2 : 1: ........................................................................1.1 .......................................1.2 : Adam Smith ................................................1.3 Adam Smith: .............................................................1.4 : .....................................1.4.1 H ........................................................................1.4.2 : ...........................1.4.3 :H ( )....................................................................................1.5 .................................................................. 2: 2.1 () .....................2.2 ............................................................................................2.3 , ..................2.4 , .......................................................................2.5 ........................................2.6 , : .................................................... : 3: ........................................................................................................................3.1. - ......................................................................................3.2............................................................................................................3.2.1. .......................................................................................................3.2.2. .......................3.2.3. , ; ............1.3. ...............................................3.3.1. .................................3.3.2. ; .......................................................3.3.3. ....................................................................................1.4. ............................................................................3.4.1..............................................................3.4.2. ........3.4.3.,, ..................................................................................3.5. .......................................................................3.5.1. .................3.5.2. ..................3.5.3. 3.5.4. ................................................................................................3.5.5. ................................................................................................3.5.6. .................................................1.6. ........................................................................3.6.1. ......................................................3.6.2. 3.6.3., , ...........................................................................3.7. ........................................................3.7.1................................................................................................................3.7.2. ................................................................................................3.7.3. ................................................................................................1.8. ...........................................................................................3.8.1. ..........................................................3.8.2. .........................................................3.9. ...........................3.9.1........................................................................................................................3.9.2.....................................................................................................3.9.3....................................................................................................... 4: .................................................4.1. ............................................................4.1.1. ..........................................................................4.1.2. ..........................................................................4.2. ...................................................4.2.1. ...............................................................4.2.2.,.......................................................................................................................4.2.3..........................4.2.4. 4.2.5. ..........44.3. ....................................................4.3.1. ....................................................4.3.2. ..4.3.3. ....................................................................4.3.4. ...............................4.3.5. ; ...................................................................4.3.6...................................................................................................4.3.7. ; ......4.3.8. ; .....................................4.3.9. , ..........4.3.10. ...................................................................4.3.11. - .......................................4.3.12. - Engel .......4.3.13.- ........................................................................4.3.14.-..................................................................................................4.3.15. ..4.3.16.,Giffen ...........................................................................................4.3.17. ................................................................................. 5: ...5.1. .................................................................................5.1.1. ......................................5.1.2. ..............5.1.3. .........................................5.1.4. ...................................5.1.5., .................................5.1.6. ....................................5.1.7. ...............................5.1.8. ...................................5.1.9. .....................5.1.10. ..............5.1.11. ............................................................................................5.1.12. ..............................................................5.2. .................................................................5.2.1. .....................................................................................................5.2.2. ............................5.2.3....................................................................................................5.2.4. ......................................................................................5.2.5...................................................................................................5.2.6. .......................5.2.7. ........5.2.8. ..............5.2.9..........................................................................................................5.2.10. ......................5.2.11. .......5.2.12., ....................5.2.13. ....................................................................................................... 