the student’s academic achievements and they develop the learners’ autonomy and effectiveness. Schools should encourage students to participate in extracurricular activities because they help in a great deal. References:

Brown, H.D. 1994. Teaching by Principles – An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Prentince Hall.

Brown, H.D. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Prentice Hall.

Nunan, David. 1991. Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL Quarterly 25(2), 279-295.

Nunan, David. (2005) Important Tasks of English Education: Asia-wide and Beyond. The Asian EFL Journal Vol7(3) http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/September_05_dn.php

Rodgers, T. S. 2001. Language Teaching Methodology. Center for Applied Linguistics Digest. Retrieved Sept. 27, 2004 from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/rodgers.html

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/co-curricular_activity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/extracurricular_activity

Prepared by : ELT Supervisor Mr. Mohammad Kerbushi

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http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/September_05_dn.php

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/extracurricular_activity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/co-curricular_activity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching

http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/rodgers.html

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المفردات تدريس كيفيةاللغوية والوظائف

االتصالية والتراكيب


(6) TEACHING TECHNIQUES

I- How to Teach Vocabulary

An important criterion in the pre-teaching or revision of vocabulary before a listening or a reading activity is economy- economy in both the choice of key items to pre-teach, and the time spent on each. Teachers should not spend more than two minutes per item and preferably less and not more than a total of ten minutes (and again preferably less) on the whole pre-teaching stage.

The essential stages for each are as follows:A: Presentation

The more concrete, the better. Visual contexts, whenever possible should be preferred to verbal ones. And of course, the quicker, the better. The mother tongue may be used to convey a meaning (a single translation - not a long explanation, especially when dealing with abstract nouns) as a time saving device. The new item should be written on the board when it is presented. Never list the vocabulary items altogether on the whiteboard. Present a voc. item through a situation or by using realia, miming etc. Deal with one voc. item at a time.

Repetition

Individual and/or Choral. Above all, this tells the teacher if the learners have heard the new item correctly.

Comprehension Check

Normally a few questions, re-using the item, can check or reinforce the learners' understanding of it and give some receptive practice at the same time. There is no necessity for a time-consuming routine of fixation and exploitation. If the item is indeed key vocabulary in the coming listening or reading activity, the students soon have opportunities for further exposure to it and for re-use. The objective now is comprehension work, not lexical consolidation.

Teachers should ensure that students copy down notes on all new vocabulary that is taught, whether in pre-teaching for comprehension activity, or in text study afterwards. It is up to the teacher when these notes should be copied down, whether the content is supplied by the teacher or elicited from the learners, and to what precise form the notes take. In some cases, illustrative sentences are best, in others, you may prefer to use synonyms, antonyms, labelled drawings, and sometimes definitions. Again, this note-taking of new vocabulary shouldn't be time-consuming. It is the teacher's duty to ensure that the learners have comprehensible and correct notes which will be an efficient learning tool for them now and later.

RevisionNowhere is revision more important than in vocabulary learning. And while it is

partly the textbook's responsibility, it is mainly all the teacher's duty to see that word families of different sorts are regularly revised.

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Opportunities for doing so occur in: - brainstorming a topic before a writing task,- starting the lesson with a warm-up or a quiz and- giving a short written quiz.

The items that can be used vary in order of increasing complexity. For example: - synonyms, - antonyms, - incomplete sentences, - similarities and - differences.

Teachers should keep a record of lexical sets (word families) and make a note when each item is revised. To help learners develop their lexical systems you need to be systematic yourself.

II- How to Teach Structures

When we teach a grammatical structure , we want the learners to be able to do the following with sentences containing that structure : - understand them when they hear them . - use them correctly in speech and writing. - use them in appropriate contexts in speech and writing.Grammar rules may or may not help the learners to do so.

( A ) – Previewing :

Previewing is often useful if teaching materials include occurrences of a structure before it is formally presented and practiced . This informal introduction or previewing of a structure helps to sensitize the learners to it in advance and develop the learning habit of picking up new grammar , little by little , from what they hear or read .

( B ) – Presentation :

Formal teaching of a new structure begins when the teacher presents it . Presentation should generally be inductive استقرائى او ranging حثىfrom example to an awareness on the learners' part as to the form and meaning of the structure. This awareness becomes a rule only if it is made explicit . We shouldn't present structures deductively استنتاجى ; that is stating a rule first and then giving examples .

Examples of the new structure should relate to meaningful contexts such as :

- a classroom situation.- a picture or mime .

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- a verbal context ( description of a situation ) This oral presentation should be accompanied by writing one or two of the examples on the whiteboard.Spoken and written forms should be associated from the beginning. ( C ) – Concept questions to check comprehension :

- Checking the learners comprehension is an essential part in the presentation of any new structure whose meaning is not totally obvious in the content of presentation.

* There are two types of comprehension check of a new structure:

a- having pupils re-use it meaningfully.b- asking them questions to check their grasp of key features of its meaning.These concepts to check questions should be very simple, preferably Yes/No or one-word answers by the students.

Examples of the Structure John is taller than Tom.

Key elements Comparative of meaning

Concept questions - How many boys? - the same or different D- Productive oral practice= mechanical & meaningful types:

- Mechanical practice of a structure is any oral exercise to which the learners can respond correctly without much focus on meaning. The term drills is used for structural practice of this sort, e.g. substitution drills and tables, transformation drills or question and answer drills. - Meaningful structural practice, on the other hand, is any exercise which requires that the learners understand what they are saying in order to respond correctly. Normally the responses to a meaningful exercise are either true or false. The sentences made up by students should be contextualized.The context can be provided by:

- a classroom situation- an imaginary situation- pictures

- shared general knowledgeThis is not, of course, communicative, as there is no information gap. Here the learners are practicing the meaning of the target structures as well as its form, though. - Meaningful oral practice includes: transformations Question/Answer Sentence-building exercises cued by key words.

