.. ,, .. ,, ..

22000088

. 2008-2009 ... ...

- 2 -

. 1. . 4

2. ... 14

3. 55

4. 64

5. 89

6. 105

7. . 111

8. . 120

9. .. 130

10. .. 134

11. . 144

. 158

- 3 -

1. 1.1. I

O . A. A .

: . (. 1.1). . H ( ) ", ". E,

, .

. 1.1. : . E . A , : 1: A M P .

- 4 -

2: K M, A 17 . 3: K 18 . 4: K 50 , 20 . 1

, , , . : (. 1.2), . .

. 1.2. , . , . O P , 'E, K (Capidastrum = ) . P , A (agrimensores). O , . H , (. 1.3). :

- 5 -

M (625-547 .X.), A

A M (. 611-545 .X.),

A, A, ,

E M (560-480 .X.),

A (. 388-315 .X.),

E (. 276-194 ..)

.

(1 ..)

E M, 6 .X. , ,

E . O , "" .

, -. O A 'E , . H A .

" " .

.

. M 'E B. "M" : " , ' ..." : " ".

, H A A. O E " ", 17 .

( - (. 1.4), , ) .

( ), ( , .1.5). .

, , , , .

- 6 -

. 1.3.

. 1.4. 5. () . 1.

- 7 -

O K (100-178.X.),

. 1.6.

2

, ,

, E . O . E "A" " ". (. 1.6) 14 .

, , . 3 .. 14 , . . (202 ..). . , , 10 . . ,

- 8 -

, , .

. 1.7. Digges

17

. , : . , . , , . . . (Theodolitus) L. Digges 1571 (. 1.7). 500 , .

. , . 17

- 9 -

, , . . . . , . T 1794, 400 gon, .

3 E

19

, , . 18 . , . , . . 18 , . . (. 1.7). . , , . Maxwell (1831-1879) . , -A Michelson (1852-1931) . 20 Heinrich Wild . . , . , . . , . , .

- 10 -

. 1.7. 19

4

.

. , . . radar, , . , 1950 Bergstrand . : , laser . 1970 , . . , , (CAD)

- 11 -

1980

.

.2. T

,

:

, .

, :

(Total Station). , , , , , .. ... . , (GPS), 24 1994. GPS, , , , . GPS . , . 1 H . . O , , . , , , , , , . . , , . M ,

H

- 12 -

. H , (, , , , ..), ( , , )

.

, , .

, , , ..

, . . H , , . H , . H , , , ,

- 13 -

2.

' , , .

2.1. 2.1.1. :

, : M H . .

: ,

. 1950 , ,

,

, , Invar

, .

,

, , Reper),

. , , (Electromagnetic Distance Measurement Instruments EDMI) . M , , . , (Global Positioning System, GPS) , . 2.1.2. , ,

. A (..

. A , . , , , 8 10 .. (. 2.1 2.2).

- 14 -

. 2.1.

, )

E , (

. 2.2. (

). (.. , ..).

- 15 -

, . (. 2.3). T , 2-3 cm 2-2.5 m . 50 cm . , . , . T (), 2-3 m 100 gon (. 2.4).

. 2.3.

. 2.4.

- 16 -

2.1.3. X, E A B. T

. A .

AB , .

A' B' A B ' E

X

, .. B.

E

-

. ) (. 2.5)

2.

, E A , .

:

M , ( 1

M , , (

. 2.5.

- 17 -

2.1.4. 'O 2.1.4.1. - . . . () (. 2.6). 20, 25, 30 50 m. 2-3 cm/100 m, 20 C. (. 2.7).

. 2.6.

. 2.7.

- 18 -

, (.. ).

. , . , . . . ' (

) (). . , , . ( 10%, ) "" (. 2.8).

. 2.8. , ( ( ), , , ) ( , , ..).

- 19 -

2.1.4.2. H (, , ..) . H H M A (Electromagnetic Distance Measurement - EDM), , Maxwell Hertz. , EDM Laser. K :

A , , , ( Laser), (. 2.9). .

. 2.9.

E, t

c ( ),

.

-a-As). T

)

S

( ) 20 km. T 900 nm. O . O . A (G 1970 1980 (

(. 2.10). 1990 , (otal Station), (. 2.11). EDM .

- 20 -

, ( ) ( , , .. ). 1 cm / Km.

. 2.11. 2.1.4.3.