6: ......................................................... +++6.1. ..............................................................................................6.2. .......................................................................6.2.1. .......................5.2.2., ....................................................................................6.2.3. ......................6.2.4.P=MR sSAC;......................................................................................................6.2.5. ............................................................. +++6.3 ........................................................................................6.3.1. 6.3.2.................................................................................................6.3.3. .........................6.4. ............................................................6.4.1. ............6.4.2......................................................................................................................6.5. ......................................................................................6.5.1. ......................................6.5.2. ................................................................................................ : 7. .....................................67.1 ...........................................................7.1.1. .........................................7.1.2. ...................................................7.1.3. .........................................................7.2. ....................................................................7.2.1. ..............................7.2.1.1. ...................................................................7.2.1.2. ...........................................7.2.2. ................................7.2.3. ..............................................................................7.2.3.1. ...............................................7.2.3.2. - .................7.2.3.3. ...................................................7.2.4. ...................................7.2.5. ............................................................7.2.5.1. ............................................................7.2.5.2. ....................................................7.2.6. ...................7.2.7. ...........................................7.2.8. ..............................................................................7.2.8.1. ................................................7.2.8.2. .........................7.2.8.3. ............................ 8. .........................................................8.1 ..........................................................8.1.1. ........................8.1.2. ........................................................................8.1.3. ............................................................8.1.4 ...............................................................8.2 .....................................................8.3 ...................................................... 9. ........9.1 ..............................................................................9.2 ...................................................................................9.2.1 .............................................................9.2.2 .........................................................................9.2.2.1 ..................................................9.2.2.2 ..................................................9.2.2.3 ..........................................9.3 ...............................................................9.3.1 . ............................................................9.3.2. .....................................................................9.3.2.1 - .............................................9.3.2.2. ...............9.3.2.3 ..........................9.3.2.3. ...........................................................9.3.2.3. .......................................................9.3.2.3. .........................................................9.3.2.3.. ................9.3.3 .....................................................................9.3.4 ..............................................................................9.3.5 ............................................10. IS - LM........................................................10.1 ................................................................................................10.2. IS........................................................................................10.2.1 .................................................................10.2.2 IS..............................................................10.2.3 IS.........................................................10.2.4 IS................................................................. IS............................................................10.2.5 IS.........................................................10.3. LM........................................................................................10.3.1 LM..........................................10.3.2 LM....................................................................................10.3.3 LM..................................................................10.3.4 ...........................................................10.4. IS - LM............................................................................10.4.1 ...............................10.4.2 IS -LM..........................................10.5. .............................................10.5.1 ...................................................................10.5.1.1 ...............................................10.5.1.2 ..........................................10.5.1.3 ..................................................10.5.2 ........................................................................10.5.3 .....................................................................10.6. ................................................................... : ............ 11: ...........................................11.1 ........................................................................................11.2 .................................................11.3 ........................................................11.4 ...................................11.5 ...............................................................11.6 : ...................................11.7 ........................................................11.7.1 , ...........11. 7.2 , .............................................................11.8 12: ......................................812.1 ....................................12.2 ( ), ( ) () .........................................................12.3 ...........................................................................12.3.1 ...........................................................12.3.2 ...12.4 ;12.4.1 12.4.2 - ..............12.4.3 ......................................................12.4.4 ............................12.5 ( ) ; .............................................12.5.1 .............................................12.5.2 : .................................................................13:- .......................................................................13.1 - 13.1.1 - 13.1.2 , , , .................................................13.2 - ..................................13.3 ....................................13.3.1 von Bortkiewicz ....13.3.2 ....13.4 .................................... 