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E: Communicative practice of a structure:

The oral practice of a structure can be considered communicative when the same structure is used in a series of exchanges the purpose of which is to obtain required information. This means arranging information gap and appropriate student- to- student exchanges for an information-seeking and information-giving. This can be done by means of cue-cards for pair practice.

III- How to Teach Functions

To practise a function, the learners usually need to know two or more different structures prior to the functional work. So, functional teaching is additional to the teaching of structures.

A: Presenting a function and checking comprehension.

There are two basic ways of presenting a communicative function: * Inductively: Give the learners different exponents of the function and ask them to identify the function: what is the speaker doing in all these sentences?

* Deductively: Present a situation in which the function is needed and ask the learners what they could say in that situation i.e. give the function and elicit the exponent. Concept questions to check comprehension of a function or its individual exponents are similar to those for structures. Consider the following example:A: How about going to the cinema?B: Good idea.The teacher can ask:

- Do A and B know each other well?- Are they friends?- Who is making a suggestion, A or B?- Does A want to go to the cinema?- Does B want to go too?

In this exchange A and B use expressions that are always possible ways of making and accepting suggestions in informal conversations.

B: Receptive practice:

Receptive practice is very important with communicative functions and it takes time to sensitize the learners to nuances of meaning or of formality. It also aims to get them familiarized with the range of exponents of the function. Possible activities for receptive practice include:

- finding exponents of the function in a dialogue or text,- classifying a list of exponents, which the students are given, into formal and

informal (which ones would you say to a friend/ to your headmaster?), and- classifying a list of exponents according to their precise meaning.

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C: Productive practice

Relatively controlled activities for the productive practice of a function include the following:

- transformations between different exponents of the function for example: o T: Could I possibly borrow your newspaper?Another way of asking politely?Or: Now how would you say to a friend?

- question-and -answer work to elicit the use of exponents of a given notion for example for probability:

o T: What are the Kuwait's chances in the World Cup?o Do you think it will rain soon?

Situational Cues:You are in a train compartment with other people. You want to open the window. What do you say?

Functional Categories:

Functional categories can be grouped under the following:PersonalInterpersonalDirectiveReferential Imaginative

Teaching a language function communicatively:What is communicative ability?• One of the most characteristic features of communicative teaching is that it pays systematic attention to fundamental as well as structural aspects of language combining these into a more fully communicative view.• It is not enough to teach pupils how to manipulate the structures of English, they must also develop strategies relating these structures to their communicative functions in real situations and real time.• We must therefore provide our pupils with ample opportunities to use the language themselves for communicative purposes.Structural and Functional Views of Language The structural view of language has not been in any way superseded by functional view. However, it is not sufficient on its own to account for how language is used as means of communication. Let us take an example, a straight forward sentence:"Why don't you close the door?" From a structural viewpoint, it is unambiguously interrogative. From a functional viewpoint, it is ambiguous. In some circumstances, it may function as a question. In others, it may function as a command. In yet other situations, it could be intended as a plea, a suggestion, or a complaint. In other words, the sentence's structure is stable and straightforward, its

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communicative function is variable and depends on specific situational and social factors. Just as a single linguistic form can express a number of functions, so also can a single communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms. For example, the speaker who wants somebody to close the door has many linguistic options, including: “Close the door, please!“ “Could you please close the door?" "Would you mind closing the door?" Some forms might only perform this directive function in the context of certain social relationship- for example, "You've left the door open!“ could serve as a directive from teacher to pupil, but not from teacher to principal. Other forms would depend strongly on shared situational knowledge for their correct interpretation, and could easily be misunderstood ( e.g." Burr! It's cold, isn't it?")

Teachers are requested to do the following when carrying out communicative activities:. Create a situation and set a learner-directed activity on motion.. Pupils should conduct the activity to its conclusion.. Make sure that pupils understand what they are required to do in an activity. . Demonstrate the activity yourself with members of the class.. Select activities which make comparatively light demands on the learner's linguistic and creative abilities.. Equip learners with expressions and language forms that they need for their communicative activities.

Prepared by: Mr. El Habib RezzoukELT Supervisor – Mubarak Al-Kabeer2006/2007

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التعبير تدريس كيفيةوالمسموع المقروء واالستيعابوالترجمة


(7) TEACHING TECHNIQUES

I- How to Teach Composition

riting is a productive skill which involves manipulating, structuring and communicating ideas. We all know that writing is the most difficult skill we

teach. As a higher productive skill, it needs excessive training and different techniques to develop pupils' standard.

WWriting objectives:

To reinforce pupils’ understanding of sentence syntax, idioms and vocabulary they have been taught.

To reinforce work on structure and vocabulary. To develop pupils’ ability to write continuous text.

Types of writing exercises and activities:- Types vary from controlled or guide writing to free writing:

- Copying- Spelling- Dictation- Sentence formation- Repeating or completing sentences to reinforce structure and vocabulary they have already learned.- Re-ordering jumbled words to make meaningful sentences- Sentence Patterns; giving similar ones, performing substitutions or transformations- Filling in missing exchanges in dialogues- Filling in charts and tables- Writing sentences based on notes or a stimulus- Arranging scrambled sentences to make a coherent paragraph- Changing tabular information into a paragraph- Completing a paragraph with omitted sentences- Parallel paragraph (substitute some words in the model paragraph)- Cloze passages - Paragraph writing (questions based or with guide words)- Describing pictures - Free writing

How to improve the writing skill ( Instructional Techniques )

- Motivate pupils to write.- Provide interest in selected topics.- Vary your topics and give enough practice.- Encourage group work. Students can interact with each other at all points in the process: before writing, while writing, and after writing.- Give pupils a clear idea of what they are going to write about.- Prepare them with the language necessary for the writing task (e.g., as in composition)- Make sure that everyone understands what is expected of them.- Concentrate on the process of writing more than the product itself.