() () ()

. 2.10. EDM (), EDM () ()

, , ..

- 21 -

. . H , , , . , . ( - ) . 2.2. , . H

, , T)

( , .

A B , (. 1.12). H A B A B. T . A , A'B'=. H A B.

.

(

, ) .. O

. 2.12.

- 22 -

A B . H A B .

H . 2.12). 'E,

. X , . H . O Pantometria 'A Leonard Digges 1571. Theodelitus. ( ) ( ) (. 2.13).

A

A ( A A B B. , . . 'E, .. A zA B zB. T ( ), , . 2.2.1.

() ()

. 2.13. () ()

- 23 -

. ( , ) . O

, , ..

, : T ,

2.2.2. O . O : O O O

2.2.2.1. O -

, . T , , K

. T ,

. H , . , .

() ,

. ,

:

(. 2.14) , .

T , . M , . M .

- 24 -

K , . (. 2.

. 14).

() () ()

. 2.14. (), () ()

: , ,

2.2

,

,

.2.2. O

. :

2.2

(. 2.15).

.2.3. O

X , . .

. T

6 cm 25 cm. O 400 gon .

- 25 -

- 26 -

. , , . (2.16).

. 2.15.

() ()

. 2.16. () ()

. . . , LED ( ). . LED .

- 26 -

. . (. 2.17).

. 2.17.

, (LCD) ( ). . Y . 2.2.2.4. O

T , . T , , , . T, , , (. 2.18).

. 2.18.

- 27 -

, :

, . 2.2.2.5. M

.

H H

- O

(. 19).

, . . , . : H H H K , . M .

. 19.

- 28 -

H

. H

K , (. 2.20), ,

).

. 2.20.

H - O . H . . , (. 2.21).

(

. 2.21. - 1

- 29 -

100 gon (. 2.22).

. 2.22. - 2 H , .

K . O . H , . T, . H , ( ). K ( ) (. 2.23).

O M , . 'E :

. 2.23.

- 30 -

, A, 1 B 1 . 'O I ( ). M ( II, ), B. 'E 2'. A. 'E 2 . O 1, 2 1, 2 200 gon. A . 1 1. 'E . H (-) . , ' . , . K

.2.24).

. T (

. 2.24.

(z). , . M , . M , .

H ()

- 31 -

2.3. T . . A (Total stations). ( ). . O , , . . 2.4. H . T (M), (). .

. 2.25.

H

. T , , 'H , .. O ,

,

,

.

- 32 -

. T (Reperes). O :

.

( ). , . , .2.26). A , , ( ) . (. 2.27).

. 2.26. () ()

2.4.1. O

O E , . K . O . O . A ,

() ()

- 33 -

. 2.27.

2.4.2. H .

A B (. 2.28). 50-60 m. . E . A A ( ) B ,

hAB = - .

.

H B

. , . 'E - - . 'E () 5 m, 12 cm 2 3 cm. 10 cm.

: 'E

H A ()

().

- 34 -

, () (. 2.29). .

. 2.28. H

. 2.29.

, :

"' ".

' , , h (. 2.30). ' . .

- 35 -

1, . , 1 (). , . 20 30 m.

. 2.30.

200 gon 1 , . , , , 1 () . 1

hA1 - 1

,

2 2 . ', , .

=

1,

200 gon. , .

i i (i = 1, 2, ..., n)

hAiAi+1 ,

- 36 -

, HB

HB = HA + h

1, 2, ..., n . 1, 2, ..., n . . .

. , , .

h . . , . , () . , , .

2.1.

(.. ,

, ..)

( ,

). -

- 37 -

.

2.2 .

2.2,

R1 = 202.265 m R2 = 200.910 m -1.355 m. "" R2 - R1 = -1.355 m. - = -1.345 m. "". ' w = "" - "" = -0.010 m. h "" "" "". w= -0.010 m (-0.0105 = -0.002 m). , . .

. , ( ,

) 0.50 m ( ). , , ..

- 38 -

2.4.3.

(. 2.31). , . ,

hAB = S cos z , ,

HB = HA + S cos z + Yo - Y

S , z , .

. .

. 2.31.

, . , . ,

- 39 -

2.5.

. , , ,

, .

, , ) / . 1960 . , , , .

( )

:

.

.

