1

:

: ,

&

:

, 2015

2

I

1. a. b. c. d. e. 2. a. b. c.

3. ) i.

ii. iii.

) i.

ii. ) 4.

) ) ) ) ) ) )

5.

6.

3

. , , . , , , , . , , . , , , . . . , . , . - MARKETING marketing , marketing marketing , . . . Marketing . . . . . , marketing-oriented , . marketing , . . .

, marketing 20

. - , , , , , . , .

20

, , . Procter & Gamble General Electric , . marketing

4

: , . marketing . , marketing , , . marketing . , . production-orientation, , . marketing-orientation . . ; marketing . . -, , , life-style. . marketing , . marketing . , . ; supermarket . . , / , , - , . , . , . , , . 70 , lifestyle. VALS (Values, Attitudes, and Lifestyles) 10 lifestyle groups, . . . , - lifestyle. , - lifestyle. . . (Frank Sinatra), ( internet), ( ) (, ), (BMW) ( & do-it-yourself), (Giorgio Armani) ( ), (Nokia) (), ( ) (). ; (Fear of Missing Out) . 70% . , 30% . .

5

. , . email, , . , ( ). , . , , . , , marketers . insight : , , , . , , lifestyle . , ( , .) , . , , , , , , , , . / context . ( ) ( ), . context (.. ) ( , ), . , . -! ! Logistics . , . : . (revealed needs) . . logistics, ( ) ( ) . . ( ) ( ) . . (basic needs) . ( ). logistics, . . . , . . , . , ( ). . . (excitement needs) . . .

6

. logistics, - , , . . . , , , . . logistics, , . , . , . . , , . , , , . , , , marketing, . .

: . , , , , , , , , , . , - . . , 70 .

7

, , , , , , , , . , , . , , . , , , /. , . , -, , , . , , , , . , . . , . , . . marketing , (logistics) . . , , , . . . , . . , . , , . , . . , , .

8

, , . , , . . , . , , , , , , . , , - . , , . , , . . , . , 3/4 1/4.

9

, , , , , , , .

, , . , , , ( ) .

. ,

10

50% , . , , , . , ( 75% ). , , , , . , , .

, - . , . . , , , . . , , , , , . , , . () , , , . , .

11

. , , . , , . , 1 40%, , , . . , . . . , . (.. ). . , , . . . . , . , , , , . , . , . , , . , , , . . (leasing). , , . marketing . . , , , , . , .

12

. , , , , , , . ( / ) , , . , ( ). . . , . , (on-line) . , (), . . . , , , , , (unit load), . , , . .

, 1.2 %

13

( 8.6 ECU, 1994 ). : 0.08%, : 0.17 - 0.25%, : 0.05%, : 0.17-0.22%, : 0.47%, : 0.17 %, 0.03 - 0.09%. . . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , . , . , . , , , , . , , . , , , . . . 1/3 , . , . . , , . , , , . , , , . . marketing , . . (. ) , , , , ,

14

. , . . . , . , , , , , , , . 5% 15% . , , 12 . 1. . . , , .

, . , , . , ,

15

. , . , . , , , .

2. . . , - . , . . , . . , , , , , , . 3. . , . . , , , , . 4. , , , , , , , , , ,

16

. 5. . , . , . , . , . , , . , , . , , . 6. . , , , , . (, , , ..) . , , . , , , , . , . , , . , , . 7. . , : ) . (3) . ) . (2-3 ) , , . ) . . . .

17

) . . () . ) . . , . ) . , . , , , , , , . 8. . . , . . , , , , , , , , , . 9. , . . , . , . , , . 10. . . , , . . . , . . 11. . , . . .

18

, , , , , , , , , , . 12. . , . , , , , , .

19

. ( ) . : , , , . , . , . , , , , , . ( ). , . . , , . . . : 1012-1020 , , . . ( ) , () (). . , . , , - , , , . . . pH, , , , , . , . . . .

20

, , , . . - . . - . . : , , . . , - -. . , - - -. , , ( , ) . . - . . , : Maillard , Maillard , Maillard . ( ) Schiff. Amadori Amadori 1--1-2--. Maillard. Maillard Amadori , . . , . . , :

) ) () ) ) )

. . . . , , . . . , pH . .