14: H ...........................................................14.1 ...........................................................................................................14.2 .......................................................14.3 (1900-1937) ....................................................................14.3.1 ..14.3.2 - ...............................................14.3.3 . ....................................................................14.3.4 : ......14.3.5 .............................................14.3.6 ..14.3.7 .............................................14.4 ....................................................................14.4.1 ..................14.4.2 ....................................................................14.4.3 ...................14.5 ............................................................................................. : ............................................ ......................................................................10 : 1 1.1 1 () () . , .,()., , ,,,,.,. , .,,(),,( ).(,). , , , , , ..,,(,,..),(,,...), , (,). , - .,1,, -- -- ,( ). , , . : .12 ( ) . ( ) ,,, (-),, ( ) ( 1977, 1978, 1983).( ) : () . , , , (,,..), (),,()., ( ) ( ). (1564-1642), ,() . 17 , 1789, () .()(). .1.2 : Adam Smith,;AdamSmith(1723-1790),,1776 2. Smith(2AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations. Smith,, .):), . , , ( , Smith),. , ( , ), , .) ,,(), ( : to command, Smith).Smith, : ,,,(), , , ( ), : ( ).AdamSmith ( ) .3 , ,, .4,, (Smith 2000) , , ,() (,)().,I.viii.1515 8 1 () .3 H (Smith 2000I.v.1),,,(standard) . , (Smith2000I.v.7). To, , :,[, ] (1133b17-18).4 , .,14,:()(,)().5 Smith ,,(), . () ,,, ( ) .6,, , . David Ricardo(1772-1823),ThomasMalthus(1766-1834),JamesMill(1773-1836),SismondedeSismondi(1773-1842)JohnStuartMill(1806-1873), .-:,, (),, ( ).,, (Smith 2000, I.vi.1).5 , (Smith 2000, I.vi.7).6,Smith,,, TableauEconomique Quesnay.,-, .,WilliamPetty(1623 - 1687), Dudley North (1641 - 1691), John Locke (1631 -1704), Nicholas Barbon (1640 - 1698),David Hume (1711 - 1776), James Steuart (1712 - 1780) FranoisQuesnay(1694 -1774)J.Turgot(1727-1781), , AdamSmith. , ( ) ,(Anikin1974,Galbraith 1987, Schumpeter 1994, Screpanti & Zamagni 1995).,. Adam Smith ( )().- ( .. ) , . , , Smith, (Smith2000,I.ii.5,28). , homo oeconomicus, .,,,,(Smith2000,I.iv. 1 37).,,Smith() , , .,,,()(Moss1996,PartsIV&VI).,7, .,, , , Smith,(-) Ricardo.. .8 7 , . : ,jusnaturale, () () ,()(), (...) : (...) , (1989, 199-202 & 240-241). . (1995).8 Smith : , , ,,,' .,,, . ,., , , , 16 , (,,,)( --..,--,).Smith , , , :,(),,, , .91.3 Adam Smith: Smith () . , ( , Smith) , , .10,(). , ..,', (Smith 2000, IV.ii.9).9 AdamSmithFr.Quesnay:.Quesnay[] ,.,,, . , , . , (Smith 2000, IV.ix.28).10 , , , . , ( ). . Smith I.vii.7 .: ,,,.(...) , (Smith I.vii.15)., ., , -, (), ,, . , ,.11,(),.12,,,-,-()()()., ., , , - .(), : ( ),() ( ).13 Smith ,,,. , ,,, -. (11,,, . ,., (Smith 2000, I.vi.5).12 , , . (...) (Smith 2000, I.viii.6&7).13H,, , , . (...) , ,.,, (Smith 2000, I.vi.17).18,):,,.14,J.-B.Say(1767-1832), , . : , . , ..Smith. ( , ) , ,15 ( ).,, - , ,16()(): (..) , ( , , .) , (,..),,14. (...), , , ,,(...) ,,, , (Smith 2000, I.vii.1&4).15 (Smith 2000, I.viii.15). ( Smith 2000, I.viii.16.,),,Smith, (Smith 2000, I.viii.39).16JamesSteuart(1712-1780), : ( Rubin 1994, 91). Steuart ,,,..(), , .()(), ..(,, , ..),,, , ..., () . ,()( ), (),()(,),()( ). (- , , .. , ...). ().PierroSraffa, N.1717 Sraffa , :P1= [x11*P1](1+r) + L1*w (1)P2= [x21*P1+ x22*P2](1+r) + L2*w (2),P1,x11(..) (1),w,r()L1( -) . P2 , x22x21.L2. 4 (P1, P2, r, w). ( ,x02, ---- ), : w = x02*P2(3), .,P1P2(P1=1(4)),(,2)1. 2 n . n+2 , (,).Sraffa,,..(.1985,1992,Kliman1999).(), , .,,.., , .201.4 : 1.4.1 H (,,),(/), Adam Smith.DavidRicardo Smith.(,, ).18 Ricardo . Ricardo, , () (,/1989,111).H(,).19,(, 1992, 1).Ricardo, , .,,(). , :Ricardo,(), : , .( --),18,, , (, / 1989, 99).19(...),,,., (, 1992, . 1).(Ricardo 1992, 89).20Ricardo ,,, . . (..) .(),,, (2) . () (10%). , ()(,)., (r). : - - 0,1r1= ---------------, + : - - 0,2r2= --------------- 2 + r1>r2. (r1= r2= r), (2>1= ), .(.Rubin1994,333-344, 390-397).[ . , ,,.20 Carey,, ,1848, Ricardo , , ( Rubin 1994, . 416).22 : =+( -)=++(. 2). -/..21: , , ,(...) [farmer].,. ; : - . , , : , ,-,.,,,, , , (2000:.vi.11).;-(),, ,(1979:383), , , , .. . [ ] : ----,, , , , .[]1)(,2),,,.,,(1979:384).,,:, , . , . .21 . ( 1979: 389).,,. . . ( / ) .,,, ( ), ]. , , J.-B. Say, Th. Malthus, Fr. Bastiat (1801-1850) , Smith, , .,Malthus,,()(.3),J.-B.Say(Bastiat),(,,,,.), ----22 .1.4.2 : Say, () . ( Rubin 1994, 386).23 Say,(,,).22 Utility: . . , . .,utility, , .23Ricardo,: 2.000 , , 2.000 (utility) , ; () ( 1992, 266).24 , . (). -- -- (marginal utility), .1870,: TheoryofPoliticalEconomy StanleyJevons(1871),GrundsaetzederVolkswirtschaftslehre CarlMenger(1871) ElementsdEconomie Politique pure Leon Walras (1874). (Roll 1989, Moss 1996 Parts IV &V, 1988, marginal utility --.2,.33,242.Heinrich1991,57-88).24 , , . ( Say) ( , , ).25(),() () , ():(,), , ,(). , ,( ), .2624Jevons1862, 1866, Internet (. Jevons 1866).25,,,.( --)( ) . , , ,(,,..)., (. ).26 Kuhn (Kuhn,1962). ,, : AdamSmith,, ,.-,(),,19Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). Bentham: , .(),,,,,() (principleofutility) ,()(utility), (benefit), , , , () ( ) , , , (Bentham1948,1-2).Jevons --(...)(...) (...) .27 , , - . ( ) : () .SmithRicardo ( ) ,(), () .28 , , ,,,, , .27 A true theory of economy can only be attained by going back to the great springs of human action --the feelings of pleasure and pain. (...) Economy investigates the relations of ordinary pleasures and pains(...), and it has a wide enough field of inquiry. (...) A second part of the theory proceeds from feelings tothe useful objects or utilities by which pleasurable feeling is increased or pain removed (Jevons 1866).28, Adam Smith ( : utility) . : (utility) .,. , , 26,,: - ., . (), , .()., ,,. ,,, . Bentham: () , (Bentham1948,3). (Bentham, TheTheoryofLegislation, 1931, 144, Rubin 1994, 301).,:,().,,,, . () , (Fr.Bastiat, Harmonies economiques, 1850, 1988,228-229).,(StanleyJevons, TheTheoryofPoliticalEconomy,&1871,21,1988,229).()(Bhm-Bawerk,KapitalundKapitalzins,II.PositiveTheoriedesKapitals, 1912,507, 1988, 254).29,.,:,(Smith2000, I.iv.13). (Smith 2000, I.iv.14).29 N,,John-StuartMill(1806-1873) Bentham. DissertationsandDisquisitions (1867,334),Bentham.