, ,

...: TRANSIT ( NAVSAT NNSS,

avy Navigation Satellite System) GPS (Global Positioning System AVSTAR)

GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System). ,

, , . , ,

(), ), -

GPS

, , .

(

NN

.

, GALILEO. Global Navigation Satellite Systems, GNSS.

GPS (Global Positioning System - ) , . . 1978, (

- 40 -

, , ..

GPS ... 1995.

2.5.1. GPS GPS : ,

(. 2.30).

. 2.30.

GPS

. 6 90

6 (Block II) . 2.32) GPS

24 (. 2.31) 4 . 19

(Block I) 5 (. 28 , . , 7.5 (Block III) .

. 2.31. GPS

55 . 12. 20000 km. 24 (4

- 41 -

7 ) 1993.

()

()

. 2.32. Block I () Block I () GPS

().

PRN (Pseudo Random Noise),

..

. , (. 2.33) Colorado . , () . . D - , . . . , , PS.

P -

. L1 =

1575.42 MHz L2 = 1227.60 MHz. L1 (19 cm) C/A (Coarse/ Acquisition - Code). To L2 (24 cm) P - (Precise - Code) . . P C/A D - (Data - Code) L1 L2 , .. ,

G

GPS. 2.34

GPS, , . - , , ,

- 42 -

(, ..) .

. 2.33. GPS

. 2.34. GPS

- ,

.

P C/A.

() . . D - . - . , . ( D - ) ,

(x y z h) , .. , World Geodetic System - 84 (WGS84), dT . 4 4 (x y z dT) (. 2.35). .

- 43 -

L1 ( ) L1 L2 ( ). .

. 2.35. GPS

. ,

GPS . :

P - . 1993 P - , - . P - . Anti-spoofing (AS). , z - .

(Selective Availability) C/A . 100 m. , 2000, , GPS 10 15 m (. 2.36).

- 44 -

2.5.2.

H 10 km C/A L1 50 - 60 km C/A L1 L2. L1 L2. P - 200 - 300 km .

. 2.36. GPS

GPS:

GPS .

( ) , .

. ( ) .. . , ,

:

WGS84. ,

. 100 m (SA On) 15 m (SA Off)

. . , , .. ,

, 15 - 100 m. (5 - 10 mm + 1 ppm).

- 45 -

. , .

(rapid static),

(pseudokinematic), o stop and go :

1.

, ( ) , ( , static). . , , .

2. , (pseudokinematic re-occupation) , 5 - 10

, 5 - 10 min

-

WGS84, . ( ). datum . . , (static),

min

. .

3. , , , (rapid static) . () , 5 - 10 min ( 15 Km ).

4. (.. GIS, , , - .) stop and go . stop and go . , ( ) . 10 min ( ) 20 - 30 min ( ) . , 2 - 10 (epochs).

- 46 -

5 sec, () 10 - 50 sec. 1 - 3 cm . 2 - 10 cm. stop and go , , . , 10 min . , .

5.

.

2.5.3.

..

, . 2 200 m , . (kinematic), () (.. 1 sec). , , . . (Real Time). .

O (Differential GPS, DGPS) , . DGPS (Base Station). , (Rover Stations)

. . , , , , . , , . , . GPS, , , GPS, .

- 47 -

( format

rmat () . , DGPS ,

.

, . : , . . . ' . ( ) . . , . .

) RTCM. , . . , GPS , , . () (5) , .. , ,

fo

, . . . DGPS (Post - Processed DGPS).

DGPS . . , , , . 1 3 m (SA ff).

. (Real Time Kinematic DGPS, RTK DGPS) (. 2.37). .

- 48 -

. . . . , , . . , .

. 2.37. (Real Time Kinematic

Differential GPS)

, 0.5 cm 2 cm 1 cm 5 cm 1 ppm 2 ppm . RT DGPS , AVL IVHS. . A, . .

- 49 -

2.5.4. GPS

, GPS . :

. . - . , , .. , (multipath errors). . . D - . , , , . . . GPS . - . . , , , - .

GPS

, . , , (. 2.38). . .

GPS.

,

()

() ()

. 2.38. : () , ()

, ()

- 50 -

, . ,

)

2.5

2.5

, .

M DOP (Dilution of Precision), . DOP . :

GDOP PDOP TDOP HDOP VDOP

DOP , , . DOP ( 5, .

.5.

.5.1.

GPS

GPS , .

