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1 http://www.bssa.org.uk/topics.php?article=95 Corrosion mechanisms in stainless steel Introduction Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in most environments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends on its constituent elements which means that each grade has a slightly different response when exposed to a corrosive environment. Care is therefore needed to select the most appropriate grade of stainless steel for a given application. As well as careful material grade selection, good detailing and workmanship can significantly reduce the likelihood of staining and corrosion. Pitting corrosion Pitting is a localised form of corrosion which can occur as a result of exposure to specific environments, most notably those containing chlorides. In most structural applications, the extent of pitting is likely to be superficial and the reduction in section of a component is negligible. However, corrosion products can stain architectural features. A less tolerant view of pitting should be adopted for services such as ducts, piping and containment structures. If there is a known pitting hazard, then a molybdenum bearing stainless steel will be required. Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion is a localised form of attack which is initiated by the extremely low availability of oxygen in a crevice. It is only likely to be a problem in stagnant solutions where a build-up of chlorides can occur. The severity of crevice corrosion is very dependent on the geometry of the crevice; the narrower (around 25 micro-metres) and deeper the crevice, the more severe the corrosion. Crevices typically occur between nuts and washers or around the thread of a screw or the shank of a bolt. Crevices can also occur in welds which fail to penetrate and under deposits on the steel surface. Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion may occur when dissimilar metals are in contact in a common electrolyte (e.g. rain, condensation etc.). If current flows between the two, the less noble metal (the anode) corrodes at a faster rate than would have occurred if the metals were not in contact. The rate of corrosion also depends on the relative areas of the metals in contact, the temperature and the composition of the electrolyte. In particular, the larger the area of the cathode in relation to that of the anode, the greater the rate of attack. Adverse area ratios are likely to occur with fasteners and at joints. Carbon steel bolts in stainless steel members should be avoided because the ratio of the area of the stainless steel to the carbon steel is large and the bolts will be subject to aggressive attack. Conversely, the rate of attack of a carbon steel member by a stainless steel bolt is much slower. It is usually helpful to draw on previous experience in similar sites because dissimilar metals can often be safely coupled under conditions of occasional condensation or dampness with no adverse effects, especially when the conductivity of the electrolyte is low. The prediction of these effects is difficult because the corrosion rate is determined by a number of complex issues. The use of potential tables ignores the presence of surface oxide films and the effects of area ratios and different solution (electrolyte) chemistry. Therefore, uninformed use of ه جم کار و نم ت یق حقدی

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http://www.bssa.org.uk/topics.php?article=95

Corrosion mechanisms in stainless steel

Introduction

Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in most environments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends on its constituent elements which means that each grade has a slightly different response when exposed to a corrosive environment. Care is therefore needed to select the most appropriate grade of stainless steel for a given application. As well as careful material grade selection, good detailing and workmanship can significantly reduce the likelihood of staining and corrosion.

Pitting corrosion

Pitting is a localised form of corrosion which can occur as a result of exposure to specific environments, most notably those containing chlorides. In most structural applications, the extent of pitting is likely to be superficial and the reduction in section of a component is negligible. However, corrosion products can stain architectural features. A less tolerant view of pitting should be adopted for services such as ducts, piping and containment structures. If there is a known pitting hazard, then a molybdenum bearing stainless steel will be required.

Crevice corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a localised form of attack which is initiated by the extremely low availability of oxygen in a crevice. It is only likely to be a problem in stagnant solutions where a build-up of chlorides can occur. The severity of crevice corrosion is very dependent on the geometry of the crevice; the narrower (around 25 micro-metres) and deeper the crevice, the more severe the corrosion. Crevices typically occur between nuts and washers or around the thread of a screw or the shank of a bolt. Crevices can also occur in welds which fail to penetrate and under deposits on the steel surface.

Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion

Bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion may occur when dissimilar metals are in contact in a common electrolyte (e.g. rain, condensation etc.). If current flows between the two, the less noble metal (the anode) corrodes at a faster rate than would have occurred if the metals were not in contact.

The rate of corrosion also depends on the relative areas of the metals in contact, the temperature and the composition of the electrolyte. In particular, the larger the area of the cathode in relation to that of the anode, the greater the rate of attack. Adverse area ratios are likely to occur with fasteners and at joints. Carbon steel bolts in stainless steel members should be avoided because the ratio of the area of the stainless steel to the carbon steel is large and the bolts will be subject to aggressive attack. Conversely, the rate of attack of a carbon steel member by a stainless steel bolt is much slower. It is usually helpful to draw on previous experience in similar sites because dissimilar metals can often be safely coupled under conditions of occasional condensation or dampness with no adverse effects, especially when the conductivity of the electrolyte is low.

The prediction of these effects is difficult because the corrosion rate is determined by a number of complex issues. The use of potential tables ignores the presence of surface oxide films and the effects of area ratios and different solution (electrolyte) chemistry. Therefore, uninformed use of

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these tables may produce erroneous results. They should be used with care and only for initial assessment.

Austenitic stainless steels usually form the cathode in a bimetallic couple and therefore do not suffer corrosion. Contact between austenitic stainless steels and zinc or aluminium may result in some additional corrosion of the latter two metals. This is unlikely to be significant structurally, but the resulting white/grey powder may be deemed unsightly. Bimetallic corrosion may be prevented by excluding water from the detail (e.g. by painting or taping over the assembled joint) or isolating the metals from each other (e.g. by painting the contact surfaces of the dissimilar metals). Isolation around bolted connections can be achieved by non-conductive plastic or rubber gaskets and nylon or teflon washers and bushes. This system is a time consuming detail to make on site and it is not possible to provide the necessary level of site inspection to check that all the washers and sleeves have been installed properly.

The general behaviour of metals in bimetallic contact in rural, urban, industrial and coastal environments is fully documented in PD 6484 'Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic, contacts and its alleviation'.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

The development of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) requires the simultaneous presence of tensile stresses and specific environmental factors. It is uncommon in normal building atmospheres. The stresses do not need to be very high in relation to the proof stress of the material and may be due to loading and/or residual effects from manufacturing processes such as welding or bending. Caution should be exercised when stainless steel members containing high residual stresses (e.g. due to cold working) are used in chloride rich environments (e.g. swimming pools enclosures, marine, offshore).

General (uniform) corrosion

General corrosion is much less severe in stainless steel than in other steels. It only occurs when the stainless steel is at a pH value < 1.0. Reference should be made to tables in manufacturers' literature, or the advice of a corrosion engineer should be sought, if the stainless steel is to come into contact with chemicals.

Intergranular attack and weld decay

When austenitic stainless steels are subject to prolonged heating between 450-8500 C, the carbon in the steel diffuses to the grain boundaries and precipitates chromium carbide. This removes chromium from the solid solution and leaves a lower chromium content adjacent to the grain boundaries. Steels in this condition are termed 'sensitised'. The grain boundaries become prone to preferential attack on subsequent exposure to a corrosive environment. This phenomenon is known as weld decay when it occurs in the heat affected zone of a weldment. Grades of stainless steel which have a low carbon content (~0.03%) will not become sensitised, even for plate thicknesses up to 20 mm when welded by arc processes (giving rapid heating and cooling). Furthermore, modern steelmaking processes mean that a carbon content of 0.05% or less is generally achieved in the standard carbon grades 304 and 316, so these grades will not be prone to weld decay when welded by arc processes.