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- Frame your technique in terms of pre-writing, drafting and revising.

a- Pre-writing stage: ( Generating ideas )

Following techniques such as brainstorming, word map, spider map, Group Discussion, List Making, Q/A, picture description, etc. that influence active student participation in thinking, talking, writing and working on the topic under focus in a writing lesson.

b- Drafting and Revising:

- First draft: concentrates on getting ideas down on paper without worrying about spelling, punctuation or grammar. This could be done in groups or pairs. Learners may read aloud their compositions. Correct them and write notes to guide.- Second draft: Here the focus moves to spelling, punctuation and grammar. Learners may read aloud their compositions. Correct them and highlight common and basic mistakes. Then ask them to proofread for errors.- Writing a neat final copy.

Techniques for testing pupils' writing abilities:

There are various techniques that can test the writing activities ranging from simple handwriting to complete essays. Here are some of the important ones :

Inserting punctuation marks. Writing full forms for abbreviations. Constructing a sentence from jumbled words. Filling in dialogues or forms. Translation. Writing guided composition. Writing letters, essays, paragraphs and reports. Expansion of ideas. Rewriting passages.

Teacher's attitude towards errors:

- See errors as friends and not enemies to be conquered; they tell you a great deal about your students and their learning processes, for in errors we can see evidence of the learning process at work. - Use errors in students’ writing to know what they have troubles with.- Give your students time and opportunity to correct errors before you do. Find out if they can correct: was the error due to carelessness, lack of application of a learned rule, or lack of knowledge of a structure? Establishing the causes of errors can be helpful to us and to our students.- Confine your concentration according to the stage of writing: if your students are producing a first draft, for example, concentrate on meaning and exposition of ideas.- Learn to expect errors that occur regularly at certain stages in a student’s learning development.

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The Composition Diagram

This diagram shows what writers have to deal with as they produce a piece of writing:

A variety of approaches have been developed to the teaching of writing combining the features of this diagram, but we'll concentrate on the process approach.- The Process Approach:

Recently, the teaching of writing has begun to move away from a concentration on the written product to an emphasis on the process of writing.

Student need to realize that what they first put down on paper is not necessarily their finished product but just a beginning, a setting out of the first ideas, a draft. They should not expect that the words they put on paper will be perfect right away. A student who is given the time for the process to work, along with the appropriate feedback from the teacher, will discover new ideas, new sentences, and new words as he plans, writes a first draft, and revises what he has written for a second draft. Many teachers now give their students the opportunity to explore a topic fully in such prewriting activities as discussion, brainstorming, etc. They are meant for producing words, phrases and generating ideas.

So in the process approach, the students do not write on a given topic in a restricted time and hand in the composition for the teacher to “correct” –which usually means to find the errors. Rather, they explore a topic through writing, showing the teacher and each other their drafts, and using what they write to read over, think about, and move them to new ideas.

Teachers who use the process approach give their students two crucial supports: time for the students to try out ideas and feedback on the content of what they write in their drafts. They find that then the writing process becomes a process of discovery for the students: discovery for new ideas and new language forms to express those ideas.

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Clear, fluent, and effective

communication

of ideas

SYNTAXsentence structure,

sentence boundaries,stylistics choices, etc.

GRAMMARrules for verbs,

agreement, articles, pronouns, etc.

MECHANICShandwriting,

spelling,punctuation, etc.

ORGANIZATIONparagraphs,

topic and support,cohesion and unity

WORD CHOICEvocabulary,

idiom

PURPOSEthe reason for writing

AUDIENCEthe reader/s

THE WRITER’S PROCESS

getting ideas,getting started,

writing drafts,revising

CONTENTrelevance,

clarity, originality, logic, etc.

Producing a Piece of Writing

II- How to Teach Reading

Reading is an active and receptive skill as we receive information when we read. It is inferring or extracting information from a text.Reading Objective:

Practising and mastering all types of the reading skill and sub-skills.

Reading sub-skills:

- Word recognition - Skimming- Scanning - Prediction- Anticipation - Analysis- Inference

Comprehension is based mainly on:

Knowledge that reading makes sense. Readers’ prior knowledge Information presented in the text , and The use of context to assist recognition of words and meaning.

Ways to increase / improve reading comprehension:

- Creating motivation and interest through topics that meet learners' interests and needs.- Teaching learners some useful reading strategies such as :

a- eliminating the habit of pronouncing words as they read.b- avoiding regressionc- developing a wider eye span.d- practising rapid reading through skimming and scanning.e- anticipating and predicting.f- paying attention to supporting cues.g- building a good vocabulary repertoire.

- Making sure tasks are varied to include all types of reading.- Making sure that most of the vocabulary in reading texts is familiar to pupils.- Providing them with a wide variety of topics that suit their interests and standards.- Giving interesting tasks before reading to create interest and improve their motivation.- Asking learners to select their own reading materials.- Being patient with poor readers and avoiding frustrating them.- Activating their prior knowledge before a reading task.

Types of reading comprehension:

Extensive Reading : This is reading for gist.Sub-skills of extensive reading:

a- Skimming: Rapid reading so as to get the main idea or gist of the text. b- Scanning: Rapid reading to locate a piece of information.

Intensive Reading: Reading for detailed information

Selective Reading: Reading for specific information

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How to teach a reading comprehension passage:

Remind learners of the vocabulary that is a prerequisite for the lesson. Set the scene: How?

Tell learners what kind of text they are going to read:- dialogue - letter - caption - passage

Make use of supporting illustrations: wall charts, pictures, etc. Arouse interest of the learners: give them a reason for

reading. Pre-teach the new vocabulary:

Use the most suitable technique for each lexical item. Key-words only are to be explained.

Ask them to read silently: Simple pre-questions for learners to answer. Learners read at their own pace. Learners read under time pressure. Discussion-based correction.

Reading intensively: Learners read to answer detailed questions. Discussing and checking answers.

III- How to Teach Listening

Listening objective: To develop all types of the listening skill and sub-skills

Types of listening activities:

Guessing games: Students listen to guess something Story telling: Students listen to retell the story Role-play: Preceded by listening Dialogues for speech models Conversations Comprehension passages Practising minimal pairs , junctures and assimilation

Types of listening comprehension :

1- Listening For Gist OR Extensive listening : To get the main idea.