GPS (x, y, z) . . , .. , mm 1 km cm km GPS . PS

0.1 ppm. .. 3 cm 300 km. GPS , , . GPS , .

G

on - line .

- 51 -

, , , , , . GPS

2

, WGS-84. , datum , .

.5.5.2.

GPS

.

2.5.5.3.

, , . . DGPS. DGPS .

. DGPS

. . . . GPS . , , . DGPS , .

2.5.5.4.

GPS , . . DGPS , .

- 52 -

DGPS . GPS, . . .

GPS, , , ..

2.5.5.5.

GPS

, .

GPS , .

. DGPS . . , . ( ), , .

, , DGPS , , ..

2.5.5.6. GPS . , , , . , .

GPS ( , , , ..) .

2.5.5.7.

GPS . .. . GPS. , GPS

. ,

- 53 -

.

. . DGPS , ' .

2.5.5.8.

, . DGPS

, . , . DGPS , .

, GPS GIS.

GPS

- 54 -

3.

3.1.

Datum Datum .

.

, , .

. , ' (, ..) ', (, ) (.. ) (. 3.1).

3.1.

' ( x, y, , s), YX . 3.2. ( )

. , , (. 3.2). (. 3.3). () , , (Geoid). , , , . , .

- 55 -

, GPS, . ,

,

. ' .

, ( ), .

. 3.2 /

. 3.3.

, (

)

- 56 -

, . , . , () (), x, y, z (.3.4). .

. 3.4. , ,

a,

, b f=(a-b)/a a f, .

. OZ Z X, Y (. 3.7). OZ . . O .

, ( ) .

- 57 -

. -90o +90o , .

. 0o ( ) 360o .

. , (.. ). DATUM - . DATUM , . 1967 ' (International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, IUGG) (GRS 1967) . GRS 80 . GRS 80 1984 (World Geodetic System 1984, WGS 84) GPS.

( ) , DATUM . 3.3. ()

() ( , /

) ,

(. 3.5).

, . , . ' ,

. , , . , .

, . , , , .

- 58 -

. 3.5.

. , (. 3.6), . ( )

), , , .. .

.

(

' ( ) . ' (, ). . 3.1

. 3.6. ( : , , )

- 59 -

3.3.1.

(87).

3.3.1.1.

. () () DATUM ED50. DATUM DATUM, . .

:

1. , 2. (3 UTM) 3.

,

(...). 130 30' x 30' (. 3.7). , ... , () .. ..., .. ( ). ( 34) 1,000005,

- 60 -

1 . . .. .. ( ). . ... 1:100.000, 1:50.000 1:5.000 ,

. 3.7. 1:100.000 HATT

3 3.3.1.2. 3 ( 3)

..... 3, 1 30' ( ). .. =0, =-3 =+3. .. 200000. .. =34. 3 (. 3.8). Bessel. ( ) 1:5.000 1:1.000.

- 61 -

3.3.1.3. D50 & U.T.M.

DATUM ED 50 Hayford . (UTM) 6 . =21 =27 . Datum ED50 6

o o

o (.. 1:50000) ...

3.8.

3

3.3.1.4. 87

GRS 80 BTS 87 , . =24 0.9996 (. 3.9). 87, .

o

- 62 -

, . 87

GPS, WGS84 GPS. , . .

. 3.9. 87

. (, , .) . , DATUM .

- 63 -

4. 4.1.

, , . ' ( 10 km) , . . . , , , x y (. 4.1).

. 4.1.

x y, S. S .

. 1 4 , . , , V.

- 64 -

. , .

: , .

+ S sin

Y = + y = + S cos ,

= + 200 gon

, ,

.

.1.1. 4

: - (,) - H - S .

: - (, ) .

4.2,

:

X = + x =

. 4.2.

- 65 -

:

: X

Z: B, B.

= +11424.36 m, Y = -8183.45 m S= 136.43 m, = 125.3645 gon

:

:

X = X 167333) = 11550.10 m YB = Y 8236.38 m

(, , ..)

.

- (X ,Y ) (XB,YB).

Z: - SAB

+ SAB sin = 11424.36 + 136.43 (+0.92 + SAB cos = -8183.45 + 136.43 (-0.38796685) = -

:

.

.1.2. T 4

:

- .

. 4.3.

4.3,

B A = x = SAB sin = y = S cos

A AB

- 66 -

,

AYBYy AXXBxtan ==

, .