(Roll1989,355)...19.30,,.,, . John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946). Keynes, , ( -) ,. ( )(), (Say), . . .1.4.3 : H ( )OKarlMarx(1818-1883) 1857-67, .31 30,( , ), Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), Francis Ysidro Edgeworth(1845-1926)ArthurCecilPigou(1877-1959)M.,EugenvonBhm-Bawerk(1852-1914)FriedrichvonWieser(1851-1926),VilfredoPareto(1848-1923),Knut Wicksell (1851-1926) Gustav Cassel (1866-1944) , Irving Fisher (1867-1947) JohnBatesClark(1847-1938).. Robbins1998,258-320.Screpanti/Zamagni1995,145-211.31 , :1) 1857-58,1939-41(,1976,BastiatHarmonies conomiques, Paris1851) GrundrissederKritikderPolitischen konomie( , 1989, MEGA 1976).2) H , 1859 (MEGA1980).3) 1861-63, , 1905-10 . 1861-63 1982(MEGA1976-, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1976, 1982, 1985).4) 1863-67,,6 , 1969 (MEGA1988,1992,Marx 1969, 1983). 1863-67 .28 , , ,(). ,(.)., , , () . , , 1840. - . (),,, , , .1845, Feuerbach,:.,(6Feuerbach,/...,.47).: , , ,,(MEW3,38).,, ( 1990, 194). , , : (/ 1965, . 29). , ( ) -( , , ----, ).32 , 5) .,1867. (1872-73), ,. (1872-75). ( 1863-67),18841895.(.MEGA1983,1978,1978-,1979,1991).( ) , 1976, , MEGA (Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe)., 1989-, (. Hecker 1998).32 H , (M 1993, 34). (,,) , . ( ) , (),, , . , , ,.,,,. , , , , , ,() : ,..,, (MEW3, 26). . , , (MEW3,46..Althusser1972, 1978 & 1983, 1977). ( ), - , ., , . : ,().,,:, ( , -- -- ) , .()(),.()().():(M1963,14). ( 1988, 227).30(...)[], (/ 1965, . 45). , , : .33 ( ), , . .(),-(), , .-,: . ( ).,, -(-). , , ..., ( ), , , .-,,-.,-, .,,()-.,(),-. 33, : - , ...( ) . ,,,.34,-,( ), ,( , . 4 ). . ,,- , .:,,(.11&12).1.5 ,,,. ,() , .,(), . , , .34, , ( 1991, 73).32 2 , ,, (. 1976).2.1 () .,)),35, , ., ,.,-.,, () , .,,() , .(-),,(),. .().,:, , , ,(,..),,,,., , 35 ( , .. ),,20.. ., , .,( ),,( , ), .36() ., .,,,,.,,, . , ( ).2.2 ,(..x,y,z,w,...),()., . , () , :,,.,,, , .2.3 , . 1.000 .(..36., (,, ), .34),,(..,), .1.000, : (..),,.., . ,: .. ,,, . , .,,...7% , 3% ..., ( ) . (,..) . (, ..) .(),(.. ). .2.4,1.000,, . , , ( : , , ): () ( ), .,1.000 :().37 (). 600 .,. .1.000 ( ),. . .1.000,() 100 , 900., 600 .2.5 , ,. ( ) () .,. ,, .,( ) , , . , .,,. .1.00037,(...) ( ). (,)(= ) (). . 3 .36.,(x,)., 1.000,. .2.6,: (), . , ,(,)., ( )(,) . , . ( )(..) () . ( ). . :,(), , , ., .( ) ., .,,,38. .(),(). ,: , . , , , ( ), ( ). ,,,(),() . , , () . (),() .39 ( ). , ., (),. .38 , ( ). , , () , .39,,(),( ) .,, , ., .38 : 40 3: 3.1. - 1,Say,,,, , : . . , ,Say.: . , ,( 1979: 265-6).1870, , (,.4)40 Jevons, Menger, Walras, . (1988: 72). .(,)(). .,- ( 1988: 74).40 (...) , , ,, , , , . , , . , . , ... ( 1991: 16-17).,, , . -: , , ( 1988: 75). ;,-,: --.,,.,,,.. ,"" ( 1988: 75, . . .).,(),,,, -,() -(), .41, . ,, ( 1988: 77).,, ; -: , , , , , ( 1988: 78).,:,. , , ( 1988: 238-9).41 . : - , , -- , , , , ( , ). ( 1988: 77).42,, .Walras,, ,.: , (...), , , , , , (Walras 1984: 65)., , .42, ,(),. , (),,, - .(), ( ) ( -,,..), .(,, ), , , .,,, ,() , , ., , ,( ) . .:,(),,,,. ( ) 42 ( 1988: 79-83).,, , , , ,,. , ,,(,) . ,,., , , , ,.43 ;,, ,,. ; ;. -.,., .,,, .,,.:,,,(. 1988: 41-70).43 , , , . ( ) , ... ( / 1999: 128) . .443.2. 3.2.1. . ( ): () () () . , , : .. , , .. , (- - ) .. , , ..44,, .().,,, ( ),(),,(),45 .46 , , - .4744 " ", , . ( , A. Smith, " " ( 1993: 135).45 ( ). ( ) . , . ( 1997: 65).46 ( ) ... [ ] (Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 256) . . ... [] []. ( 1997: 93). .47 . , . . , , , (,,48), .,,,, . .3.2.2. ., , , .. :,,,.,, .. ,,:.. , , , .. :() ,,,,(. 5)., , () ( ).3.1. ,, ( , , ) . : ,... , , (Chacholiades 1990-: 27).48 , (. Begg / Fischer /Dornbusch 1998: 27).46( ) ( ), . ., y3. (). 0x1 , , x1, y2().x2,x1x2,y1,y1y2(). , x2x3, x3, . x3 , , (). , ., . 3.1. . () ( ) () . , ,, (y1-y2)/(x2-x1) = -y1y2/x1x2 = -y/x. . -y/x, (yx), yx = -(y/x) = |y/x|. y3y2y1 0 x1x2x3 yx = -(dy/dx).() .yx(=|y/x|). ., , , , . ,.y/x,B, . , . , , .49 : . . ., ., ..,. 3.2., ( ). (). .49 ; (. Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 37), 5. . Chacholiades 1990-: 147-52.48 3.2. , .,,,, , ., .() () 3.3. 3.3 .(),. . () , . . , () . .,,0 0 x1x2 0 y2y1 0 0, . .,y1,x1x2( ) , x1, y1 y2 ( ).,,; ., . , , , . , , , ., .3.2.3. , ;, . ( ). ;. Adam Smith.50 ; , . .50 : , , , , , . , , , . , . , , , , . . , , ( Rubin 1994: 222).503.3. 3.3.1. ,., , , .;,, , ; .: . , 51 .3.3.2. ; . , . () . .,.. .: , .:() .. ().52,, . . . . ,. 51 (Chacholiades 1990-: 32).52 " " ( "", , , , ). . " " , ... , , .. . " " ( ) ( 1993: 129). , , .. .: , . ( ). .. . . () . () .: . . .: () .533.3.3. , , , , ,, ..(,).()()., , .()().53 ... , , : . , ( " "). . , , [], ( ), " ", - ( 1998: 147-8). , .52., ,,( ).54,, , .,, .( 6) :. . .. . .. super.. . ,, .3.4. .3.4.1. .54 . ( ). , ( ). , ( ). . () . , , .... , . , . , .... ,... (Chacholiades 1990-: 35).. . ; . .: . . , , , .. , ... .3.4.2. , . ., ., . ., D, 3.4 . 3.4. , (.. . , P) (.. , Q) .5555 Alfred Marshall (1842-1924). . , Marshall ( ) () (Chacholiades 1990-: 38). , , , 0 Q1 Q2QP P1 P2D54P( )56 Q, .P1P2, Q1 Q2. ;., , , .., .3.4.3.,, .,() ., , .573.5.,, .. P = f(Q), ( P Q ) Q = g(P) ( 1976: 82). , , , , dP/dQ ( 1976: 99). , [ ] ()/( ), P/Q (Chacholiades 1990-: 53). , , , , , . , , , .56 . . ( ) .57 , , , , , (. 1976: 99). 3.5.,, .. ., ,. . .. ., , ( )( ),( )( ). , , . : . : . : . : .58..,...10.000.10.000.,,(),,.,,,,,,, .. . . ( ). : .58 , , . .. , (), , , () .DP P2 P1D 0 Q1 Q2Q56 . , , , ,().,,, ( ) . . . : ..,,( ) . , ( ) .. ., .3.5. ., , . (D). .:D = % : % . , ,( ). 3.6.P1Q1.P2 Q2.P(=P1-P2) Q (= Q1- Q2). P/P1 Q/Q1. 3.6. , :D =DQ QDP P//11 =DQDP*PQ11. ( )., .3.5.1. , , ., , P1 = 15 Q1= 20 P2 = 5 Q2= 30 : P = P1- P2 = 15 -5 =10 Q = Q1- Q2 = 20 - 30 =-10. , P/P1=10/15 = 2/3 Q/Q1 = -10/20 = -1/2., :D = 1 22 3//= -3/4 = -0,75. ,,., P2 = 5 Q2 = 30 P1 = 15 Q1 = 20. : P = P2- P1 = 5 - 15 =-10 Q = Q2- Q1 = 30 - 20 =10.() , P/P2 = -10/5 = -2 Q/Q2 = 10/30 =1/3., :D =1 32/= -1/6 = -0,17.0 Q1 Q2 Q PP1P2BDPQA58 .Q/P(= -1),,,P/Q,(P1/Q1 = 15/20 = P2/Q2 = 5/30)., . :D =DQDP*( ) /( ) /P PQ Q1 2 21 2 2++=DQDP*P PQ Q1 21 2++., , . :D= -1*( ) /( ) /15 5 220 30 2++= -1*10/25= -0,4 .3.5.2. .,, D.,P2Q2 P1 Q1 . , P1 P2 P1 Q1 Q2 Q1.,PQ, D .Q/PdQ/dP, Q P .59 () Q/P () P1 P2 () Q1 Q2 , :D =dQdP*PQ11.,, . 3.7.59 Q/P P 0 Q P :dQ/dP ( / 1997: 79). .(=dQ/dP) /.0,(=P/Q) /0. : = (/) * (/0) = /0.(), . 0 = . 3.7. : /0 (= /) = ( )=/ = /. = 0, :D = /0 = 0/ = /.,, , .,.3.5.3. () . 3.8. 0QAP PP1P2ABD 0 Q1 Q2 Q60 . 3.8, ( 0P1 0Q1) 0P1 * 0Q1, 0Q1P1. ( 0P2 0Q2) 0P2 * 0Q2, 0Q2BP2. , . : () ,. , ()., ( )., .()(),(). (D > 1, ).()() ,(). (D < 1, ).,,,. (D = 1, ).6060 , , ( ) ( ) ( D > 1) ( D = 1) ( D < 1) (. Chacholiades1990-: 54-6). ( ) . , , () Q = a - bP. P0 Q0 , :Q0* P0 = (a - bP0) * P0 = aP0- bP0. :d(aP0- bP0)/dP0 = 0 a - 2bP0 = 0 P0 = a/2b. P* = (P1 + P2)/2, . :P* = P0. P1 P2 ( Q1 Q2).:D = {[(a - bP1) - (a - bP2)] / (P1- P2)} * {(P1+ P2) / [(a - bP1) + (a - bP2)]} = = -b * {[(P1 + P2) / [(2a - b * (P1 + P2)]}. D = -1 -b * {[(P1 + P2) / [(-2a - b * (P1 + P2)]} = -1 b * (P1 + P2) = 2a - b * (P1 + P2) 3.5.4.,,().,, .3.9 .