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اویسمای خردگی در فالد زوگ وسنمک

مقذم

ت٠ ذضزی یي ی واتس. حسزی اضت٠ ض ی كالز١ای ظ ع زضتطاتط ذضزی تؿیاض وا ١ؿتس زض تیكتطحی٢ا ت٠ ض ضيایت ترف

تی زاضز. یطز اف اسى تلاذضس هطاض ی زض ؼطو یي حی٠ ، اتؿت٠ ت٠ ػانط ؾاظس اـ اؾت، ت٠ ای ؼا ٠ ١ط طیس ١ایكالز ظ ع

٢اضت زض ١ااضیضیعع تطای یي اضتطز كرم یاظ ت٠ زهت زاضز. ػال تط اتراب زهین طیس تطیا، طیس كالز ظ تطیتاتط ای اتراب اؾة

ز ذضزی ضا ا١ف ز١س.ؾاذت یع یتاس ت٠ ض هات الذظ٠ ای احتا ظ ظ

خردگی حفر ای

زض تیكتط ضخ ز١س.تاس یحی٢ای حای طایس، یػت٠یطی زض حی٢ای ذال، ی هطاضی يؼی اؾت ٠ زض تید٠حلط زاض قس، ػی ذضز

تاس ظا١ط ی ی٠ اچیع اؾت. ت٠ ١ط حا حهالت ذضزقس احتاال حسز ت٠ ؾح تز یعا ا١ف وغ زض یي هؼای، حلط زاضاضتطز١ای ؾاظ

. اط ذط ایس اتراش قزس ت١ای آزكی ؾاظ١ا، ٠ث اا تطی ؿثت ت٠ حلط زاضقس اضزییطا٠زاض س. زهت ظط ؾرتؾاذتا ضا ٠

یاظ اؾت.ع حای یثس ضز تاقس، كالز ظ ؼ حلط زاضقس

خردگی شیاری

قز. ای ذضزی احتاال كی اؾت ٠ كو زض ذضزی قیاضی ػی ذضسی يؼی اؾت ٠ زضذال خز وازیط تؿیاض اؿیػ زض قیاض آؿاظ ی

ی قیاض زاضز؛ قیاض تاضیتط ؿتی ظیازی ت٠ ١سؾ٠ی قیاضی اتتاس اتلام تیلتس، خز زاضز. قست ذضزح٢ای ؾا، خایی ٠ اكعایف تسضیدی طایس ی

ضخ ی پیچیا تس٠ ، ذضزی قسیستط ت٠ ١طا زاضز. ذضزی قیاضی ت٠ ػا ٠ تی ٢ط ١ا اقط١ا، یا زض اطاف ضظیطتط( ػیوتط 25)حسز

س.س خز زاقت٠ تاقضؾتات زض ؾح كالز یع یتا ظیط -٠ لش خـ اكی ثاقس-قس ز١س. قیاض١ا زض هؼات خقاضیی

خردگی ديفلسی )گالاویک(

قس ؿیط( زض تاؼ تاقس یتاس ت٠ ػا ثا تاضا، از یؼاذضزی زكعی )اایي( ١ای ٠ زكع تا خؽ تلات زض یي اتطیت ؼ )

ذضز یكز. ثاقستط )آس( تا ؾطػت تیكتطی ؿثت ت٠ هتی ٠ زكع ت٠ ١ ته كع خطیا پیسا س، كع كؼاضخ ز١س. اط خطیا اتطیی تی ز

یكتط اتس ت٠ ض ذال، ؿاحت ت ؾطػت ذضزی ت٠ ؿاحت ؿثی ز كعی ٠ زض تاؾس، زا تطیة قییایی اتطیت اتؿت٠ اؾت.ػال تط آ

١ایی تا خؽ اكتس . اظ پیچذضسی تیكتطی ضا ت٠ زثا زاضز. ؿثت ١ای ااؾة ؿاحت احتاال زض تؿت٢ا اتهاالت اتلام یؾطػت ؿثت ت٠ آس،

ی هؼاتی اظ خؽ كالز ظ ع تایس پط١یعطز، ظیطا ؿثت ؿاحت كالز ظ ع ت٠ كالز طتی ظیاز اؾت پیچ زض ؼطو ذضس ١طا تاكالزطتی

اؾتلاز اظ قسیسی هطاض ذا١س طكت. تطػؽ، ؾطػت ذضسی هؼاتی اظ خؽ كالز طتی ١طا تا پیچی اظ خؽ كالز ظ ع، تؿیاض آ١ؿت٠ تط اؾت.

اثطات ظیاثاض یتاس تداضب صقت٠ زض ا٢ای كات٠ ؼال لیس اؾت ظیطا كعات تا خؽ رتق اؿة زض قطایی ٠ یؼا یا ضتت هتی اؾت، تس

تا ١ خلت قس، رهنا ١ای٠ ضؾاسی اتطیت تاقس. تا ایا

ی اؿیسی ؾحی پیف تیی ای اثطات ك اؾت ظیطا ؾطػت ذضزی تؾ چس يع پیچیس تؼیی ی قز. اؾتلاز اظ خس پتاؿی، حض الی٠

٠ تاض آضز. ای ی اآا١ا٠ اظ ای خسا اؾت تایح ؿ تح )اتطیت( ١ای رتق ضا ازیس ییطز. صا اؾتلازاثطات ؿثت٢ای ؿاحت قیی

زهت كو تطای اضظیاتی وساتی ضز اؾتلاز هطاض یطس. خسا تایس تا

ز١س تاتطای تح ذضزی یكس. اتها تی كالز ظ ع آؾتیتی آؾتیتی زض یي خلت زكعی ؼال اتس ضا تكی یكالز١ای ظ ع

ؿتطی ذا-تاقس اا پزض ؾلیس ٢قز. تؼیس اؾت ٠ ای اط اظ حا ؾاذتای ضی یا آیی ضی یا آیی اؾت دطت٠ ذضزی اياكی زض

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زاقت اتهاالت تاغ قس( یا زض٠)ثال تا ض آیعی یا اضپیچی . تا خیطی اظ ضز آب ت٠ هؿت٢ای ثای حان٠ اؾت ظقت ت٠ چك تیایس

تسی طز اطاف اتهاالت پیچ تا اظ ذضزی زكعی خیطی طز. آب كعات اظ یسیط )ثال تا ض آیعی ؾح كعات ؿیطكات٠ ٠ زض تاؾس( ی

تطای اخطا زض ؾایت ظاثط ضـقز. ای اداای یتاس تا اؾتلاز اظ زضظیط١ای اضؾاای پالؾتیی یا الؾتیی اقط١ا تق٢ای ایی یا تلی ٢ط

ا ضك٢ا ت٠ زضؾتی هة قس اس، كطا١ س.ؾایت ضا تطای تطضؾی ای٠ تای اقط١ اظ ؾح تاظضؾییعا الظ تاسیاؾت

ت٠ "اتهاالت ا١ف آ عاضـ ذضزی زكعی،" PD 6484زض حی٢ای ضؾتایی، ق٢طی، نؼتی ؾاحی زض زض اتها٢ای زتایی،ضكتاض ػی كعات

اؾت.ض ا ؿتس قس

ترک خردگی تىشی

ی حیی زاضز. ای پسیس زض اتؿلط١ای ؼ ؾاذتای ضایح ١عا تك٢ای ككی كاتض١ای یػضخ زاز تطى ذضزی تكی یاظ ت٠ حض

یس تیس، ث تك٢ا ؿثت ت٠ تف حي از ذیی تاال تاقس تك٢ا اؾت ت٠ ذاط تاضصاضی /یا اثطات ت٠ خااس اظ كطا الظ یؿتیؿت.