4.3 4.1).

S

,

( 0 < < 100 ( ).

AB

xABS = 2y2 +

4.1

( )

gon

0 - 100 + + = 100 - 200 + - = 200- 200 - 300 - - = 200+ IV 300 - 400 - + = 400-

( ):

x, y . : ) x = 0

y > 0 = 0 y < 0 = 200

B) y = 0 x > 0 = 100 x < 0 = 300

: :

xA = -10365.36m xB = -11286.23m yA = +6525.32m y = +9125.28m

:

B

: SAB, .

- 67 -

820.354186212599.96

920.8710365.36)(11286.23xxx AB =====

6525.32)(9125.28yyytan

AB +

-21.6705 gon. 0 y>0, ( 4.1)

x<

= 400 + = 400 + (-21.6705) = 378.3295 gon SAB

2 m 2758.22(2599.96)920.87)(yxS 222AB =+=+= . 4.1.2. T

-

:

- 0, 1, 2, ..., n, n+1 - 01

1, 2, ..., n. :

- .

. 4.4.

4.4 :

= 200 gon -

= 400 gon - 1

12 = 01 + (200 gon - ) = 01 + [200 gon - (400 gon - 1)].

= + 12 01

- 68 -

12 = 01 + 1 + 200 gon 400 gon.

2 ,

23 12 223 + 3 + 200 gon - 400 gon.

.............................................................

............................................................. nn+1 = n-1n + n + 200 gon - 400 gon.

n 200 gon - 400 gon. .

,

1 0 gon 400 gon.

= + + 200 gon - 400 gon. 34 =

nn+1 = 01 + [1 + 2 + ... + n] +

01 = 135.184 gon 1 = 96.325 gon 2 = 305.446 gon 3 = 86.384 gon 4 = 326.251 gon

: 45.

:

45 = 01 + (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) + 4 200 gon- 400 gon =

= 135.184 + 814.406 + 800.000 - 400 = 1749.59 - 400.

45 0gon 400 gon = 4,

: 1. 400 gon, 400 gon. 2. . , 400 3. . , .

45 = 1749.59 - (4 400) = 1749.59 1600 = 149.590 gon.

gn.

- 69 -

4. 2.

,

. :

, .

( ) .

.

,

. 4.5 .

. 4.5.

(. 4.6).

( )

(Reperes),

(. 4.7).

.

.

- 70 -

. 4.6.

().

4.2.1.

.

. 4.7.

(, - ) .

,

- 71 -

, .

(. 4.8):

. 4.8. .

. , , , . . , . . . , .

. ' :

30 km.

.

(GPS), . , - .

15-30 km.

5-15 km. IV 5 km.

- 72 -

, 2-

km,

, , IV , , .

, . 4.9 IV , , , .

3 .

. 4.9

4.2.2.

,

, .

- 73 -

, :

(. 4.10) (. 4. 10) (. 4. 10) (. 4. 10) ,

(. 4. 10)

, (. 4. 10)

.

. 4.10.

.

- 74 -

4.2.2.1.

(. 4.11).

. 4.11.

, , (, A) (B, B) , ( , ). , (M, M), .

. :

++ + w = 200 gon w .

=+w/3 =+w/3 =+w/3

, , S .

AYBYAX2y2x + BXxtan ==ABABABS = y

S S ( )

- 75 -

)sin(sin

ABS)sin(ABSAS += Ssin

+=

= + = -

, , :

XM = XA+SAM sin() XM = XB + SBM sin(BM)

M = A+SAM cos() YM= YB + SBM cos(BM)

. , M (A), M (A) M (B), M (B), , .

.

, , (. 4.12)

= 60.0020 gon = 63.1308 gon = 76.8732 gon

. 4.12.

A :

.

1 2

1 = 12022.613 m 1 = 9202.724 m XT2 = 11275.156 m YT2 = 8917.579 m

- 76 -

:

++=200.006 gon.

= 60.0020-0.006/3 = 60.0000 gon = 63.1308-0.006/3 = 76.8732-0.006/3 = 76.8712 gon

S1 = 800.0m 1

12 12

:

(1) = 1 + ST1M sin(1) = 11835.790 m

(1) = 1 + ST1M cos(1) = 8511.229 m

2. 4.2.2.1.

w=0.006 gon. , :

= 63.1288 gon

1 12

2 2

T1T2=200+76.7987 gon,

x y T1T2 .