2- Listening For Detailed Information Or Intensive listening : Replaying the tape

( with pauses when necessary ) to answer more detailed questions.

3- Selective Listening : Tracing specific types of information.

4- Listening For Note-Taking : Students write brief notes on what they hear.5- Listening For Class Discussion : Listening is followed by a free discussion. 6- Listening For Stress, Rhythm & Intonation : This is done when presenting

songs.

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7- Listening For The Story Line : Students listen to retell the story using their own words.

Points to bear in mind when teaching listening:

Remember that listening activities should cater directly for the communicative needs of the learners.

Make it a point to expose pupils to a good model. Make listening activities interesting and varied. The activities should reflect the language level, age and interests of the learners. Difficulty: the text should be appropriate to students' level and not too difficult. Length of the passage: not more than 1.5 or 2 minutes and should be divided into

sections (using pauses) for intensive listening. Listening is as important as speaking. Don't pre-teach lots of vocabulary or passive vocabulary. Instead accustom students

to interpret and infer meanings by themselves. Proper use of the tape recorder. Listening texts should be shorter than reading texts. This is because the listener

doesn't have the privilege of referring back to the text. The teacher must take into consideration the clarity and loudness of the recorded

material. Questions of listening comprehension should request fewer details than those of

reading comprehension since in listening one doesn't always retain as much as one does during reading.

How to improve the listening skill:

1- Through varied listening activities: To tune pupils’ ears to the native accent, they should be frequently exposed to recorded materials.2- Attending seminars, English clubs and conferences to listen to native speakers.3- Listening to native speakers on radios and televisions.4- Going to movies and theatres and listening to the news.

How to teach a listening comprehension passage: Set the scene. {How ?} Pre-teach key words. {Active Vocabulary} Write simple pre-questions. Play the whole material. { once/twice,... } Answer the pre-questions. { Extensive listening } Play the passage with pauses. { Intensive listening } Ask more detailed questions. Answer pre-set questions. Pupils listen to the text & check answers {in pairs/groups} Discuss and check answers with pupils.

IV- How to Teach TranslationObjective:Enabling students to translate from English into Arabic and vice versa. Why we teach translation:

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It develops accuracy, fluency, clarity, and flexibility. It develops the four basic language skills. It leads to vocabulary learning. It develops dictionary skills. It acquaints learners with grammar, spelling and punctuation.

How to make translation a more motivating learning process:1. Teacher preparation phase: Set your learning objectives Contextualize the materials you use in translation Consider the degree of difficulty & topics Consider the translation problems to be solved, etc Use the materials in a communicative situation; it would help SS focus on meaning2. The Reading phase: Read the whole text thoroughly and critically

Things to do: Underline unfamiliar words Detect translation difficulties Contextualize lexical items; never isolate them Use adaptation where necessary

Questions to ask: Why has this been written this way? Why does this sentence or paragraph come first? Is there any reason for having this long sentence? Why is this sentence so short? Does it matter if I merge sentences? Does it matter if I split long sentences? What will be the effect if I do so?3. Reconstruction of meaning: Translation is about conveying meaning Translation is a process of decoding and encoding4. Correcting a translation: (Correction techniques) Use various correction techniques Students correct an inaccurate translation Using an incorrect translation alongside a correct one Spotting mistakes in a translated text Confront the translated text with the original text 5. Correction checklist:In the correction or revision stage the students should pay attention to the following: Comprehension: sense and ideas Lexis and Syntax Writing style and register Spelling and punctuation Creative solutions to translation problems Cohesion and coherence Assessment of the result and post-edition Format

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Tips on how to make translation more motivating:

Create comprehensible situations where SS could use translation communicatively such as interpreters, foreigners, diplomats, tourists, etc.

1- Use group preparation2- Use parallel texts3- Use Bilingual Dialogues 4- Use role-play5- Use the language lab for translation purposes6- Translation tools reinforce language learning

Conclusion:

When using translation... Always put translation work in context. Point out relevant cultural elements. Point out connotations, idioms, collocations, etc. Translate words in frequent collocations - not words in isolation. Point out differences in syntax. Use audio-visual aids whenever possible. Compare how the two languages categorise reality.

References:

1- How to Teach English – Jeremy Harmer – Longman2- The practice of English Language Teaching – Jeremy Harmer – Longman3- A course in Language Teaching – Penny Ur – Cambridge 4- Methods of Teaching English to Arab Students – Najat Al-Mutawa & T. Kilani – Longman5- Teaching Translation in Egyptian National Universities by Moustafa Gabr

Compiled & Prepared by: Reda Sheha

ELT SupervisorHawalli ELT Supervision Board2007-2008

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والتقويم جدول –القياساالختبارات –المواصفات –بناء

النتائج تحليل


(8) ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION

Evaluation is a very complex operation whose results are not completely obvious as many variables come into play. The first variable is the test-designer and his / her personal stand . The second variable is the curriculum, namely, the materials and the teaching methods as well as the theories which underlie them. The main difficulty facing evaluation in education resides in the fact that we cannot measure aspects of the personality of an individual, and the development and changes which have taken place in the same way as we measure length and weight. The operations we usually aim to realize in education and in evaluation are mental operations which cannot be easily observable. The means whereby we try to know about these mental operations is their indirect appearance. Therefore, the results we get from evaluation are almost approximate.

What Is Evaluation? Evaluation is a purposeful, cyclical process of collecting analyzing and interpreting relevant information in order to judge and make educational decisions. Evaluation may focus on the quality, appropriateness, worth or relevance of teachers, students, classroom instruction, instructional materials and activities, or whole courses or programmes of instruction. The process of evaluation includes different stages and aspects such as measurement, assessment, appraisal and judgment. Linguists distinguish between two types of evaluation. They talk about “the formative evaluation” and the “summative evaluation” . The formative evaluation is the ongoing correction and assessment directed at specific bits of learner-produced language with the aim of bringing about improvement. It is called ‘formative’ since its main purpose is to ‘form’ : to enhance, not conclude, the process of learning. The summative evaluation is the evaluation where the teacher evaluates an overall aspect of the learner’s knowledge in order to summarize the situation. The teacher evaluates how proficient the learner is at a certain point in time, for example, or how much he / she has progressed during a particular course . Summative evaluation is a part of the teacher’s job, something we need to know how to do effectively. Measurement and assessment are two aspects of evaluation. Assessment is the act of collecting information on individual learners’ performance, proficiency and achievement. Measurement is the process of finding the size, quantity or degree of something. Measurement implies the existence of tools, skills and criteria.