ای٠ هؼات كالز ظ ع حای تك٢ای پؿاس تاالیی تاقس )ثال ت٠ ذاط اضؾطز( زض حی٢ای ؿی اظ طایس تاقس. ١ خقاضی ذاضی

ی اؾترط١ای قا، زضیا عزیي ؾاح( تایس احتیا ت٠ ػ آیس.اؾتلاز قس )ظیط ح٠

خردگی عممی )یکىاخت(

تط pH حی تا ؾاظ اؾت. ای ذضزی ت٢ا ١ای٠ كالز ظ ع زضتط زضزؾط، كالز١ا یتوی٠ؿثت ت٠ ع ذضزی ػی زض كالز١ای ظاثطا

طاخؼ٠ قز یا اظ ٢سؼ ذضزی تاقس ضخ یس١س. اط كالز ظ ع زض تاؼ تا از قییایی هطاض یطز، یا تایس ت٠ خسا خز زض تطقض ؾاظسا 1اظ

ت٠ قز.كضت طك

خردگی بیه داو ای ي فساد جش

١ا لش زضخ٠ ؾاتیطاز هطاض یطس، طت زاذ كالز ت٠ ؾت طظزا٠ 850تا ١450ای٠ كالز١ای ظع آؾتیتی ت٠ ست الی زض ؼطو زای

ای پسیس ط ضا اظ ح خاس ذاضج یس وساض ط تطی زض داضت طظزا٠ ١ا تاهی یصاضز. كالز١ا زض س. یس اضتیس ط ضؾب ی

س. ١ای٠ ای پسیس ققس. طظزا٠ ١ا ١ا هطاضیطی زض ؼطو حی ذضس، ؿتؼس ذضزی تطخیحی یایس ی "حؿاؼ قس"چی قطایی

قاذت٠ یكز. طیس١ایی اظ كالز ظ ع ٠ وساض طت "كؿاز خـ"قس اتلام تیلتس، ت٠ ػا ی خقاضیثط اظ حطاضت زض یي هؼ٠ی تأزض و٠

ز ططز ذيییتط تا كطآیس١ای هؾی )٠ ط 20زضنس( حؿاؼ را١س قس، حتی ١ای ٠ ضه٢ایی تا يرات٢ای تا 0.03پایی زاضس )حسز

، 316 304زاض اؾتاساضز ی كالزؾاظی حایت اظ آ زاضس ٠ وساض طت تطای طیس١ای طتؾطیغ زاضس( خقاضی قس. ػال تط آ كطآیس١ای پیكطكت٠

از خـ حؿاؼ را١س تز.زضنس یا تط ضؾاس یكز، صا ای طیس١ا ١ای٠ تؾ كطایس١ای هؾی خقاضی قس ؿثت ت٠ كؿ 0.05ؼال ت٠

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www.SteelConstruction.info

(The free encyclopedia for UK steel construction information)

Steel manufacture

Humans have been making iron and steel for centuries. Steel fuelled the industrial revolution and remains

the backbone of modern industrialized economies. It’s hard to imagine a world without steel – be it

construction, vehicles, engines or machines, steel is ever present in all we do and all we make.

Steel’s versatility, in terms of its composition and properties, its strength-to-weight ratio and its ability to

be infinitely multicycled into new products sets steel apart from other materials and has been

instrumental in its ongoing success. This article briefly explains how iron and steel made. Separate

articles discuss how the material is converted into steel construction products and the basic material

properties of steel that are used in design.

Contents

1-History of steel making* 2-Modern iron making* 3-Conversion to steel 3.1 Basic oxygen steelmaking

3.2 Electric Arc Furnace 3.3 Secondary steel making* 4-Iron and steel making by-products* 5-Casting

steel 5.1 Continuous casting * 6-Resources * 7-Further reading

As early as 6,000 years ago, early civilizations used iron ore found in meteorites to construct primitive

tools. The first iron furnaces appeared in about 1400 BC. These were very simple rounded hearths in

which iron ore and charcoal were heated to very high temperatures. By reheating, ironworkers could

hammer the metal to remove impurities and increase hardness. It was realised that by making high-

quality iron very hot and adding a few other metallic elements an even stronger material could be

produced.

Small amounts of crude steel were first manufactured in eastern Africa and India as early as 300 BC. The

Europeans and Chinese developed steel making processes a few hundred years later. The industrial

revolution had a major impact on steel demand for machinery, railroads, and other ambitious industrial

projects and in 1855, Henry Bessemer took out a patent on his process for rendering cast iron malleable

by the introduction of air into the fluid metal to remove carbon.

The story of the Bessemer steel making process is a classic example of the military impetus for

technological development. During the Crimean War, Bessemer invented a new type of artillery shell.

The generals reported that the cast-iron cannons of the time were not strong enough to deal with the

forces of the more powerful shell. So Bessemer developed his improved iron smelting process that

produced large quantities of superior quality steel. Modern steel is still made using technology based on

Bessemer's process.

Modern iron making

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Iron is manufactured in a blast furnace. First, iron ore is mixed with coke and heated to form an iron-rich

clinker called ‘sinter’. Sintering is an important part of the overall process as it reduces waste and

provides an efficient raw material for iron making.

Coke is produced from carefully selected grades of coal. Different grades of coal are stocked separately

and blended before transfer to coke ovens. The coal is heated, or ‘carbonised’ in the ovens until it

becomes coke. It is then removed from the oven, cooled and graded before use in the blast furnace. The

coal gas produced during carbonisation is collected and used as a fuel in the manufacturing process

while by-products such as tar, benzole and sulfur are extracted for further refining.

Sinter plant

Coke ovens

Coke, ore and sinter are fed, or ‘charged’, into the top of the blast furnace, together with limestone. A hot

air blast, from which the furnace gets its name, is injected through nozzles, called ‘tuyeres’, in the base

of the furnace. The blast air may be oxygen-enriched and coal or oil is sometimes also injected to

provide additional heat and reduce coke requirements. The blast fans the heat in the furnace to white-

hot intensity, and the iron in the ore and sinter is melted out to form a pool of molten metal in the bottom,

or hearth, of the furnace. The limestone combines with impurities and molten rock from the iron ore and

sinter, forming a liquid ‘slag' which, being lighter than the metal, floats on top of it.