(), . ( ). .(). ( ) . . . 3.9.,,. , . , (, ).61 2b * (P1 + P2) = 2a b * (P1 + P2) = a (P1 + P2) = a/b (P1 + P2) / 2 = a/2b P* = a/2b = P0.61 QD = 1/P, QD P .: dQ/dP = -1/P2 P/Q = P : 1/P = P2. : D = -1/P2 * P2 = -1. , : 1/ * = 1. , , Q P.0QPD = 0D =62,,, :.,, . 3.10. 3.10.P1.,,D D., :DA =dQdP*PQ11> DB =dQdP*PQ12.,, , , dQ/dP.,,, P/Q.P1/Q1 = 0P1/0Q1 P1/Q2 = 0P1/0Q2, 0Q1 < 0Q2, P1/Q1 > P1/Q2. dQ/dP P1/Q1 > P1/Q2, , , :DA > DB..,,, . 3.11. D D,,D D., :DA =[dQdP] *PQ11> D =[dQdP] *PQ11.P P1 A BDD0Q1Q2 Q P/Q = P1/Q1, D D , [dQ/dP], D, [dQ/dP], D. 3.11. D Q1A/Q1. D Q1A/Q1.,,, . Q1B < Q1, Q1A/Q1B > Q1A/Q1,D D.D D, , [dQ/dP] > [dQ/dP]. (P1/Q1) [dQ/dP] > [dQ/dP], , :DA > D.3.5.5. :.:. . , . .. :, . . 0Q1B QAP P1D D64. :(),. . , (. , ).. :, .. :.,,,, .. : . .3.5.6. , , , .( ).: (Y). .:Y = % : % . ,62 , .3.12 (Y) , . (Begg / Fischer /Dornbusch1998:168).,,,:62 , . 1976:140-2, Chacholiades 1990-: 162, Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch: 1998: 168-71. ( ).(). ( ). 3.12., (C). .:c = % : % . , .3.6. , .3.6.1. , , . . . Q >0=01. .S 0Q1, SA > 1. S ( ), :dQ/dP = Q1/Q1 ( S)P/Q = Q1/0Q1SA = Q1/Q1 * Q1/0Q1 = Q1/0Q1. Q1 < 0Q1, SA < 1.,3.18, .68 QS = a + bP, a = 0, :dQ/dP = bP/Q = P/(a+bP)S = bP/(a+bP). a < 0 ( ), bP> (a+bP), S > 1. a > 0 ( ), bP < (a+bP), S < 1.P ASSB0 Q1Q0Q1 Q2 Q72 , : S S = 1 ( ) S > 1 ( )S < 1 ( ). 3.18.3.7.3. :. : , , , .. :().().. , (), . . (). .3.8. P S 0Q , , , .69,,( ).3.8.1. , . , , . , , () .,,,,,, . .() .3.8.2. 3.19.( 3.19) .,,,Walras.69 ... . :1. .2. , . , (Chacholiades 1990-: 51).74A.Marshall, .70, , , , , D S.oPE QE ( ). 3.19. ( ).. .,, , ;:(),,,,, ( );: () , .,P2,., . ., () . . , , , .,P1,, 70 Walras - Marshall 1980: 202-4, 223-5, 233, 237, 242-8. . Walras 1984, Marshall 1961.0 Q1QE Q2QP P2 PE P1EA BSD. .,()..,,, ., . ( ) () .,, . 3.20 .,.. . 3.20. P2,.,,, . . , , .,P1,,, , . . , , .0 Q1QE Q2 QP P2PE P1EA BDS76:,() . .,,: . , (),()() . . , ( ), . .( ) 3.21, .0Q1QE Q2 Q P P4 P3 PE P2P1S D()() 3.21. () ( ---- ----)., , . , P4 , .,P1, .() ( ---- ----)., , . , P4, . , P1, . Marshall, , . . : . () .,,. () .7171 Marshall (...) (...) . 0Q1QE Q2 Q P P4 P3 PE P2P1D S78 ().Marshall.4. ( ). Marshall .Marshall . () . , Q1,P3P4.().,, . , Q2, P1 P2. ().,,,,.,.().,Q1,P3P4..,,.,Q2,P1P2. .,,,,., .()WalrasMarshall .,,() . .:,, ()., ( ) . 3.19 3.20. , (Nicholson 1998: 31). : Marshall .... , , [Menger,-] Jevons, ( 1980: 232).3.19.Q1,,P1P2. .Q2,,P1P2. . , .3.20.Q1,,P1P2..Q2,,P1P2.. , .723.9. , .,,73 .3.9.1. 3.22.,,, , D S. P0 Q0. ( ) 0Q0EP0.72 ... [ ] ( 1980: 247). . .73 ., (): ( ) ( , ). (Chacholiades 1990-: 65).80 ( ) D D. P0 (). , , (DS).P1(>P0) Q1 (> Q0). 3.22. . :,S, . P2(>P1 > P0) Q0.,S, . P0 Q2 (> Q1 > Q0)., , ( ), ( ) . :()(),D.(A,)SA. A., .:() , . : , ,(,0Q0 Q1Q2 QPP2P1P0SSSDDEA D ). .3.9.2. 3.23.,,, , D S. P0 Q0. ( ) 0Q0EP0.()S S.P0() . , , ( D S) . 3.23.P1( Q0).,, . . :,D, . P2(< P1 < P0) Q0. , D, . P0 Q2 (> Q1 > Q0).P P0 P1 P2EBDDDSS S 0 Q0 Q1Q2 Q82,,() , ( ) . : ( ) (),S.(A,)DA. A., .:() , ., : , . ;,,,, . .()()D. . . . . 3.24 .(), , Q1Q2A. .(),, P2AP1. . P P1 PP1P2SS DSS () () 3.24.,(,,, ).3.9.3. . :.. ... .D 0Q1 Q2Q0Q1 Q84 4: 4.1. 4.1.1 3, ,()()().., , .(),(),, () ( ).,,() , .,, ,,,()(,)., (. ).4.1.2. (). . (CardinalUtility).,, (Ordinal Utility) , .4.2. , .744.2.1 () ..()(),,.,, .,, ,, ( )(. ).,, , . ,, , . .,,,,,, ..,,., . (util).7574 Jevons (1835-1882), Menger (1840-1921), Warlas (1834-1910), , , Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), Nassau William Senior (1790-1864), Jules Dupuit (1804-1866), Heinrich Gossen (1810-1854) (Chacholiades1990-: 109).75 " " () . . ... .... [] . . , (Chacholiades 1990-: 110).86 . :U = f(Q) U Q . () . ., x1, x2, x3,... xn 1, 2,3,...,n, U = U1(x1) + U2(x2) + U3(x3) + ... + Un(xn).H .4.2.2. , ,,. () 4.1. (U) (Q).,Q1, U1 ( ).Q2,U2(). :. .76. ( ) ( ). Q3..(Q3) .,, . .76 d2U/dQ2 < 0.,45, 40 44 , 4 (44 - 40). , 4 . 4.1.,Q (= Q2- Q1) U (= U2- U1). U/Q., , :MU = U/Q U . Q = 1, : MU = U., , :MU = dU/dQ.7777 , . 0Q1 Q2Q3 Q()U U2 U1AB U Q 0Q1Q2Q3 Q()MUMU1MU2AU=f(Q)MU=dU/dQ88, . :,U/Q(=U)(U2-U1)(Q2-Q1). . (Q).,., U/Q, , .().78(U) (Q). ,, .:.() .79. 0 .. ( Q3)( 0 Q3).80.() .81 , ,0.8278 U = Q2 + BQ, A < 0 B > 0 .79 dU/dQ2 = d(MU) < 0, .80 ( ) .81 dU/dQ = MU < 0, .82 (. Chacholiades 1990-:114-16).,, .83:,.:,() .4.2.3. ,,,,, , . : ,(),,,() .,,,, . , . ., , () .84 (()), .85,(),.83 U U, MU U. MU MU.84 ( 1971: 25-6).85 Marshall [...] , " " " "( 1980: 233).90 , ().,()(),,,()( )., .4.2.4. , , ., , ., .,, ; .86 . . .86. ,,, ;. : 1 . .1 . 86 Gossen 1854(Chacholiades 1990-:145).6.,,8. 8 - 6 = 2 . , .,, ., , . , , ( ,, ). . :x + y = x y ,(),() . ( ).,,(): . :MUx/PX = MUy/PY MUx , MUy ,MUx/PX (1/)MUy/PY(1/ ). . , , . , .87, , ;,,MUx/PX=MUy/PY.87 X1, X2, X3,..., Xn x1, x2, x3,... xn . = x11 +x22 +x33 + ... + xnn MU1/P1 = MU2/P2 = MU3/P3= ... = MUn/Pn, MUi i Pi i, i = 1,2,3,..., n.92 :,MUx/PX >MUy/PY. ,.,.,, , .MUx/PX,MUy/PY..: . : .4.2.5. , , ; .Marshall 10 lbs. () 2 . 9 lbs. 2. ( 1980: 233). Marshall , . , 30 , 30 ( 1980: 234). . ( 2 ) ( 1980: 234) 10 .[Marshall],ceterisparibus, , ( 1980: 234) .Marshall [...] ( 1980: 234-5).,... . , , Marshall...[](1980:236). ,. , Marshall.88 4.2.D, Marshall, , 4.2.,,0P1,..,0Q,.. 0QAP1.,,, , 0Q , 0QAP2. 0QAP1 0QAP2.0QAP20QAP1, P1AP2.4.3. 88 ... Dupuit "" ( 1980: 236).P (MU) P2 P1AD0Q Q94(), () . V. Pareto (1906), E. Slutsky (1915), J. R. Hicks R. G. D. Allen (1934) (F.Y.Edgeworth1881),() .. () . () . , ( ) .,,() . ,() , () (). (), () .F.Y.Edgeworth(1845-1926) U = f(x, y).89U x y X Y ., x y.,:( ) , , , 89 X1, X2, X3,..., Xn x1, x2, x3,..., xn, U = f(x1, x2, x3,..., xn). ( ) () : . -Pareto ( ) , : , .;...;...(Pareto1971:177).90 . .4.3.1. .(). ( ) .,, .,.914.3 .0 x1 y2 . (x1, y2). x2y1. (x2, y1).90 ... [...] ... " Pareto" " Pareto" ( 1980: 258). . Varian ...-: 190-2.91 . , . , 1/4 . . 1/4 .Yy2y1A96 4.3.0,( - ) , .( ) .,.. : ,,,. .. : , ( ) .,( ) ( ). ,,. .. : , .. , , , , . , .. : , , , , , . ,,, .9292 ... ( 1971: 17).B0 x1 x2X4.3.2. ( ) , , , , . - ,()() ( ---- ), . (Chacholiades 1990-: 119).() , , X Y, U = f(x, y)(x,y)() U.93 ;, (). , . . , , . , .U1,,,4.4,. , , , , (x1, y3) - (x2, y2) (x3, y1), x1, x2, x3, y1, y2, y3, . , ,,U1 U1.93 U = x * y. Y y3 y2 y1U3U298 4.4.U2U3, (.), ., ( ). : ,. U = f(x, y). ,. , ,U=f(x,y) (Chacholiades 1990-: 121). . . () . : - , .4.3.3. .. : . 4.5. U0 .(x1y1)0. 1 ( ), 2 ( y1), 3 ( y10x1) 4 ( x1X). :1, (1)0x1x2x3 XU1,( ). 4.5.3,,,(3x1y1) , ( x1 y1).,13,, . , 2 4., 24., . . . , , . ,,.( ) , ,.,( ) ,,., . , .0 x1 y1U0 A 3 4 2 1100 () ( ) (),, x * Ux + y * MUy= 094x*UxxX,y*MUy y .. () :4.4U3U2U1. . 4.5 .U01. - , ( ), U0.,U03. -,(), U0.,().. , . . U1, U2, U3, 1< 2 < 3 118 < 121 < 2014. .9594 , , , U = f(x, y), U . ( ) :0 = (f/x) * dx + (f/y) * dy = MUx * dx + MUy * dy.95 U = f(x,y) , ( ) . , U = f(x,y) , , U = f(x, y). U , U18.U18=f(x,y) . U ,.. : .