Ways of Gathering Information for Assessment1- Tests : The most common way of gathering information for assessment is through tests ;the usual criterion is an arbitrary level which the learner is expected to have reached; and the result is generally expressed through percentages.2- Other sources : There, are, however, various problems with tests as basis for summative evaluation: They may not necessarily give a fair sample of the learner’s overall proficiency; they are not always valid (actually testing what they say they are) or reliable (giving consistent results); and if they are seen as the sole basis for evaluation, they can be extremely stressful . Other options do exist . These are summarized below( see Brindley (1989) for a more detailed discussion ).

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1. Teacher’s assessment: The teacher gives a subjective estimate of the learner’s overall performance . 2. ongoing- assessment: The final grade is some kind of combination of the grades the learner received for various assessments during the course “ Testing should be an integral part of instruction. The main purpose is to know how well the pupils have mastered each step or unit so that teachers can make necessary modifications in the process of teaching. For these reasons assessment should be present in every lesson .” 3. Self-assessment: The learners themselves evaluate their own performance, using clear criteria and weighting systems agreed on beforehand. 4. Portfolio: The learner gathers a collection of assignments and projects done over a long period into a file; and this portfolio provides the basis for evaluation .

Teaching languages has recently witnessed a shift from structural teaching approaches to communicative , humanistic , and learner-centered approaches . These approaches suggest teaching methods and techniques that help learners acquire the language in an anxiety – reduced environment . Consequently , the assessment of students' progress and achievement in EFL / ESL classes should be carried out in a manner that does not cause anxiety in the students . As new EFL / ESL curricula have moved in the direction of developing communicative skills through the integration of language and content as well as language skill integration , the traditional paper-and-pencil tests no longer cover the variety of activities and tasks that take place classroom . Fortunately , the field of evaluation has witnessed a major shift from strictly summative testing tools and procedures to a more humanistic approach using informal assessment techniques that stress formative evaluation ( O'Neil 1992 ) .The terms assessment , evaluation , and test are , sometimes, misused interchangeably . It is quite useful , however , for teachers to distinguish among these terms .

Assessment is the act of finding out what students know . It is done in classrooms on a daily basis in order to assess children's learning. Assessments provide the basis for teacher decision-making concerning rate of instruction , topics , presentation methods , sequencing of instruction and opportunities for practice . There are many different kinds of classroom assessment . Some of them involve the traditional paper and pencil test , but teachers have many other ways in which to determine if their pupils are learning at an appropriate rate .

Evaluation occurs when judgment is passed on a student's performance . It is usually thought of as producing the "big picture" of student achievement over time . Evaluations are used to make decisions about the level of teaching and learning within a school , a governorate or a country . Educational evaluation can include many kinds of instruments , test scores , interviews , attendance records , and discipline records .

Tests are assessments in which students must individually demonstrate their knowledge and abilities . Tests can sometimes check on the learning of a discrete point of instruction , such as vocabulary or a grammar point , but can also assess broader areas of reading or writing . Test results are usually expressed quantitatively with numbers. Tests play a role in classroom assessment but they are only one type of assessment.

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Communicative teaching methodology brings with it a considerable emphasis on formative evaluation "with more use of descriptive records of learner development in language and learning, which track language development along with other curricular abilities" . Therefore , assessment becomes a diagnostic tool that provides feedback to the learner and the teacher about the suitability of the curriculum and instructional materials , the effectiveness of the teaching methods , and the strengths and weaknesses of the students . Furthermore , it helps demonstrate to young learners that they are making progress in their linguistic development , which can boost motivation . This encourages students to do more and the teacher to work on refining the process of learning rather than its product . Therefore , children need to learn and be evaluated in an anxiety-reduced , if not anxiety-free , environment . Using formative assessment can help decrease the level of anxiety generated by concentration on linguistic accuracy and increase students' comfort and feeling of success by stressing communicative fluency . Why Do We Need To Use Classroom Assessment ? As for students, assessment helps in : - Determining student strengths and weaknesses. - Determining learning styles of our pupils . - Learning about student interests in various topics. - Placing students into learning groups based on achievement and personality factors . - Monitoring and following the progress of individual pupils . - Diagnosing the group's learning progress as a whole . - Providing feed-back about students' achievements.Assessment helps the teacher in : - Planning instructional activities and what to teach. - Discovering what pupils have learned and what they still need to learn. - Determining how to adapt instruction for student needs and learning styles. - Determining which content to include , which content to exclude from instruction. - Evaluating the effectiveness of out teaching methods. - Assigning grades and giving other feedback to students and parents.What Kinds of Instructional Decisions are Informed by Classroom Assessment? Before Teaching You need to ask yourself the following questions before teaching :

What input do my pupils need to learn during the next day , week , month , …… ?What abilities , interests ,... of my students do I need to take into account as I plan my teaching activities ?What materials are appropriate for me to use with this group of students ?What learning activities will my students & I need as I teach the lesson ?

What learning targets do I want my students to achieve as a result of my teaching ?How should I organize the students in the class for the upcoming lessons / activities ?

During Teaching You need to ask yourself the following questions during your lesson

Is my lesson going well ? Are students learning ?What should I do to make this lesson / activity work better ?What feedback should I give each student about how well he or she is learning ?Are my students ready to move to the next activity in the learning sequence ?

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After Teaching After you finish teaching , ask yourself the following questionsHow well are my students achieving the short and long-term instructional targets ?What strengths and weaknesses will I report to each student and to his parents ?How effectively did my pupils learn this material ?How effective are the curriculum and materials I used ?Classroom assessment can help you answer all of the above questions .