The blast furnace

The charging system at the top of the furnace also acts as a valve mechanism to prevent the escape of

gas, which is taken off through large-bore pipes to a gas cleaning plant. An important feature of iron

making is that the process is continuous. When a sufficient quantity of molten iron accumulates in the

hearth of the blast furnace, it is tapped off into ladles for steel-making. As slag builds up on the surface

of the molten metal it, too, is tapped off at regular intervals through a separate ‘notch’ or taphole.

Meanwhile, the raw materials continue to be charged into the top of the furnace, and heated air blasted

in at the bottom. This process goes on throughout the ‘life’ of the furnace, which can be 10 years or

more, before the heat-resistant brick lining begins to deteriorate. The furnace is then relined.

Refining iron ore in the blast furnace

The basic raw material for steel manufacture is either the hot metal from the blast furnace , steel scrap or

a mixture of both. The proportions of material used vary according to the process and the type of steel

required. Steel can be described in general terms as iron with most of the carbon removed, to make it

tougher and more ductile . There are many forms (grades) of steel, each with its own specific chemical

composition and properties to meet the needs of the many different applications. Two major steel

making processes are used today in the UK.

Basic oxygen steelmaking

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Hot metal from the blast furnace and steel scrap are the principal materials used in Basic Oxygen Steel

making (BOS). Modern furnaces, or ‘converters’ will take a charge of up to 350 tonnes and convert it into

steel in around 15 minutes. A water-cooled oxygen lance is lowered into the converter and high-purity

oxygen is blown on to the metal at very high pressure. The oxygen combines with carbon and other

unwanted elements, eliminating them from the molten charge. These oxidation reactions produce heat,

and the temperature of the metal is controlled by the quantity of added scrap.

BOS furnace or converter

The carbon leaves the converter as a gas, carbon monoxide, which can, after cleaning, be collected for

re-use as a fuel. During the ‘blow’, lime is added as a flux to help carry off the other oxidized impurities

as a floating layer of slag . The quantities of scrap, hot metal and lime and other fluxes are calculated to

ensure the correct steel temperature and composition. In many plants, the refining process is assisted

by the injection of gases, including argon, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, through the base of the furnace.

After the steel has been refined and samples taken to check temperature and composition, the converter

is tilted and the steel is tapped into a ladle. Typically, the carbon content of the steel at the end of

refining is about 0.04%. During tapping, alloy additions can be made to adjust the final composition of

the steel.

When all the steel has been tapped, the converter is turned upside down and the residual slag is tipped

into a waiting slag ladle for removal to a slag cooling pond, from where it is further processed to reclaim

any material which can be returned to the process.

The main steps in the BOS process

The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) uses only cold scrap metal. The process was originally used solely for

making high quality steel, such as those used for machine tools and spring steel, as it gave more

precise control over the composition. Today, however, it is also employed in making more widely used

steels, including alloy and stainless grades as well as some special carbon and low-alloy steels. Modern

electric arc furnaces can make up to 150 tonnes of steel in a single melt.

The electric arc furnace consists of a circular bath with a movable roof, through which three graphite

electrodes can be raised or lowered. At the start of the process, the electrodes are withdrawn and the

roof swung clear. The steel scrap is then charged into the furnace from a large steel basket lowered

from an overhead travelling crane. When charging is complete, the roof is swung back into position and

the electrodes lowered into the furnace. A powerful electric current is passed through the charge, an arc

is created, and the heat generated melts the scrap. Lime and fluorspar are added as fluxes and oxygen

is blown into the melt. As a result, impurities in the metal combine to form a liquid slag.

Samples of the steel are taken and analysed to their check composition and, when the correct

composition and temperature have been achieved, the furnace is tapped rapidly into a ladle. Final

adjustments to precise customer specification can be made by adding alloys during tapping or,

subsequently, in a secondary steel making unit.

The main steps in the EAF process

After the molten metal is tapped into a ladle from the BOS furnace or EAF it is often given one or more

extra treatment(s) depending upon the grade of steel required. These further refining stages are

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collectively known as secondary steel making and can include ladle stirring with argon, powder or wire

injection, vacuum degassing and ladle arc heating. Some high-grade steels combine all of these

treatments. These processes improve homogenisation of temperature and composition, allow careful

trimming to precise compositions, remove harmful and unwanted gases such as hydrogen and reduce

elements such as sulphur to very low levels.

As with all large-scale manufacturing processes, the production or iron and steel generates by-products.

On average the production of 1 tonne of steel results in 200 kg (EAF) to 400 kg (BF/BOF) of by-

products.

The main by-products produced during iron and crude steel production are slags (90%), dusts and

sludges. The worldwide average recovery rate for slag varies from over 80% for steelmaking slag to

nearly 100% for ironmaking slag.

There are three main types of marketed ironmaking or BF slags, categorised by how they are cooled –

air-cooled, granulated, and pelletised (or expanded).

Air-cooled slag is hard and dense and is especially suitable for use as construction aggregate. It is also

used in ready-mixed concrete, concrete products, asphaltic concrete, road bases and surfaces, fill,

clinker raw material, railroad ballast, roofing, mineral wool (for use as insulation) and soil conditioner.

Granulated slag forms sand-sized particles of glass and is primarily used to make cementitious material.

Concretes incorporating granulated slag generally develop strength more slowly than concretes that

contain only Portland cement – the most common type of cement – but can have better long-term

strength, release less heat during hydration, have reduced permeability, and generally exhibit better

resistance to chemical attack.

Pelletised or expanded slag has a vesicular texture (like volcanic rock) and is most commonly used as a

lightweight aggregate. If finely ground, it also has cementitious properties.

Steelmaking slag (BOF and EAF) is cooled similarly to aircooled BF slag and is used for most of the same

purposes. As the production process varies at this stage depending on the type of steel being made, the

resulting slags also have diverse chemical properties making them more difficult to use than ironmaking

slags. Some of the recovered slag is used internally in the steelmaking furnace or sinter plant, while

approximately 50% of the recovered slag is used externally in construction applications, primarily roads.

Gases from iron-and steelmaking, once cleaned, are almost fully reused internally. Coke oven gas

contains about 55% hydrogen and may prove an important hydrogen source in the future. It is fully

reused within the steelmaking plant, and can provide up to 40% of the plant’s power.

Dust and sludge are collected in the abatement equipment (filters) attached to the iron-and steelmaking

processes.

Sludge is produced from dust or fines in various steelmaking and rolling processes and has a high

moisture content.

The dust and sludge removed from the gases consist primarily of iron and can mostly be used again in

steelmaking. Iron oxides that cannot be recycled internally can be sold to other industries for various

applications, from Portland cement to electric motor cores.