12 1

1 = 12 = 276.7987 - 60.0000 = 216.7987 gon

(. 4.13). (, A) (B, B), , .

S S . (, A)

1 2

(B, B) S

2ABy

2ABxABS +=

- 77 -

. 4.13.

4.13

.

,

.

S1 S2 . . . 4.14).

(

. 4.14.

- 78 -

:

= 12280.931 m = 13008.084 m = 4532.068 m = 3822.624 m S1=1128.777 m S2=728.729 m

S .

SAB = 1015.905 m

x y ,

=200+'=149.2153 gon

= + = 192.8652 gon

S2. 4.2.3.

, .

,

, . (.4.15).

- 79 -

. 4.15.

1, 2, ..., n-1, Kn

, , (. 4.16).

.

.4.16. ( )

, , ,

. .

. ,

. ,

, , .

1, 2, ..., n-1, Kn n , (n-1) , S1, S2, ..., Sn-1, (n-2) , 1, 2, ..., n-2.

- 80 -

4.2.3.1.

(. 4.17).

.4.17. () ()

, : . . . .

, , :

. , , . , , . .

.

.

. ,

,

1 2. , , .

, , . ,

- 81 -

.

,

.

, . . , / . ,

, . -

. , .

.

.

.

.

,

,

4.2.3.2.

,

. , , . , . , , ' , . , .

, .

, 8 . , .

.

- 82 -

.

. ,

,

. . . (). (.. , , ..).

, , . 4.2.3.2.

, , :

. . . .

1, 2, ..., n,

1 (1,1) n (n,n) (,) n+1 (n+1,n+1), 1 n+1 n (. 4.18).

. 4.18.

n+1,

, 1 n. , , S , S 1 2 n-1, ..., S

- 83 -

, 1, 2, ..., n-2, 1 2.

, 2

, nKn+1 'nKn+1 , w ( )

w = nKn+1 'KnKn+1.

, w 1, 1, 2, ..., n-2

:

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- 84 -

. ,

, n (n,n) 'n ('n,'n) . wx, wy

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wx wy

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.

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- 85 -

, , . : k

. 11.5 .

, , (. 4.19) : 1 2 3

1 = 1685,750 m 1= 3503,660 m 2 = 1673,505m 2 = 3359,929 m 3 = 1798,220 m 3 = 3461,139 m 4 = 2000,000 m Y4 = 4000,000 m

: 1 = 356,826 gon s1 = 45,600 m 1 = 185,208 gon s2 = 46,345 m 2 = 219,215 gon s3 = 33,860 m 3 = 174,951 gon s4 = 36,510 m 2 = 246,514 gon

: 1, 2, 3.

4.2.

- 86 -

. 4.19.

- 87 -

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- 88 -

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- 100 -

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- 122 -

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- 128 -

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- 132 -

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- 135 -

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- 136 -

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- 137 -

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- 144 -

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- 157 -

., , , , 2007.

994.

, :

1. Deumlich, F.: Surveying Instruments, Walter de Gruyter, New York 1982. 2. ., .

3. ., . .,

, 1 , , 2006.

4. Merticas S.P. and Koutrakis S.: Using GPS for Geodetic Positioning in Urban Grecce, GPS World, Volume July/August, 1990.

5. ., ., . ., , , . 128, , 1997.

6. ., ., . ., : , , , . 501, , 1995, 1999.

7. ., ., . ., : , , , . 501, , 1996, 2000.

8. . .: , 1992. 9. : , '

, 1987. 10. Richardus, P.- Adler, R.K.: Map projections for geodesists, cartographers and

geographers, Elsevier, 1974. 11. Robinson .., Morrison J.L., Muehrcke P.C., Kimerling A.J., Guptili S.C.:

Elements of Cartography, Sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,1995. 12. . ., ,

-- , . 381-412, , 1

13. ., GPS , , , 2003.

14. . ., / - AutoCad, , . 80, , 2002.

- 158 -

2.5.1. GPS2.5.2. 2.5.3. 2.5.4. GPS2.5.5. 2.5.5.1. 2.5.5.2. 2.5.5.3. 2.5.5.4. 2.5.5.5. 2.5.5.6. 2.5.5.7. 2.5.5.8. O

O , , 10.2.

10.2.1. , (. 10.5. , , , , , , , 10.2.2. , . 10.6. 10.2.3.