Classroom Assessment TechniquesThese techniques can be used for effective and practical measurements of students' abilities , progress , and achievement in a variety of educational settings .Nonverbal Responses : This type of response helps lower the level of anxiety normally associated with evaluation , as students see it a natural extension of learning activities . Students are asked to "produce and manipulate drawings, models, graphs and charts" .Oral Interview :A student may be asked to choose pictures to talk about, and the teacher's role is to guide the student by asking questions that require the use of related vocabulary . This technique works well during the early speech emergence stages .Role-play :This informal assessment technique combines oral performance and physical activity . Pupils, when assessed through this technique, feel comfortable and motivated, especially when the activity is seen as a fun way of learning . Written Narrative : Assessment of the written communicative abilities could be achieved through purposeful , authentic tasks , such as writing letters to friends / favourite television characters , and writing responses to invitations . Young learners are usually motivated to listen to and tell stories . Teachers can take advantage of this and have their students write narratives that relate to personal experiences, retell or modify stories and fairy tales .Presentations : Presentations can provide a comprehensive record of students' abilities in both oral and written performance . Presentations cover a wide range of meaningful activities, like poetry readings, plays, role-playing, dramatizations, and interviews .Student-Teacher Conferences : Conferences and interviews provide opportunities for one-on-one interactions where the teacher can learn about a student's communicative abilities, attention span, attitudes, pace of learning, and strengths and weaknesses .Self-Assessment : Although self-assessment may seem inappropriate at first , it can improvement . Self-assessment could be done using one of the following techniques : - K-W-L charts :With this type, students provide examples of what they know, what they wonder, what they have learned . K-W-L charts are effective when used at the beginning and at the end of a period of study . At the start of a course , the completed charts can help the teacher learn about students' background knowledge and interests . At the end of a course , the charts can help the students reflect on what they have learned as well as gain awareness of their improvement . Learning logs : A learning log is a record of the students' experiences with the use of English outside the classroom. Dialogue Journals : These journals are interactive in nature; they take the form of an ongoing written dialogue between teacher and student . Dialogue journals have proven effective and enjoyable for students regardless of their level of proficiency .They can help the teacher assess students' writing ability and improvement over time .

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Peer and Group Assessment : Students can write evaluative, encouraging notes for each member of their team emphasizing their positive contribution to team work . The role of the teacher would be to provide guidance , to explain to the students what they have to evaluate, and to help them identify and apply properly the evaluation criteria . Student Portfolios : The purpose of a portfolio in language teaching is to demonstrate the extent of a student's communicative competence in the target language through samples of oral and written work . Student portfolios may be defined as " the use of records of a student's work over time and in a variety of modes to show the depth, breadth, and development of the student's abilities" . As for the contents of portfolios, they should be multi-sourced and include a variety of the written and oral work that illustrates students' efforts, progress, and achievements . If portfolios are implemented clearly and systematically, they have several advantages :

-They provide the teacher with a detailed picture of a student's language performance in a variety of different tasks .-They can enhance students' self-image as they participate in the decisions about content & can help them identify their strengths and weakness in the target language .-They integrate teaching and assessment in a continuous process .

Oral AssessmentWhen students are comfortable working in cooperative groups during the instructional time, some instructional groups can be operating while one group is being assessed . For example, the teacher could use a story retell . The students would read the story for homework, then in their group they would practise telling it for 15 minutes . The group would meet with the teacher to retell the story to the teacher . Each student would be responsible for telling part of the story . As each student retold their portion of the story, the teacher would mark an oral check list .

Writing Assessment Writing assessment is built into the writing process . To guide writing instruction, students should be provided with explicit criteria to use during peer and teacher conferences . Possible criteria : - Style - story structure - Organization - Grammar - Vocabulary - Punctuation

How might Classroom Assessment be Used ?The chart below outlines major types of classroom assessment as well as the ways classroom assessment is used .

Classroom Assessment : Types and UsesThere is a variety of classroom assessment techniques : - Teacher Observations - Oral questioning - Projects - Story retelling - Interviews - Portfolios - Questionnaires - Writing samples - demonstrations - Paper and pencil tests - Journals Assessment represents a continuous process . Classroom assessment can be used prior to, during or after the instructional Process .Assessment tends to be dynamic-reflecting multiple points in learning .Assessment provides many different pictures of the learner in a variety of times , contexts and of instructional settings . Feedback is maximized .Classroom assessment usually focuses on instructional process as well as outcome.

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Never confuse feedback with assessment .Schools have far too many tests and offer far too little feedback for learners. Dipsticking gives you immediate and accurate feedback on your student's level of understanding at the moment of presentation. The way to do it is simple . Set up with your students a system of various hand signals which represent answers . You might have a sign for more, less, higher, lower, useful, not, etc. Then you can use these immediate digital feedback signals during your presentation so that you know how much is being understood . It's a signal system which allows every teacher to get constant feedback on his / her presentation . Then changes and corrections can be made right on the spot when they're needed, not at a test two weeks later .

P resent Y our E valuations What you say and how you say it will determine students' test-taking attitudes . An evaluation is a feedback mechanism for the teacher . If the teacher designs it well, it can also serve as a feedback mechanism for the students . Simply tell your students that the tests will measure how well you taught instead of how much they learned . It reduces the incentive to use the success strategy called cheating . Turn evaluations into a game and make it fun that the students want to play .It has been discovered that for feedback to be useful, it must be constant . Testing during every class is useful . The tests do not have to be written . It's just as easy to create class exercises in which students can respond orally . Daily testing creates more of a relationship with the subject matter, more interest in it and lowers stress about grades because each test is less significant.Keep tests light ! Who says assessing should be painful . Find ways to allow the students to devalue the test scores, but still learn from the experience .Use a variety of testing methods . Some students best express themselves in writing, others talking, others by demonstrating, others on special projects, and others love a basic, standard written test . Be on the student's side. Tell them ahead of time when you will test, the kinds of test methods you'll use, and the grading system. Attract them to be involved in the process . Give immediate feedback. Scoring is what students and teachers need for feedback and course correction . The easiest way is to have students grade their tests as soon as they are completed .Correct tests in class with lightness and humor, then celebrate each right answer with group applause or cheers . The ultimate success as a teacher in the classroom is to have ALL of your students succeed . If half of them do well, you didn't reach the other half and that could be the goal next time . It should be the dream of every teacher to have every student in the class succeed . If any of them don't, adjust the variables : your teaching, the tests, the grading system, etc. Behavioural flexibility, teaching skills, rapport, presentation methods all can bring you closer to the 100% goal .