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Casting steel

Before molten steel can be rolled or formed into finished products, it has to solidify and be formed into

standard, semi-finished casting products which are available in basic shapes called billets, blooms or

slabs. Until the development of the continuous casting process, these shapes were always produced by

‘teeming’ (pouring) the molten steel into ingot moulds. The ingots are placed in soaking pits (ingot re-

heating furnaces) to bring them up to a uniform temperature before being passed to the primary mills,

which then begin to roll them into the required shapes. However, most modern steels are now

continuously cast.

Different design principles are used for casting strands of different cross sections. Billet casters solidify 80

to 175 mm squares or rounds, bloom casters solidify sections of 300 by 400 mm, and beam blank

casters produce large, dog-bone-like sections that are directly fed into an I-beam or H-beam rolling mill.

Huge slab casters solidify sections up to 250 mm thick and 2,600 mm wide at production

Continuous casting process

In the continuous casting process the molten metal is poured directly into a casting machine to produce

billets, blooms or slabs. Continuous casting eliminates the need for primary and intermediate rolling

mills, soaking pits and the storage and use of large numbers of ingot moulds. It also increases the yield

of usable product from a given weight of steel and processes the steel into a semi-finished form nearer

to that of the finished product.

In the process, a ladle of steel is brought to the continuous casting plant by overhead crane and after pre-

treatment, which may involve stirring by the injection of an inert gas (argon), the open mouth of the ladle

is covered by an insulating lid to reduce heat loss. The whole unit is lifted by crane onto a rotating turret.

This makes sequence casting possible – the casting of a number of ladles of the same grade steel

without stopping the machine. This is also an important factor in reducing costs. Before the casting

operation, a gas-tight refractory tube is fitted to the outside of the ladle nozzle. This device prevents the

liquid steel from taking up excessive oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere. The ladle nozzle is then

opened, allowing the steel to flow out of the ladle into the tundish, a reservoir supplying the water-cooled

copper mould of the casting machine, through another gas-tight tube at a controlled rate. With only its

outer shell solidified, the steel is then drawn downwards from the bottom of the mould through a curved

arrangement of support rolls and water sprays until it emerges horizontally as a solid steel slab from the

discharge end of the machine, where it is automatically cut to the lengths required

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تلیذ فالد

پیكطكت٠ اؾت. اؿا زض هط٢ا آ١ كالز ضا تیس یطز اؾت. كالز، اوالب نؼتی ضا هت تركیس ١ظ ؾت كوطات اهتهاز١ای نؼتی

؛ ١طچ٠ ادا یس١ی یؿاظی، كالز ١یك٠ زض آ حايط ؾاذتا تاقس، ؾای وی٠، تض یا اقی تهض زیایی تس كالز ؾرت اؾت،

اؾت.

سز تا ضؾیس ت٠ حهالت چطذ٠ اكتاز٢ای احا ت٠ ظ آ هاتیت آ زض ت٠هاتیت تـییط كالز، ت٠ حا تطیة قییایی ذال، ؿثت اؾتح

ط تيیح خسیس، كالز ضا اظ ؾایط از تایع یس )ای هاتیت تـییط( زض كویت ضت٠ خی كالز، ؤثط تز اؾت. ای وا٠ ت٠ ض رته

قس زض تای كالزی تثسی یای زض ضز ای٠ چ٠ از ت٠ حهالت ؾاذیس١س ٠ آ١ كالز چ٠ تیس یكس. واالت خساا٠

س.اؾاؾی كالز ٠ زض طاحی اؾتلاز یكز، تحث یضز یػی٢ای

فرست

ی كالز ؾاظیتاضیرچ٠-1

آ١ ؾاظی پیكطكت٠-2

تثسی ت٠ كالز-3

كالزؾاظی ثای٠ -3-3ض هؼ اتطیي -2-3ی اؿیػ كالزؾاظی تط پای٠ 3-1

١ ؾاظی كالزؾاظی حهالت كطػی آ-4

ضیرت٠ طی پیؾت٠-1-5كالز ضیرتی -5

اتغ-6

١ای تیكتطذاسی-7

١ زض ١عاضؾا هث، تس٢ای ای٠ اظ ؾ آ١ی ٠ زض ق٢اب ؾ٢ا پیسا طز تزس تطای ؾاذت اتعاض ای٠ اؾتلاز طزس. ای ض ١ای آ 6

طز ؾاز ای تزس ٠ زض آ٢ا ؾ آ١ ظؿا ؾ تا زا١ای تؿیاض تاال س. ای ض ١ا، اخاه٢ای ؾا هث اظ یالز پسیساض قس 1400حسز

ؼ قساضی س. قسس. آ١ط١ا یتاؿتس تا ط طز زتاض، كع ضا تطای ذاضج طز اذاهی ١ا اكعایف ؾرتی چفحطاضت زاز ی

ی ح تط یاذت یتاس تیس قز.٠ تا زاؽ طز ظیاز آ١ طؿب اكعز اسی ػانط كعی زیط، یي از

ا چسنس ؾا تؼس كطایس١ای كالز ؾاظی ١١ا چییؾا هث اظ یالز زض آكطیوای قطهی ١س تیس قس. اضپایی 300وازیط كالز ذا، اتتسا

١ای نؼتی تسپطاظا٠ صاقت زض ١ای ضا آ١، پطغآالت، ضیضا تؾؼ٠ زازس. اوالب نؼتی تأثیط ظیازی تط ضی توايای كالز تطای اقی

اض تؾ اضز طز ١ا ت٠ زاذ كع صاب ت٠ ی آ١ ضیرتی چكرذز زض ضز ت٢ی٠ ١طی تؿط یي ثثت اذتطاع زض ضز كطایس 1885ؾا

ظض حصف طت اضائ٠ طز.

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ی تپرا٠ ضا ی ظای تطای پیكطكت كی اؾت. زض خ طی٠ تؿط ع خسیس پؾت٠زاؾتا كطایس كالزؾاظی تؿط، ثای ػای اظ ایع

ی اكی ی هسضتس تج، ت٠ اساظآ١ ضیرتی زض آ ظا، تطای وات٠ تا یطی ٠اذتطاع طز. غطا٢ا عاضـ زازس ٠ تپ٢ای ؾاذت٠ قس تا

طز ضا تؾؼ٠ زاز. كالز١ای پیكطكت٠ كالز طؿب تیس ی یی شب آ١ ذز ضا ٠ وازیط ظیازح یؿتس. تاتطای تؿط كطایس ت٢ثزیاكت٠

قس.س تؿط تیس ی١ظ تا اؾتلاز اظ كاضی ثتی تط كطای

سازی مذرن آه

قز، حطاضت ی ایس "ؾیتط"آ١ زض ض تس تیس یكز. اتتسا ؾ آ١ تا ي ر یكز تطای تكی یي یط ؿی اظ آ١ ٠

ی٠ ی لیسی تطای آ١ ؾاظی كطا١ یس.قز. ؾیتطؾاظی ترف ٢ی اظ كطایس ی اؾت ظیطا از ظایس ضا ا١ف یس١س از ی ازاز ی

قس هث اظ اتوا اس تیس یكز. طیس١ای رتق ظؿا ؾ ت٠ نضت دعا اثاض یاظ طیس١ایی اظ ظؿا ؾ ٠ ت٠ زهت اتراب قس ،ي