(). ( ) - .. :, , . 4.6. U1 U2 . U1. U2. .,, -., . ,,.96, , , , . U =xy V = U2= (xy)2. U = 5 5 =xy. V = 25 25 = (xy)2, 5 =xy (Chacholiades 1990-: 118, 564-5).96 , . , 1,00005 1,00006 ( ). , ( ) . , , . , , (Chacholiades 1990-: 560). . .Y102 4.6.. :, , , . , . (),, , . , , , , ( ) (xy, ). ( ) , . , , . ; y (y)x(x). y/x ., ()97 y/x.:xy = -(y/x) = |y/x| xy = -(dy/dx)., () () , .97 , , , , .. A .B. U1U2 0 X 4.7. 4.8.4.7,xy(=|y/x|).U0.,,,. , . y/x,, .98,4.8, U0 , . , 98 , (Chacholiades 1990-: 565).0x1x2XYy2y1 x y AU0B0U0104 .,,, ( ) . , ; , U0 .,,. . , . . .,,.,,,, .99 . .4.3.4. ,, , , . (Varian ...-: 65).. : . , . 99 U = f(x,y). 1. ... .2. , ... . ( .) ... .3. ... . ( ) .4. ... (Chacholiades 1990-: 564).,. . , ,,,U04.9. 4.9.. :, , . , , .,, L 4.10..U1 x1 = y1. x1 y1) . , 2 3 xxyy, . , ()PX/PY. yx. yxU3,3,x3 (>x2) y3 (>y2) . 4.19. -,IC,.IC,, , ( ) ( ).0 x1x2 x3xxxXYy y yy3 y2 y112 3ICU1U2U3U5U4E5 I1 I2 I3E4 IC , , , . , IC .,,IC, .U1,U2,U3,... , , U4 U5 ( U1, U2, U3 ) ,4( yx U4) 5 ( yx U5) IC. IC . ., IC. 4.20. 4.20.,,U1U2., , yx U1 1, . , ,xy,yx.yx U2 0 xx x xICICU1U21122 y yyy1222., , IC.yxyx. yx, .1,yxU1.,,,yx. yx.yxU22. , , -, IC.105:IC . :IC, IC .,, :IC, , .,, , ,IC, .,,: , ,,IC. , .IC IC, , ( ), , , . 3.106105 IC , , , PX/PY, IC PX/PY.106 , (), , 3, . , - ( ) . , .., , 4.21. 4.21.,,IC, IC, .,IC1: -,.,, . , , ( ) .,IC2:,, x. . , , . , , ()-. , IC3: , , y. . , , .,, . , ( ) . , .., , .0x0XYy0 . . IC1IC2IC5IC4IC3124(),-.107,IC4:,..x0.,, ( ), .,IC5:,.,,Y.y0Y.X,,(), .IC,,,,IC(). , IC4IC5.,IC(), .4.3.12. - EngelEngel108IC,, .4.22Engel.(),, 4.19. () ()(..)107 . , . . , ( ). : IC .108 Christian Lorenz Ernst Engel (1821-1896) . ( Engel) ( 1971:105-11 Chacholiades 1990-: 163-4, 1979: . VIII, X).() , , ( ).()() 4.22. IC ( ) . . . Engel ( ).,1IC,1x10 x1x2 x3xxxXYy y yy3 y2 y112 3ICU1U2U3 I1 I2 I30I1 I2I3I/t1232X/tx3x2x1 Engel126. 1 Engel.T 2 IC , 2 x2. 2 Engel.T 3 IC , 3 x3. 3 Engel.1,23,,Engel(), IC ()., Engel IC.,,,Engel, . Engel , IC.IC(), Engel ,,,() , .Engel() ,, .Engel( )(),,, , . , Engel ( , , ) ()(), .EngelIC, .,Engel IC .,,E2IC,(),2Engel,(), 20%., yx , .,2Engel2,x122+20%2 = () 3.,Engel, , IC .1094.3.13.-, , ., .,,,, .4.23,, x y , PX/PY. 4.23.109 Engel. , . , , , . , Engel Engel. 0x0 x1 x2 x xx XYyy2y0y1PX0PX1 PX2U2PCE0E1E2U1U0128H0 yx U0, x0y0 , .,,,PX0 (>) PX1;, ., , , , x (> x).,,, y, yx yx () PX0/PY PX1/PY. yx U0 , U1,0E1, (x1> x0) (y1 < y0). , PX1 (>) PX2, , . , , , , x (> x).,, y, yx yx () PX1/PY PX2/PY. yx U1 , U2,1E2,(x2 >x1), (y2 > y0 > y1). -,PC,.PC,,,,,() ( ).PC,,, . , PC y, , U ( ) y,, () , .PCy, .,.,y.y(), PC.110, , PC , y1;y, , ,(). , , y(0) PC , , E1.PC, . PC y .111 ,0y0y.E1y1y(>y0y).,01,PC,,,.,, . ,, () . : PC, , . . , . 1, PC (PC), . 1 PC . ;.,,,,110 , . , U = xy . , PC . y " " PC PC " " ... (Chacholiades 1990-: 176).111 0y .130., , . , 12PC,y1yy2y.,,.,, () ., : PC, , . . .,PC y. PC; , y. y, . :PC , ,.PC.4.3.14. - -Engel,- .Yyy2y0y1U2PCE0E1E2U1U0()() 4.24.4.24. () 4.23. () ()() ,,,,D, ( ). PC ( ) . .. ( )., 0PC, PX0 ( ) x0 . 0 D.T 1 PC , XPX1() x1, . 1 D.T 2 PC , PX2 ( ) 0x0 x1 x2 x x x X 0x0 x1 x2X/tPX0 PX1 PX2P/xPX0PX1PX2D012132x3.2 D.1120,12,, D () , PC ().,D PC.PCD,() (). , PCE0,1,2,...DE0,1,2,...,. -, , : . . .4.3.15. A .,,, ( ) ., , (). xPX + yPY = I. x :x = I/PX- (PY/PX) * y. I/PX PX . (),. . ().112 , , () ( , , Y) : PY * PX/PY = PX.PY/PX( ---- ). PX PY ,.. ().: .: = + . 4.25.yx0(yxU2)(PY,,)x0,, PX ( 1)., , ,y,yx yx () PX/PY mPX/PY. yxU2,U1(,,), 0 E1, (x1< x0). 4.25. 0 x1xx1 x0x X011U2U1yPxmPxC13401 x0x1 . ;(PY/PX PY/mPX),,,yx( ----mPX/PY)U21x1 (x1< x1 < x0)., . . , , yx,.,1,U2, . U201,,,() x0 x1. (I/PX I/mPX), ( ---- mPX/PY) ,U2 1 x1 ,, , ., , yxU21x1 (x1< x1).yx,..yx, ., 1, yx U1, . 1 1, IC, ,,,() x1 x1.,, . , : . . Slutsky.,,, C. (,)(,) ( ).: = (-) (/0) ., .,,... . .,,. .. . .,,,,.. .:;. . . .,, . .,,. .113113 : [ ] . (Chacholiades 1990: 182, 189). , (, , , )1364.3.16.,GiffenSirRobertGiffen(1837-1910), , , ,,,, .: . Giffen.4.26, ., , .,,,, PX PY , 0yxU2 x0 . PX ( 1) (),,y,yxyx()PX/PYmPX/PY.yxU2,U1(,,),0 E1, (x1> x0).: = (+) x0x1. 4.26. . , , .0x1 x0x1 x x YyU2 U1mPXPXM 101IC,,, . . (// yx) U21 U2 0 1. () x0 x1 , , .: = (-) x1 x0...,, IC 11, x1 x1, .: = (+) x1x1. Giffen. () () (Giffen),, |EA| > |AY|. |x1x1| (= ||) > |x1 x0| (= ||) x0x1 (=) x1x1 (= ) - x1 x0 (= ) = (+) x0x1 (= ).,Giffen, ., , ( ), ,1 1 0. , () . , , Giffen;, . , , .4.3.17. :138, , ;(,) , ().,., ( 1971: 150).114114 P.Samuelson , , . Samuelson , , , , , , ( 1971: 150-1). (Revealed Preference), . 1971: 149-58. 5: 5.1. .,,. .: . .5.1.1. ., , .() .,, . ( , ), 115 . , , () - .116115 , , , (Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 256).116 ... . Q = f(X1, X2, X3,..., X) Q , 1, 2,... f . 140,,,,/(L)()117(Q). , ., , . 4.1185.1.2. ,,, 3 .() . () , .119,,120 , .121:. 1, 2,..., . , . , , , ( 1980-: 40-1).117 , , , . 3.118 . . , , , . .119 , , ( ) . 3.120 . (Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 258).121 . ( 1980-: 44). .,,,(): () (). . . , , :,,().,, ( ) .5.1.3. : (K) (L).,, K . :Q = f(L, K ).,,,5.1 Q () ( ) L()(), . :., () ( Chacholiades 1990:268-9).122,. ,().,( L0) ( 1980-: 50-1).123122 Q = AL3 + BL2 + +L, < 0 , > 0.123 Q = AL3 + BL2 + +L + , , < 0 , > 0.142 5.1. .L1,Q1 . L2 (> L1) Q2 (> Q1) B . Lm (> L2) Qm (> Q2) M . . ,. ,,,,:,Lm"" (Chacholiades 1990: 269).: .5.1.4. (L) (Q) (L)., .:L = Q/L = f(L, K )/L. , Q = 400 10 , , , 400/10 = 40 ., 0L0L1L2 LmL Q Qm Q2 Q1BMA,,., 5.1, L1(=0L1)Q1(=0Q1=L1A),L = L1A/0L1, 0.(MPL),.,,,.:L = Q/L MPL = dQ/dL = df(L, K )/dL. , Q = 400 10 , Q = 414 11 , 414 -400=14, ., .,5.1,L1 L . ,., ., ., .5.1.5., () 5.2. , , 5.1, T ., .144()() 5.2.(0),( ) ( ). :.1240.125 126 , , .().,() ( ).,L1,0,, (), L1, ().,,,L1,,(), L1, ().124 .125 .126 . 0L1L2 L3LmL4 L 0 L1 L2L3 Lm L Q Q3 Q1APL/MPL NBA APLMPL , .. , , ( N)., ., ; ,(),L1 Q1.,,,. , .,,, 0, , . , .,: .: N , () , APL= MPL.. ( 0) ( 0).127,,,.128()(). Lm .129(MPL >0)( 0).130 (MPL=0) ( ).131(MPL 0, .128 d2Q/dL2 = d(MPL)/dL = 0, .129 d2Q/dL2 = d(MPL)/dL < 0, .130 dQ/dL = MPL > 0, .131 dQ/dL = MPL = 0, .132 dQ/dL = MPL < 0, .146 , MPL > APL ., ( L2 ) ,,,,MPL ), 0 Q1, Q1 Q2 Q2 Q3 .,5.11,,,()(), .()( ), Q .()Q1,Q2Q3,0(0 0 < 0.LAC()(),Q=0.,,, (0/0). ([])(Chacholiades 1990-: 328).()() 5.17.LAC,,,LTC,(),( ).,LAC,,LTC(LAC)LTC( LC), 0 Q1Q2QQ0 Q1Q2QQLTC C CC2C1A LAC /LMCLMC LAC 176 , 0, LTC. () LAC . (. ).,,,Q2 . () C2. () Q2. LAC = LTC/Q LTC = LAC * Q., LTC = Q2 * 0Q2 = 0Q2., , ,, .(LMC)., ,, .:LMC = (LTC)/Q LMC = d(LTC)/dQ. , LTC = 10.000.000 . 100,LTC=10.010.000. 101 , 10.010.000 -10.000.000=10.000. ., ., , , () 5.17.,Q1LMC .(LTC)() , LC, () . , ,() ( ).(4), .,..,Q1 ,(),Q1, ().LC()(),Q=0. . LC , , , LTC,(),, ( ).150 ( LMC).151 , LTC,,LMC( ).152,,(4) (. ).,,Q1,0Q1, .,, ,, .,,() .. ().(Q=0) ,..(150 d2(LTC)/dQ2 = d(LMC)/dQ < 0, .151 d2(LTC)/dQ2 = d(LMC)/dQ = 0, 152 d2(LTC)/dQ2 = d(LMC)/dQ > 0, .178 Q) ,.,(Q),.