Measurement: TestsWhat Is A Test ? Researchers and applied linguists agree that a test is “a method of measuring an individual’s ability in a certain area”. The definition looks very simple, but every single word is very significant. The word “method” for instance, implies that a test is a system based on principles and techniques. The word " measurement " implies that there should be a good instrument that would help in carrying out the task. The word “ability” implies the quality / skill in something. The word “certain” implies that what is intended to be measured is very specific.

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Criteria Different criteria are used in assessing learners. Testing is also conducted according to certain criteria. The following are some of the possibilities which are utilized in the realm of assessment and testing: 1- Criterion-referenced testing : How well the learner is performing relative to fixed criterion. Criterion-referenced tests are used to determine how many students have attained a given level of proficiency. The students’ performances are compared with the attainment of the objectives of instruction. 2- Norm-referenced testing : This test is used to rank students. The teacher

compares individual students’ performances against the achievement of other students who were subjected to the same test. 3- Individual-referenced testing :How well the learner is performing relative to his / her previous performance, or relative to an estimate of his / her individual ability. It cannot be denied that some of language testing is of very poor quality. Sometimes, tests have a harmful effect on teaching and learning and’ they fail to measure accurately whatever it is they are intended to measure.’ The effect of testing on teaching and learning is known as backwash . It can be harmful or beneficial. If the test is regarded the basic objective of teaching and learning, then preparation for it will dominate all the teaching and learning activities. And if the test content and testing techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course, then there is likely to be harmful backwash.“ The second reason for mistrusting tests is that very often they fail to measure accurately whatever it is that they are intended to measure. Teachers know this. Students’ true abilities are not always reflected in the test scores that they obtain. To a certain extent this is inevitable. Language abilities are not easy to measure; we cannot expect a level of accuracy comparable to those of measurements in the physical sciences. Why are tests inaccurate? The causes of inaccuracy are many, but a short answer is possible here. There are two main sources of inaccuracy: 1-The first of these sources concerns test content and techniques. If we want to know how well someone can write, there is absolutely no way we can get a really accurate measure of their ability by a multiple choice test. Professional testers have expended great effort, and not a little money, In attempts to do it; but they have always failed. We may be able to get an approximate measure, but that is all. When testing is carried out on a very large scale, when scoring of tens of thousands of compositions might seem not to be a practical proposition, it is understandable that potentially greater accuracy is sacrificed for reasons of economy and convenience. 2- The second source of inaccuracy is lack of reliability. A test is said to be reliable if it measures consistently. On a reliable test you can be confident that someone will get more or less the same score, whether they happen to take it on one particular day or on the next; whereas on an unreliable test the score is quite likely to be considerably different, depending on the day on which it is taken. Unreliability has two origins : - The features of the test itself. In this case, ‘something about the test creates a tendency for individuals to perform significantly differently on different occasions when they might take the test’. Among the features of a test which might make it

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unreliable are : unclear instructions, ambiguous questions and items that result in guessing on the part of the test takers. - The way the test is scored. In the second case, ’equivalent performances are accorded significantly different scores. The same composition may be given different scores by different markers , or even by the same marker on different occasions. Among the purposes of testing are the following: *To measure language proficiency. * To discover how far students have achieved the objectives of a course of study. *To diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses. * To assist placement of students by identifying the stage or part of a teaching programme most appropriate to their ability. The proper relationship between teaching and testing is surely that of partnership. We cannot expect testing only to follow teaching. What we should demand of it, however, is that it should be supportive of good teaching and, where necessary, exert a corrective influence on bad teaching.

Kinds of TestingDirect Testing : Testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill which we wish to measure. If we want to know how well candidates can write compositions, we get them to write compositions. If we want to know how well they pronounce a language, we get them to speak.Indirect Testing : Indirect testing attempts to measure the abilities which underlie the skills in which we are interested. An example of indirect testing is “ Lado’s ( 1961 ) proposed method of testing pronunciation ability by a paper and pencil test in which the candidate has to identify pairs of words which rhyme with each other”. Discrete Point Testing : It refers to the testing of one element at a time, item by item. This might involve a series of items each testing a particular grammatical structure . Discrete point tests are almost always indirect. Multiple choice questions and grammar transformation items are examples of this kind of testing. Integrative Testing : An integrative test requires the test taker to combine many language elements in the completion of a task. This might involve writing a composition, taking notes while listening to a lecture, or completing a cloze passage. Norm-referenced Testing : This kind of testing relates one candidate’s performance to that of other candidates. We are not told what the student is capable of doing in the language. We are told that the student obtained a score that placed him / her in the top five per cent of candidates who have taken the test. Criterion- referenced Testing : The purpose of criterion-referenced tests is to classify people according to whether they are able to perform some task or set of tasks satisfactorily. The tasks are set and the students’ performances are evaluated. Those who perform the tasks satisfactorily ‘pass’; those who don’t, ‘fail’ . students are encouraged to measure their progress in relation to meaningful criteria.Objective Testing : This kind of testing does not require judgement on the part of the scorer. The scoring is objective. A multiple choice test , with the correct responses unambiguously identified would be a case in point.Subjective Testing : Testing is said to be subjective when scoring is subjective and requires judgement on the part of the scorer. There are different degrees of subjectivity

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in testing. The impressionistic scoring of a composition may be considered more subjective than the scoring of short answers in response to questions on a reading passage. The distinction between objective testing and subjective testing is based on the distinction between methods of scoring, and nothing else.