ؾپؽ اظ ض ذاضج یكز، زاض یكز.طت٠ ي قز حطاضت زاز یكز،یا ت٠ ض ١ای ي ؾاظی ر یكس. ظؿا ؾ، تا ١ای

زاضقس تیس یكز خغ آضی قس ت٠ ػا تسی یكز. اظ ظؿا ؾ ٠ زض حی طتذي یكز هث اظ اؾتلاز زض ض تس زضخ٠

قس.ی اياكی خساؾاظی یلی٠ی تهتطاع طز ؾذت زض كطایس تیس اؾتلاز یكز، زض حای٠ حهالت خاثی ظیط هیط، ت

ياحذ سیىتر

کر ای کک سازی

، اظ طین 1ی ض تسخطیا قسیسی اظ ١ای زاؽ، خ٠ تؿی٠ یكس. اظ تاالی ض تس قاضغي، ؾ ؼس ؾیتط ػال تط ؾ آ١ي،

ؾ یا ا١ی تاس ؿی اظ اؿیػ تاقس، ١طا تا ظؿاقسیس،٠ ی ایس یكس، زض ق ض تعضین یكز. خطیا ١ای "تیط"١ا ،٠ اظ

تا زای زض ض پرف یس ١ف ز١س. خطیا قسیس ١ا، حطاضت ضالت تعضین یكز تا طای اياكی ضا كطا١ س وساض ي ضز یاظ ضا ا

ای اظ صاب كعی ضا زض ق ض )یا حيچ٠ آ١ ؾیتط شب یكس آ١ خز زض ؾ ای ٠ ت٠ ض ؾلیس زضآیس تطؾساز ت٠ و٠

ی صاب ، ٠ ؾثي تط اظ آ١ ؾیتط تطیة یكز ؾطتاضی خز زض ؾ١ا ؾ شب قستت٠( تكی ز١س. ؾ آ١ي تا اذاهی

كع اؾت، ق ییطز تط ضی كع قاض یكز.

کر بلىذ

ت٠ احس تیعطز اظ هض١ای ؾیؿت قاضغ زض تاالی ض تس یع ث یي ا )قیط( ػ یس تا اغ كت اظ قز، اظی ٠ اظ طین ٠

تس اثاقت٠ قس، ت٠ آ١ صاب زض تت٠ ی ض اظ ؾاظی ای اؾت ٠ كطایس، پیؾت٠ اؾت. ١ای ٠ وساض اكیتو یكز. یػی ٢ آ١

ای زض ی خساا٠تؾ ؾضاخ یا دطای تری٠ قز،كع صاب خغ ی ؾطتاض تط ضی ؾح ١اض ٠زاذ پاتی٢ای كالزؾاظی تری٠ یكز.

قز. ای قس زض ق ض زیس ی ١ای طیاتس س ازا٠ یقز. زض ذال ای، قاضغ از ذا ت٠ تاالی ض ت١ای ظای ظ تری٠ یتاظ

ؾا یا تیكتط تاقس، ازا٠ زاضز، هث اظ ای٠ آؾتط آخط١ای وا ت٠ حطاضت ض ت٠ ذطاتی تصاضس. 10ػط ض تس ٠ یتاس ستكطایس زض تا

قز.پؽ اظ آ ض تس زتاض آؾتط ظی ی

1ت٠ ؼای ض blast furnaceاؾت "خطیا ١ای قسیس"ت٠ ؼای Blastقس اؾت. ت٠ اضتطز blast furnaceای اؾت ٠ اظ اتتسا تطای تطخ٠ "ض تس"

ای اؾت ٠ تا زف ١ای قسیس اض یس.

اهدی حقیقت ار رتجمه نموهن ک

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در کر بلىذتصفی ی آه

ز ضز ی كالز یا ری اظ ١ط ز اؾت. ؿثت از ضز اؾتلاز تط اؾاؼ كطایس ع كالاز ذا تطای تیس كالز، كع زاؽ ض تس، هطاي٠

تط قز، تؼطیق قز. ااع ی، كالز یتاس ت٠ نضت آ١ی ٠ تیكتط طت آ حصف قس تا چوطتط ق پصیط یاظ تـییط یس. زض تؼطیلی

یاظ١ای رتق اضتطزی ضا پاؾد یس١س. اطظ ز كطایس ،)طیس١ای( رتلی اظ كالز خز زاضز ٠ ١طیي تا تطیة قییایی ذال رهل

ی كالزؾاظی زض اؿتا اؾتلاز یكز.ػس

فالدسازی بر پای ی اکسیژن

ی اؿیػ اؾتلاز یكس. ض ١ای سض، یا ضتض١ا، ز ٢تطی ازی ١ؿتس ٠ زض كالزؾاظی تط پای٠ی كالكع زاؽ ض تس هطاي٠

قز، زض زاذ زهیو٠ آ ضا ت٠ كالز تثسی یس. یي الؽ اؿیػ، ٠ تا آب ذي ی 15ت زضیاكت یس حسز 350قاضغی تاؾ تط

تؿیاض ذام تا ككاض تؿیاض تاال، زاذ كع زیس یكز. اؿیػ تا طت زیط ػانط اب تطیة یكز ضتض كط تطز یكز اؿیػ

ای ٠ اياك٠ یكز تط یكز.آ٢ا ضا اظ صاب حصف یس. ای اك٢ای اؿیساؾی طا تیس یس زای كع تؾ وساض هطاي٠

ؾاظی تط پای٠ ی اؿیػضتض یا ض ی كالز

آضی قز. زض حی ی دسز ت٠ ػا ؾذت خغطت ت٠ نضت اظ، ؿیس طت، ضتض ضا تطى یس یتاس تؼس اظ تهلی٠ تطای اؾتلاز

ي س. ی قاضؾطتاضی ی زیط ت٠ نضت یي الی١٠ای اؿیسقسزف، ؾ آ١ي ت٠ ػا ي شب اياك٠ یكز تا ت٠ ذطج اذاهی

شت٢ای زیط حاؾث٠ یكز تا اظ زا تطیة قییایی زضؾت كالز ایا حان قز. زض تؿیاضی وازیط هطاي٠، كع زاؽ ؾ آ١ي ي

اظ ای٠ كالز تهلی٠ قس اظ احس١ا، كطایس تهلی٠ تا تعضین اظ١ایی قا آض، یتطغ زی اؿیس طت اظ ق ض تؿ٢ی یكز. تؼس

طت زض ٠ ١ایی تطای تطضؾی زا تطیة قییایی طكت٠ قس، ضتض چطذاس یكز كالز زض یي پاتی تری٠ یكز. ت٠ ض ٠ وساض

تطای تظی تطیة قییایی ٢ایی كالز، اكعزی ١ای آیاغی یتاس اؾتلاز قز. اؾت. زض حی تری٠ %0.04پایا تهلی٠ حسز

ت٠ یي اؾترط تری٠ یكز ،ی اتظاضخااس اس، زض یي پاتی ؾطتاضی ت٠ری٠ قس، ضتض ؾط ت٠ یكز ؾطتاضی تا كالز تهت