(.,).. ., 0, , ,0, .153. (Q2 C1(= Q1) Q C > C(=Q).5.2.11. E1E2EQ1Q2Q0LLL L0 Q1Q2Q Q C1C2 C3LTC12 CC C C2C1 C1 C0TFC STCTVC(,) ( , --).: (AFC)(TFC) (Q)., , .:FC = TFC/Q. (AVC)(TVC)(Q) ., , .:VC = TVC/Q. (SAC)(STC)(Q)., , .:SC = STC/Q. (): .(SAC,AFC,AVC)5.19, Q. STC = TFC + TVC TFC = , STCTVC, , .,,. . (SMC) . , ,184, .:SMC = (STC)/Q = (TVC)/Q SMC = d(STC)/dQ = d(TVC)/dQ.,. STC , , TVC.,SMC,,,5.19(), , , Q .,,() , , 5.19,.,, ..(AFC).AFC .156 TFC Q.. (AVC) , , U. . .. STC = TFC + TVC STC/Q = TFC/Q + TVC/Q SAC = AFC +AVC.,Q,(SAC) ..SAC,,U .AVCQ4SAC Q5 (> Q4). ; SAC ..,,AVC , , 156 AFC = 1/Q. TFC = Q * 1/Q =1. , TFC Q. 3.SAC,., .,,,SAC,., SAC AVC (SACAVC) . 5.19..SAC. .. , AVC . ..SAC, .., AVC, .. (SMC) ( 0 Q2Q4Q5 Q QLAC /LMC /AFC /AVC /SAC /SMC AFCLMCLACSMCSACAVC186) ( ) ..SMCAVCAVCAVCAVC.( ), , ..,SMCSACSACSACSAC. ( ), , , , .. SMC SMC, ..AVCSMC ..SAC, AFC ..,STCLTC(2Q2, ----5.18),SACLAC(,Q2, 5.19), STC = LTC STC/Q = SAC = LTC/Q = LAC. STCLTC,,,,SMCLMC(). ..Q2SAC LAC Q2 STC > LTC, SAC > LAC..SMCLMC. . ; .()"" (Chacholiades 1990-: 347) . 2 (0),,() 5.18. .[], [].,(),()., [LMC] [SMC] (Chacholiades 1990-: 347).()5.18,2(0), 1. () , STCLTC2( Q2--) LTC STC 2,( Q2-- )..:SACLAC(Q2) SAC (Q5), ,(... ----5.18),()STCQ2.,SAC LAC (Q5 < Q), , (... ----5.18),()LTC () STC. , , .5.2.12., ,, ., , AVC , , U;AVC,,U . Q 188()()() 5.20 , , . () , ( ), (TVC) w (=)L(= ).:TVC = w * L. , :AVC = TVC/Q = (w * L) / Q =wQ L /., , Q/L = APL, 0 L 0 L 0QAPL/MPLNAVC /SMC BA APLMPL AVCSMCAVC = w/APL., AVC PL AVCAPL.5.20( , , 5.2, ---- 5.19) , APL, (--+--,),,AVC(----). , APL , (--+--,),,AVC(----). ( ---- ) (---- ).,, () : ,(), .(),, . :SMC = (TVC)/Q = (TVC)/L * L/Q =D TVC DLDQ DL( ) //., , Q/L = PL, SMC =D TVC DLMPL( ) /. (TVC)/L = (w * L) / L = w, SMC = w/MPL., SMC MPL SMCMPL. 5.20, , PL, (-- + -- , ), ,SMC(----).,PL,(--+--,), , SMC (---- ).(---- ) ( ---- ).,( --+-- , ).1905.2.13. ,, .,, .,, KSTC() LTC, , (= ) (=L,K,).,, LTCSTC,()157 .()5.21,()5.18 .LTC, (= STC, STC1, C1, STC, C,STCC) Q1, Q Q, .() LTC, STC1, STC STC, LAC - LMC,SAC1- SMC1, SAC-SMC SAC- SMC, . ,.157 (Chacholiades 1990-: 352).LTCC C C C1 STC1STC STC()() 5.21..LC 158 ..,LAC .. SAC1 SAC LAC ,(LAC=SACLMC=SMC --.--) .:SAC1(SMC1 )Q1>Q1().LAC,SAC1.,SAC1.,SAC1Q1.,Q1,(Q), SAC LAC . SAC ( SMC) Q LMC = SMC,, , .,Q(=LAC),Q1,SACQ1SAC1. , STC LTC,(),,Q1,STC LTC. Q (> Q ), ( LAC), LAC = SAC < LMC = SMC., , .,,Q(=LAC),Q,SACQ SAC .,, , Q, .,Q, ( LAC), LAC = SAC = LMC = SMC.159 6: 159 Jacob Viner "Cost Curves and Supply Curves" [1931], , .... "" , (Vinerian Error)( 1980-: 245-6). Chacholiades 1990-: 354).6.1. ,,, ( ). ()() . :. , .. . , , .. ( ):+ . 3.. : .. : + .. : + .1606.2. 6.2.1. . ; , 160 . 3. : () ( 1980-: 24). : . , . , () , ( ), . , (), ( 1980-: 20-1).194 . . .,,,,, .3. (. ) . ( ) ( ) ., ( ). . ., . , . 3.6.2.2.,,, , ., () ( ),(.3), . TR = P * QR,= P Q, (AR),,,, , R = (P * Q) / Q = P = P,, , (MR), , MR = (TR)/Q = (P * Q) / Q = P = P MR = d(TR)/dQ = d(P * Q) / dQ = P = P,, .6.1,(==) ( ) . 6.1.6.2.3. , .( ) . 5.: = TR - TC(),TC() ., ."",(..1982:107). ( ) ( ) .() .,, , . .P /TR /AR /MR0 QP = AR = MRTR = P * Q196 (). , , .. () : 6.2. 6.2.()( ) . STC F, 0F().()() ( ), ( ).,, .. 0F (= 0F = ).,0FN1(=0F1) 1 (1), Q1, (R = STC, ).1(N1),(TR>STC),2(2),TC /TRF.0.F0 Q1QmQ2 QQTRN1N2Mm()()STC12 Q2, , , (R = STC, ).1 2 . . . 5.Q2,2(2), (STC > TR)., 1 2, STC > TR. 1 2 TR > STC. ,max(TR -STC)=m.(m),Qm, .. () :,:d/dQ = d(TR)/dQ - d(STC)/dQ = 0 d(TR)/dQ = d(STC)/dQ MR = SMC , ., . R = P = AR , :MR = SMC = P = R.,,() :d2/dQ2 < 0 d2(TR)/dQ2- d2(STC)/dQ2 < 0 d(MR)/dQ - d(SMC)/dQ < 0 d(MR)/dQ < d(SMC)/dQ.,d(MR)/dQ=0,d(SMC)/dQ>0, . () 6.2,(m)(MR>SMC), (MR < SMC), . 6.3.,,( ) .198,,Pm,(),SMC , Qm.Pm.:Pm Qm0Pm*0Qm=Pm0QmM. A0QmB, (Qm--SACQm)(0Qm),. . . 6.3. , Qm,. .,Qm,. .,, , MR = SMC;,, . SMC,SMCMR. , , , Q0 ( ). , 0Q0 QmQP /SAC/SMC/AR/ MR PmAP = AR = MRSMCSAC B S Q0 MR > SMC. , , Q0 SMC > MR.6.2.4. P = MR SAC ; 6.3 , () .,, ( ) () .,, MR = P > SAC.() (), () , . .:,.5. , MR = P = SAC.:. MR = P < SAC.,, , . ., MR = P > AVC,., . 6.4, 6.3 , , , . Pm Qm PmMBA, .,,,.(MR=SMC, SMC) PmMBA ,Qm.,200,,Qm,,*0Qm., Qm * 0Qm + * 0Qm. 6.4., , , , , MR = P = AVC (S, SMC = min AVC --. 5),,AVC, .().161,,, , 161 , . , . : () , () . , , , () , , ( 1980-: 41-2).0Q0 QmQP = AR = MRSMC AVCB SSACP /SAC/AVC /SMC/AR/ MR A PmMR = P < AVC ().1626.2.5. ( ) () ( ) .,().() () 6.5, ()()().,,()S1D,,() , , , P1Q1,1.,,,SACSMC,,(),Q () * 0Q , P1 = MR1 = SMC > SAC.162 , [] , . ... P s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egg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 338). . , .166, () . , , . . :. . , .. ./,, /,., , .,, , , . .. .,,.5.,, .,,,()() (= ) .167166 "" , . . ... "" ( .. 1982: 118). . .167 ... ( 1980-: 83).206. .() , , .6.3.2. () () () . () .,,, () .,,,;,, , .3., . (3), (D>1),(D=1)(D LAC., []().,(Begg/Fischer/Dornbusch 1998: 322).170169 , (...). , . , , . . MR = P, MR P , , . , ( 1980-: 95). . . Begg/ Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 331-2.170 : . , , . 3 0Qm QARMRMABSAC SMC2106.4. 6.4.1. , , ., , , (, ---- , ----,.)(). ,() ,() .1716.4.2. ,, () (), , ()(,,),,, .,,.,, ( ) ., [ ] . , , [ ] . . ., ( .. 1982: 123-4).171 ... [ ] 30 E. H. Chamberlin Joan Robinson (Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch1998: 349). , . (=, , , ) ()() [] [] (Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 352).() 6.10. 6.10.,SMCMR(MR=SMCd(MR)/dQ1. MP. . 1 Z L1. r2. 2 r1. . . 1 2. LM. ( ) .314 LM230 k h . . k h. k h, k h . . . LM1 r =1h(k1Y -MP) LM2 r =1h(k2Y -MP) 2> 1 LM2 LM1. LM1: r1 =1hk1Y LM2 : r2 =1hk2Y 2>1 k2Y > k1Y 1hk2Y >1hk1Yr2> r110.3.3 LM . , , LM. . , , . . , . LM . LM. LM - . LM . LM . 10.8 . 10.8 ( LM)rLM1 r1 LM2 r1E230 r3 r3E r2 r2L2 r4 r4 L2=kY2 - hrL1L1=kY1 - hrY1Y2M1PM2PL10.3.4 LM. r2 Y2. r2 . r2 1 < 2 . 2 . r1 > r2 1. r2 2 , . : . - ; r2 Y1. 2 . . . . 10.9 . 10.9 ( LM)r rLMr1 r1 Er2 r2 L2L2=kY2 - hrL1L1=kY1 - hrY1Y2MPL L1 1 L2 2>1. M1P M2P. , 2 1 , LM1. 2 1 . LM2. LM . . L1 1 L2 2>1. MP. . 1 Z L1. r2. 2 31610.4. IS - LM . . IS LM . . IS . LM . ( ) . : ; ; ; . . . IS . . . . , . . . LM( LM). . . . . . . . .318 10.10 IS-LM. 10.10. ( S - LM)r LM r1 r ISISY*Y1Y . , IS LM . IS LM . IS LM . . 10.11 . 10.11 ( S - LM)r LMIV r*IIIIII ISY*Y :: : : IV: . 10.5 10.9. IS LM. . IS , IS, r1 Y1. . LM. , . :) , . .) , , ( ). . . , , , . LM. LM 10.10.10.4.1 IS LM . IS r =Ac-Y* LM r =1h(kY*-MP) Ac-Y*=1h(kY*-MP) Ac+1hMP=1Y* +khY*Y*(1+kh) =Ac+1hMPY*(1 + kh) =Ac+1hMP*= 1 + kh(Ac+1hMP) g 1 + kh *= g(Ac+1hMP) * = gc + mMP m gh320 g, , Ac. government .O m, , m money . , . IS LM c MP. , . LM . :r =khgAc-1h + kMP r =kh + kAc-1h + kMP , , , , 231. IS - LM . .10.4.2 IS -LM IS - LM . 8, . , . . . , , , 231 . . kh + k , , . , drdMP = -1h + k< 0, . . :) LM IS -LM. , (Keynes 1973: 197, 202) : . LM . , . LM , . LM . 232. LM.) IS -LM. , : IS (flows relations), , LM (stock relations) (Hicks 1982, 329). , , LM . IS , , . LM IS (Fonseca 2000). 233 . : . . IS LM . (Pasinetti 1974).10.5. ; , , 234. , , . :) , , ( ), , (, .), , , .) , . 