Types of Tests Placement test: Placing new students in the right class in a school is facilitated with the use of placement tests which assess students’ productive and receptive skills. Diagnostic test: While placement tests are designed to show how good a student’s English is in relation to a previously agreed system of levels, diagnostic tests can be used to expose learner difficulties, gaps in their knowledge, and skill deficiencies during a course. Thus, when we know what the problems are, we can do something about them. Diagnostic tests are used to identify students’ strengths and weaknesses. Progress or achievement test: These tests are designed to measure learners’ language and skill progress in relation to the syllabus they have been following. They are directly related to language courses. They are of two kinds: Final achievement tests and Progress achievement tests. Proficiency test: Proficiency tests give a general picture of a student’s knowledge and ability (rather than measure progress). They are frequently used as stages people have to reach if they want to be admitted to foreign university, get a job, or obtain some kind of certificate. Proficiency tests are designed to measure people’s ability in a language regardless of any training they may have had in that language. Despite differences between them of content and level of difficulty, all proficiency tests have in common the fact that they are not based on courses that candidates may have previously taken. On the other hand, such tests may exercise considerable influence over the method and content of language courses. Their backwash effect may be beneficial or harmful.Aptitude test : Aptitude tests are designed to discover whether pupils have a talent or a basic ability for learning a new language.

Kinds of Questions The distinction between questions ,here, is based on the six plateaux of thinking and the objectives the questions try to achieve. The plateaux ( levels ) of thinking - as stated in Bloom’s Taxonomy of the cognitive domain- are from bottom to top: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation. Knowledge questions: They require the student to recall specific facts,names, places and previously-learned concepts.Question types and key words: -Who, What, When, Where, How? -List, show, name, recall, tell, identify, mention…etc.Descriptive (comprehension) Questions: They ask students to describe data in more detail. They go beyond mere recall or identification and ask students to describe, compare and contrast. They require the student to demonstrate sufficient understanding by organizing and arranging material mentally; rephrasing it i.e. retelling in his / her own words; summarizing; establishing relationships by comparing or contrasting.

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Question types and key words: - In what way….? / what’s the main idea…? -Describe, Rephrase, Rearrange, Compare, Contrast, Differentiate, Put in your own words, Explain, Summarize, Illustrate.Application Questions: They require the student to solve problems, apply information to produce some result and use facts, rules and principles.Question types and key words: - How is…an example of…? / How is….. related to…? / Why is….significant? - Demonstrate, Apply, , Complete, Relate, Change, Discover, Experiment, Examine.Explanatory (Analysis) Questions: The require students to analyze information in order to identify causes, reach conclusions, find supporting evidence, and make inferences. They foster critical thinking in students.Question types and key words: - What are the parts / features of…? / How does….compare / contrast with…? What evidence can you give for..? / Why did these things happen? What would you infer…? - Classify, Analyze, Categorize, Infer, Differentiate, Select, Divide, Order, Contrast , Distinguish, Discriminate, Compare.Synthesizing Questions: They require students to perform original and creative thinking, combine details into some sort of relationships, give predictions and solutions to problems.Question types and key words: - What would you predict from…? / How would you design a new…? / What might happen if you combined…? / What solutions would you suggest For..? / What ideas can you add to…?/ How can we solve..? - Write, Develop, Produce, Design, Invent, Construct, Formulate, Plan, Set up, Rearrange, Compose, Assemble, Collect.Evaluative questions: They require students to make judgment about the value of something, choose among alternatives according to some established criteria, appraise, asses or criticize some idea, indicate the criteria or the data to justify their positions.Question types and key words: - Do you agree…? / What do you think about..? / What’s the most important…? How would you decide about…? / What criteria would you use to assess..? Give your opinion... / Would it be better..? / Which is the best solution..?

- Choose, Decide, Refute, Judge, Argue, Recommend, Critique, Justify, Appraise, Evaluate, Value, Conclude, Convince, Rank, Estimate, Defend.

Open-ended questions: They require students to seek and determine for themselves what are acceptable answers. Question types and key words: - What might happen..? / How would you…? / Imagine…/ Suppose…

Characteristics of Good Questions* Clear. * straightforward . * Challenging. * Concisely worded and easily understood. * Simple. * Suitable for the purpose it is being used for. * Adapted to the students.* Thought-provoking. * Related to the learning objectives. * Requires an open, rather than closed response * Requires more than a few quick words to be answered. * Prepared and thought out in advance, yet they seem spontaneous .

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Characteristics of a Good TestValidity : A valid test measures what it ought to be testing . A test that is designed to measure control of grammar becomes invalid if it contains difficult lexical items. Reliability: A test should provide consistency in measuring the items being evaluated. In other words, if the same test is given twice to the same pupils, it should produce almost the same results.Practicality: A practical test is easy to administer and to score without wasting too much time or effort. Comprehensiveness : A good test should be comprehensive, covering all the items which have been studied. This enables teachers to know accurately the extent of the students’ knowledge.Relevance: The items of an effective test should measure reasonably well the desired objectives or achievement. Balance: A practical test evaluates both linguistic and communicative competence. That is, the items of the test must reflect the students’ real command of the language with regard to appropriateness and accuracy.Economy: An efficient test makes best use of the teacher’s limited time for preparing and grading, and of the student’ assigned time for answering all the items. Thus oral exams with classes of thirty or more students are not economical since they require too much time and effort.Authenticity: The language of a test should reflect everyday discourse.Difficulty: The test questions should be appropriate in difficulty, neither too hard nor too easy. Moreover, the questions should be progressive in difficulty in order to reduce stress and tension.Clarity: It is essential that questions and instructions should be clear so as to enable students to know exactly what the examiner wants them to do.Objectivity: The questions and answers should be clear and definite so that the marker would give the score a student deserves. Time: A good test is one that is appropriate in length for the allotted time.

Compiled and prepared by: ELT Supervisor Ahmed Al- Meer Mohammed

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