یطز. یاتی ١ط از ٠ یتاس ت٠ كطایس تاظطزز، ضز كطاضی اياكی هطاض یی ؾطتاض تو قز، خایی ٠ تطای تاظؾطزس

طاح ٢ زض كطایس كالزؾاظی تط پای٠ ی اؿیػ

ی ؾطز هطف یس. ای كطایس زض ان ت٢ا تطای تیس كالز١ای طؿب ظیط كالز١ایی ٠ تطای اتعاض اقیض هؼ اتطیي كو كع هطاي٠

تطی تط تطیة قییایی زاضز. ت٠ ١طحا اطظ زض تیس كالز١ای پطهطكتطی كالز١ای كط اؾتلاز یكز، اؾتلاز یكس ظیطا تط زهین

ا ع ١چی كالز١ای طتی رهل آیاغ یع ت٠ اض یطز. ض ١ای سض هؼ اتطیي یتاس تقا طیس١ای آیاغی ظ

ت كالز ضا زض ١ط شب ت٢ی٠ س. 150

-یي ؾوق تحطى ، ٠ اتطز١ای طاكیتی یتاس اظ طین آ تاال پایی تطس، تكی ی ق ض هؼ اتطیي اظ یي ا زایط ای

یكس ؾوق ت٠ آضای حطت یس. ؾپؽ هطاي٠ اظ طین یي ؾثس ٠ اظ یي خطثوی تحطى قز. زض قطع كطایس، اتطز١ا ػوة تطز

آیس. تاالؾطی پایی آس ت٠ زاذ ض قاضغ یكز. ١ای ٠ قاضغ تا قس، ؾوق ت٠ خای ذز تط یطزز اتطز١ا زاذ ض پایی ی

س، یي هؼ ایداز یكز، طای تیسقس هطاي٠ ضا شب یس. ؾ آ١ي كضؾپاض ت٠ خطیا اتطیی هسضتسی اظ یا قاضغ ػثض ی

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ػا ي شب اياك٠ یكز اؿیػ ت٠ زاذ صاب زیس یكز. زضتید٠ اذاهی٢ای زاذ كع تطیة یكس تا ؾطتاض ی صاب ق

یطز.

قییایی ؼیاض آایع یكز ١ای ٠ تطیة قییایی زای اؾة حان قس، ض ت٠ طكت٠ یكز ثن تطیة ١ایی٠ اظ كالز

ثن زاذ یي پاتی تری٠ یكز. تظیات ٢ایی یتاس تا اكعز ػانط آیاغی زض حی تری٠ یا تؼاهثا زض احس كالزؾاظی ثای٠

كرهات زهین شطقس تؾ ذطیساض ادا قز.

راحل اساسی در فرایىذ کر قس الکتریکیم

یس ٠ تؼس اض ای٠ كع صاب اظ ض تطپای٠ اؿیػ یا ض هؼ اتطیي ت٠ زاذ پاتی ضیرت٠ قس اؿة یي یا چس ػیات اياكی ضا زضیاكت

تاس قا ١عز ؾاظی ثای٠ قاذت٠ یكز یاتؿت٠ ت٠ طیس كالز ضزیاظ اؾت. ای طاح تهلی٠ ی اياكی زض دع ت٠ ػا كالز

ای ػیات٢ا ازؿا یتطذی اظ كالزی طؿب ٠١ تطای طز پاتی تؾ هؼ تاقس.پاتی تا اؿیػ، تعضین پزض یا ؾی، اظظزایی زض ذأل ط

ز١س، اظ١ای اذاؾت٠ ی ضؾیس ت٠ تطیة قییایی زهین ضا یتركس، اخاظ. ای كطایس١ا یاذتی زا تطیة قییایی ضا ت٢ثز ییكس

ز١س.س ػانطی ث طز ضا تا وازیط تؿیاض ا١ف ی ط ث ١یسضغ ضا حصف ی

ت كالز دط ت٠ تیس 1س. ت٠ ضتؾ تیس حهالت خاثی تیس یاؼ تعض، تیس آ١ كالز یع ١اس كطایس١ای تیس زض وی

یط )تطای ض تس/ ض تط پای٠ اؿیػ( حهالت خاثی یكز. 400یط )تطای ض هؼ اتطیي( تا 200

٢ای تطای ١ا ١ؿتس. وساضتاظیاتی خ%( طزؿثاض د١90ا )آیس، ؾطتاض كالز ذا ت٠ خز ی حهالت خاثی ٢ ٠ زض حی تیس آ١

س.ؾاظی تـییط یی آ١% تطای ؾطتاض100ی كالزؾاظی تا عزیي % تطای ؾطتاض80ؾطتاض اظ

تسی یكس: ١ا ؾطز،طا٠ حث٠ ای )یا اس ثو٠ی آ١ؿاظی یا ض تس زض تاظاض خز زاضز ٠ ثن ای٠ چض ؾطز قسؾ٠ ع ٢ ؾطتاض

قس(.ثؿ

، ی ١اؾطز ؾرت چا اؾت رهنا تطای اؾتلاز ت٠ ػا از ؾیا ؾاظی زض ؾاذتا اؾة اؾت. ١چی زض تت آازؾطتاض

٠ ) حهالت تتی، آؾلات تتی، ظیطؾاظی خاز ١ا ؾح، تؿتط، از ذا یط، ؾ ضیع زض ضای٢ای ضا آ١، پكت تا ؾاظی، پك قیك

ت٠ ػا ػاین( از انالحی ذاى اؾتلاز یكز. تطای اؾتلاز

قز ػستا تطای ؾاذت از ؾیای اؾتلاز یكز. ؾیا٢ایی ٠ تا ؾطتاض ی طا٠ اظ شضاتی تا خؽ قیك٠ ت٠ اساظ اؾ٠ تكی ی

ایح تطی ع ؾیا( ١ؿتس ؼال اؾتحا ضا تؿیاض آ١ؿت٠ ؾطتاض ی طا٠ ر یكس ؿثت ت٠ ؾیا٢ایی ٠ كو حای ؾیا پطتس )ض

ؿثت تط ت٢ثز یس١س، اا اؾتحا تس ست ت٢تطی زاضس، طای تطی زض حی ١یسضات٠ قس آظاز یس، لشپصیطی تطی زاضس ؼال

ت٢تطی كا یس١س. وات ت٠ ذضسی از قییایی

ؾاظ ؾثي ظ اؾتلاز یكز. ی ؾیاای ق زاضز )اس ؾ آتكلكای( اثطا ت٠ ػا ازتاكت حلط ،قسثؿ ؾطتاض ی حث٠ ای یا

آؾیاب قز ذال ؾیای یع زاضز. اطت٠ نضت ضیع

تاقس تطای تیكتط ا١ساف كات٠ قس یاتطیي( كات٠ ؾطتاض ض تس ٠ زض١ا ذي ی كالزؾاظی)ض تط پای٠ اؿیػ ض هؼؾطتاض