232 Screpanti E. / Zamagni S. 1993, 330-3 .233 Hicks 1982, 318 -31.234 1998, 17-55.322 , , . , , . , . , , ., . , , . * = gc + mMP Ac, , , , . , , . , . 235. . 10.5.1 :) , .) ;10.5.1.1 . , , . IS . . ,ceteris paribus, IS LM. . IS LM. LM . ( ) . . LM ( ). . : * = c- r =11-c(1-t) , , :* = gc + mMP g = 1 + kh c * = c. IS. H IS , 1 = g(c + c) +mMP gc. g , . . , , , . () * = gc + mMPdY*dAc= g10.5.1.2 c gc. . gc < c g < 1 + kh< 1 1 + kh < 11 < 1 + kh 0 < kh , , k, h . . , gc, g. , . , ,kh. IS LM. , , 324 , . , :) IS . 1 + kh . IS, , .) LM kh. h, . g 1 + kh kh h . LM .) IS, , LM, . , . g . g ,g = g() = 1 + kh 236. g() =(1 + kh) - (1 + kh)(1 + kh)2g() =1 + kh- kh(1 + kh)2g() =1(1 + kh)2 ( ) g() > 0 .236 = f(x) . . . ( ) h ( ), LM ( ).326 10.12( )rc r1LM IS ISY1Y2Y 10.5.1.3 : c c. gc . , LM, . , LM , , IS . IS . . . LM. LM . , . . . IS - LM .10.5.2 . LM , . . . . . , . , , ; ; IS . 9.3.2.3.3. P. LM 1kP. . . IS, . , d. . , . . IS LM. ( ) LM, , ( ) . ( ). , , . . ( ) LM . . . * = gc + mMP , IS, . () .dY*dMP= m MP mMP. m . m IS LM m =gh=1 + khh=h + k h k , , . m 328, m , m. m. IS, , . LM , h , . .10.5.3 :) , . , IS, LM . .) , . IS, LM . . . , , . : . . 10.13. 10.13( )rLMr11LM r E2 IS LM. . , IS, IS 1 r1 Y1. LM LM . 2 r, 2, .ISIS Y*Y12 Y . . , , . , , , . . .33010.6. :) ) ) ) . . 237. . . :* = gc + mMP c , , P g m . IS LM P. . . . . , . = gc + mMP - gc = mMP P = mM - gc (AD) c . , . . . . , . , , , . . 237 , :)Krugman P. / Obstfeld M. (1995). . & . : . ) Dorbusch R. / Fisher S. (1993). . : . ) Jones H. (1993). . : .) Fonseca G. (2000). Business Cycle theory. http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/index.htm , , , , , . (AS), . , . 10.13 . . 10.14. ( , AS, , AD.) AD1, AD2,AD3 . . . AS . AD1, AD2,AD3 . (AD1 AD1) . (AD2 AD2) ( ) , . .ASAD1AD1AD2AD2AD3AD3 Y1Y1Y2 2 3 Y1 223 3332 11 11.1 1, , , , ( [Adam Smith], []). , . . . , ., , , , : , . , .238 , . .11.2 (. 1, 30) , (,), ( ), ( ).238. : []+ (...). (Gramsci 1977, 1247/8. 1998, 101).334 , : . , . ( 1). ( ) () ( 2). 1 2 ( ,239 ). ( ), . , ( 2), : . ( (...) (...) (standard) . , --Smith 2000,I.v.4&7). 1 2 , : , () , ( ) (3).240239 , , , , , , (Ricardo, On the High Price of Bullion, 2). , (Smith 2000, I.v.42). : , , (Smith 2000, II.ii.86). ( , ) . . .240 , , , (, / 1989, 99). . , ( 4).241 . 4 ) , , ) ( 19 ) ( 4) , ) ( 4) ( ) ( ), .242 , Schumpeter, : (Schumpeter 1994, 390). . , -, G. D. H. Cole, 1 : , . () , ' , . . , ( Everyman edition , 1930, xxi. Meikle 1995,243 185). , , : .241 , , . (...) (Smith 2000, I.viii.6 & 7, . ).242 ( ) . .243 S. Meikle (1995), Aristotles Economic Thought, 2000 , , . , , , , .33611.3 ( ) ( ) 1828 SamuelBailey, , : , , (), 244.,.(), , . (),,. (), , .().,, , , , '. 245. :(),, 246.(1848-1923),:, ., . ; , ' ,,.. ; , , ; ,,244S. Bailey (1825), 4-5. - , . , 3, . , 1985, 143-194.245J. Schumpeter (1952), 23, . 2.246J. Robinson (1964), 29.., , ' 247. Scott Meikle (1995, 115-6), () , , . , , . (...) .,,, (...) { }, ,{}.(), , ,,(7a22-30).,5=1,. , .. 5 , , , 5 1 , .()248,().,,2,3,() .,, , Jevons, Walras ... Bentham ( ) ( ) . ,()(247V. Pareto (1971), 177.248 , , .. .. (Smith 2000, I.v.3): , . Hobbes, . (...) : . , , , ( ) , . ( . ).338).,, ( ) , Pareto (),,() (. . 4.3). Pareto,(), () ( ). ( ) ,. ( -- 1921, ), ., . : , , . . :.,.,,( 1921, ). ( 1921, ). , BaileyPareto,,( ),.,, (). (. 2 ).11.4 , 1 , ,( ) 110 . , 6,5 (49-55)249 1-3. 5,5 (55-60) . 4 , , ,(159-189).98(61-158),249 , 1978- (, 1). , ( 1 - 3) . , , 5,5 + 98 1 - 3 6,5 . , 1 - 3 5,5 + 98 . (), 1 -3, , 6,5 . : , , (...) (...) []; , (52-3). , . , Beiley250, ( ), .11.5 , , , . - , ., , (...) , (49).251 , , -. 250 , , [ S. Bailey] , (77).251 , , (...) (...) , ( , 3, 1978-, 972). , , : , . . ( 1978-,96).340 .252 , , : , ,, , , () . , Grundrisse (1857)253, (1867)254, . , ( .. 1 1 ) , ( 255), . () , (. - 1999, 45 .): : , , (179-180). , , . ., , , ,( ) ( ), . 2 , (4 ) 1 .. 252 , ( 1991, 44).253 , . ( 1990, 596. . ).254 , , ( 1991, 73).255 . , , , (MEGA 1980 II.2, 68-9).---, . ,( ---- ----), : ;,,25(),,.,,,( , MEGA 1980, 109)., :()()., ,,,, .(),(). ::(, ) (), .,():H , (MEGA1980,134). ,,(MEGA1980,122).(),, . (1867) 5,5 (55-60), (1859).,( ), :342 (55).: . - ,.(),-, : (),, () .256 , . () n ( ) . (,...Howard/King 1985) :,,,,(,).,(), , .257256 Rosdolsky, , , . : , , (Rosdolsky 1969, 609. . , Rosdolsky 1977, 510 .).257(74). ., , (). Meikle:,,1,1 , : , . , , .:, , ,. :)()(),, : , (MEGA1980,122-23).( ) .) ,(),, , , , : , , (...) , (MEGA 1980, 123). , (),:,(98110, . 61-158) , . (). :[Wertgegenstndlichkeit] . ,[Gegenstndlichkeit] , . , ,[Wertding](...)(...) , , , , , . , ,,,,(Meikle1995,188). : . , , .,,,, . (Smith 2000, I.v.4).344., . (61-2, . ).11.6 : , . , ,, ,( ) ( , ). , Grundrisse, ,,,. ,. -- --.,,( ) --,, (Heinrich 1999, . 5). .-..., , . ( Hegel),,( , ).258: .,., . , (M1989-, 66-67). ().,,, differentia specifica[] --, () (M 1990, 340)., (. 1997, 52-76) .259 : (...) , (557, 331).,().(),.,,,, , . ( ).258 , , , . . .. , .. (...). , , (...) , . , , , . (...). , . , , . , (M 1989-, 66-67).259 ( Hume) , . , , .346,, .,,, .26011.7 11.7.1 , : = 20 ( ) = 1 , , (64). , , . , , ( ) , , , ( = => =). , , , , (62-3). ( ) ( ) , . , () ( ). 20 260 , . , . , . , . (...) , , , , (...) , , , . , , , . , (...) (Smith 2000, I.iv.2&4). . (66). , ( 1991, 177). . ( 1991, 177).()(67).,( ) ( ) , .(),, (1991,56),()(),.:(,..),,(,..),,,(...) ( 1991, 185).,:),)(),) ( ). , , : , . (70). , ( ) (...) , ( 1991, 55), (...) (...) ( 1991, 58). , ( ) ( ), . . .348= / 11.7.2 , , . , . : = = = = . , ) , , , - - --350 ) : , , (...) (78). , (.. ) , . ( 1991, 64). , , . , (...) [ ] (...) , ( 1991, 65), . , , ( 1991, 64). , ( ). ( ) , : , [] . : , , ( 1991, 68). , , : . ( 1991, 71). , . (.. ) , . , , . , ( ) ( ) , , , . () ,, ,.(), . (), - .(),(, : ). : . , ( 1991, 97). [] ( 1991, 91).11.8 :,, . , , ()., , ,.. (),() : , , (Grundrisse , 1990, 596).()( ), .261 ( ) ().261 , ( Ricardo), , Pareto , . ( 1921, ). : , , , , . , , , (...) . , , . . (...) , (...) , , , . . ( 1921, , ).352,:- , , ,: , ,, ,, (1991,73. . Rubin 1972, 107-23 Rubin 1991, 485-532)., ( ),., (), ,().,, ,,() . ,,( -- ..., 1983, 126) . ,. , ,,, . (262).,(. Smith 2000, I.vi.15).,, ()., - ,..(.).,,(),262,,,. , . , (Smith 2000, I.vii.15).. ,()---, ( ) . , Rubin(1978,123), , .,,,,,,263( ).263 , .. , , ( ), , -- -- -- .354 12 12.1 ( ) ,.,,,264 , , -- ( ).,, ( , ),(,, ). ( ),Say, .265,,,( Say), ( ).12.2(),() () ( ),266 267 , 264 - ( 1978-, 99. , , 1 , ).265 , vice versa (...) . . , , , (125-6).266 , (...) , , (107).267 [ ] . , . (...) [ ] (110-11).--.268,, . , ,,,(), . , : , . , , .( ) , : , . , (143). , ().269,, , (149). , (149). , , : (150). , ,4, . (156) (157).12.3 12.3.1 ( ) . , 1 (, . ). , , (148), ( , ), .1 ,( ) . 4 ( ), .: , . ,, ,(...). (...). , (...) 268 , . , , . (...) (...) , (127).269 , (149).356(...) . , (167, 164-5, . ). , , ,(),(150),(.),, (151).270, , , , . , , , , . 1 , , , , (--,)(--)., , --,()().,--,()(