یی رتلی اؾتلاز یكس. اظ آدایی ٠ كطایس تیس زض ای طح٠ تؿت٠ ت٠ ع كالز تیسی تـییط یس، ؾطتاض ١ای تیسی یع ذال قییا

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ی كالزؾاظی یا احس قس زضذز ضطتاض ١ای آ١ ؾاظی كتطیس. تطذی اظ ؾطتاض ١ای تاظیاتیزاضس ٠ اؾتلاز اظ آ٢ا ضا ؿثت ت٠ ؾ

ی تاظیاتی قس زض تیط زض اض١ای ؾاذتای ػستا خاز ١ا اؾتلاز یكز.زضنس ؾطتاض 50ؾیتط اؾتلاز یكز، زض حای٠ حسز

ی٠ تیع قسس اؿة ت٠ ض ا زض زاذ احس١ا زتاض اؾتلاز یكس. اظ ض ي ؾاظی قا اظ١ای آ١ ؾاظی كالزؾاظی ت٠ حى ا

زضنس ١یسضغ اؾت اؾت زض آیس ت٠ ػا ثغ ٢ ١یسضغ ضز آظایف هطاض یطز. ١یسضغ ت٠ ضا زض احس كالزؾاظی 55

نس یطی احس١ا ضا تأی س.زض40زتاض اؾتلاز یكز یتاس تا

قس ت٠ كطایس١ای آ١ ؾاظی كالزؾاظی تططزاس یكز. د ١ا اظ ی آزی )كیتط١ا( خغ یطز ؿثاض دی ٠ زض تد٢یعات ا١س

زاضس.طز ؿثاض شضات ضیع زض كطایس١ای ا كالزؾاظی ضز ایداز یكس وساض ظیازی ضتت

ای آ١ی طزؿثاض دی ٠ اظ اظ١ا ذاضج ی قس ػستا حای آ١ ١ؿتس اؿة یتاس زتاض زض كطایس كالز ؾاظی اؾتلاز قز. اؿیس١

ت٠ تا ١ؿت٠ ١ای ٠ یتاس زض زاذ احس١ا تاظیاكت قس یتاس تطای اضتطز١ای تع ت٠ نایغ زیط كطذت٠ قز، اظ ؾیا پطتس طك

تض اتطیی.

فالد ریختگی

رتطی هث اظ ای٠ كالز صاب تتاس ضز قز یا ت٠ ق حه ٢ایی زضآیس، تایس دس قز ت٠ ق اؾتاساضز ی٠ تا حهالت ضی

ث اظ پیسایف كطایس ضیرت٠ طی پیؾت٠، ای اقا ١یك٠ آیس. تا ه( زضقستیت، ت یا اؾة ایس ی خز زاضس )٠ ت٠ ق٢ای اتتسایی

ی دسز قف( هطاض زاز ستؾ شب ضیعی صاب كالز زض هاث٢ای قف تیس یكس. قك٢ا زض ض ١ای ١ساس )ض ١ای ط

ای٠ قطع ت٠ ضز طز آ٢ا تا ضؾیس ت٠ ١ای ضززؾتایكس تا آ٢ا ضا هث اظ ػثض اظ ضز١ای ای٠ ت٠ یي زای یاذت تطؾاس، ؾپؽ

طی یكس. ق٢ای ضزیاظ یس. ت٠ ١طحا اطظ تیكتط كالز١ای سض ت٠ نضت پیؾت٠ ضیرت٠

150تا 80ی اظ ایا زایط طی تیت واغ طتغ٢ای ضیرت٠ان طاحی رتلی تطای ؿیط١ای ضیرت٠ طی واغ ا اؾتلاز یكز. اقی

واغ تعض تا ق اؾترا beam blankطی اقی٢ای ضیرت٠ 400تا 300طی ت واغ ییتط ضا دس یس، اقی٢ای ضیرت٠

ة، حهی تا واؼی تا طی تؿیاض تعض اؾقاضغ یكز. اقی٢ای ضیرت٠ H Iؾی ضا دس یس ٠ ؿتویا ت٠ زؾتا ضز تا وغ

ییتط ػطو ضا دس یس. 2600ییتط يرات 250

فرایىذ ریخت گری پیست

یكز تا تیت، ت یا اؾة تیس قز. ضیرت٠ طی زض كطایس ضیرت٠ طی پیؾت٠، كع صاب ؿتویا ت٠ زاذ یي اقی ضیرت٠ طی ضیرت٠

ضز ای٠ یای، ض ١ای ١ساس شذیط، اؾتلاز اظ تؼساز ظیاز هاة ضا اظ تی یثطز. ١چی تاظز١ی پیؾت٠ یاظ ت٠ زؾتا ١ای

تط ت٠ حه پایای تثسی یس. كالز ضا اكعایف یس١س كالز ضا ت٠ یي حه ی٠ تا قثی٠ یحه هات اؾتلاز اظ وساض كره

٠ زض ای كطایس یي پاتی كالزی پؽ اظ ػیات وساتی ٠ یتاس قا ١عز تؾ تعضین اظ ذثی )آض( تاقس، تؾ خطثوی ؾولی ت

پقاس یكز. تا ای دػ٠ احس ضیرت٠ طی پیؾت٠ آضز یكز، ز١ا٠ ی تاظ پاتی خ٢ت ا١ف اتالف حطاضت تؾ یي ال١ي ػاین

ضیرت٠ طی چس پاتی اظ كالز تا طیس ت٠ طی پكت ؾط١ ضا یؿاظز )تؾ خطثوی ت٠ تاالی یي ؾی چطذا تطز یكز. ای ؾ،ضیر

خؽ از زیطساظ ٠ زض تطاتط . ای اض كاتض ٢ی زض ا١ف ١عی٠ ١اؾت. هث اظ قطع ضیرت٠ طی، یي تیب اظ(یؿا، تس تهق اقی

كالز لش اظ وا اؾت تط ضی هؿت تیطی اظ پاتی ؾاض یكز. ای ؾی٠ اغ خصب طز اؿیػ یتطغ اياكی اظ اتؿلط، تؾ

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تیب وا زض تطاتط لش اظ زیط، اظ صاب یكز. ؾپؽ اظ پاتی تاظ یكز ت٠ كالز اخاظ یس١س تا تحت ؾطػت تط قس ای ،تؾ یي

خطیا پیسا س. -یي ثغ شذیط )ی كالز صاب( ٠ هاة ؿی ذي قس تا آب اقی ضیرت٠ طی ضا تـصی٠ یس–پاتی ت٠ زاذ تاسیف

ض زاضس اظ ق هاة ت٠ ؾت تیط ت٠ حى ای٠ پؾت٠ ی ذاضخی دس قس، كالز اظ طین ؿت٢ای پكتیثا ٠ زض اتساز یي هؼ هطا

)خایی ٠ قف ت٠ نضت اتاتیي زض كیس یكز تا ١ای٠ ت٠ نضت یي اؾة كالزی خاس زض ات٢ای اقی ت٠ نضت اكوی ظا١ط قز

.یكزتط ضی آ اؾپطی ، آب ٢ای ضز یاظ تطیس یكز(

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