21

, aw 0.1-0.8. . . . , . , Maillard , . . . . . . . , , . (, , , , , - ), , , . . , , . . . , , . ) ) ( ). . , . ( ), - ( , , , ) ( , , , , ) . . : . , . . pH, aw, h, , . pH, pH 7.0 4.0. aw . aw . - h, .

22

. h h. . h . : ( ), , ( ), ( ) . , . . . : , . ) ( 20C, 20-30C), ) ( 2 45C 30-40 C), ) ( 45C 55-65C). . . . (RH) . - , . , . CO2 . , , . , , , , , . . . - . - . - ,

) - wetting ,

) -

) -.

. . . . ,

23

. , . (, ) . . , . - . . , . . . . , , , 1889 Svante Arrhenius . . (Ea), (kJ/mole). , ( ) ( ). , . , ( ) . - . , . kilojoules . . , , , , . . , , . , . :

-dC/d = f(Ii, Ej) , -dC/d = C .

C Ii = (i = 1 m) Ej = (j = 1 n) . . ,

24

, . , :

-> ->

. :

-dA/d = kAn , = = k = ( ) n =

. . (2.1.) , . k . n 0 1. . (s) ( ) e Be). . = 0, - . (2.1.) :

-dA/d = k

. o = 0 :

0dkdA

A

Ao

A = o k o = k e = o - ks

, e = s = , , ..

k, , .

25

- - , , . . - , - (n = 1) . (2.1.) :

0dk

A

dAA

Ao

kA

A

o

ln ln

ln A = ln Ao - k

= e-k

e = e-ks

. , k/2,303.

26

- - , , , . , . 50% , - .

27

(Shelf-life) . , . , , , . , . . ( ).

. . , , , . : ) ) , . , . , .

28

) (, , , ..) (.. , ..) .

ii) (shock) (vibration). . iii)

) /

, , , , - , : i)

ii)

. .

, . , . , , . . , , . . . . () , . .

29

. , . . (Time-temperature Indicators) . - . : ) ( ), ) ( ). . . , . , , - , . : ) , , ) , , ) , .

-, . .

30

, , partition, : :

() ( ). . : . , ,

, ,

. -, , () , . (Permeability, P).

( = , = ). , , Q, t. P = P-P C-C, x, :

PtA

XQP

**

*

: . . , . . .

2, 2 2, CO2 . , (.. ) , .

. () .

, . , . L, D:

D

XL

6

2

L

XD

6

2

31

D, 2 / , cm2/sec. P, : = ( ) x ()

() x () x ( ) , :

P = D x S

, 2, , 2, CO2 2, 2. . CO2 (S) , (D). , : = f( , ,

) , , D S . , . . , , . , . , . , - , , . , , , , . , a , : . ( , , ..) . . . ,

, . .

. . , . , , . , - .

. . , . .

. glass transition (Tg). Tg , . , Tg -.

32

D D, Tg . D S . Tg , . , . (S) Arrhenius:

S = Soexp(-HS/RT) HS . HS S . (D) Arrhenius:

D = Doexp(-ED/RT) ED D . , - . S D. , S , D . , P .

33

.

34

35

, , , , ( , - ..) (). 91% .

:

Fourdinier

36

( ) - (), . , , , -, .. / :

(, , , )

(, , )

( , , , , )

:

, . , .

. , . , .

, , . , , -, , , , , , , , , . , (g/m2) . , , , , . , ( ) ,

37

, . .

, , . , , , . , , , - . , , .

, , . .

( ) . . , . . . , . .

38

, , , , . , , , . .

. (machine directeion, MD), (cross direction, CD).

, () .

39

ISO, 250 g/m2. , . , 200 250 g/m2 ( 0,25 mm). 180 600 250 g g/m2. : : .

40

:

(solid bleached board) . , , , 180 - 400 g/m2. 150 400 g/m2 (.. ) / , , , ( tetra pack) ( , , ).

(unbleached solid board) / . , , , , . 300 520 g/m2.

(duplex board folding boxboard):

(machine glazed) , , . , , , . 200 - 400 g/m2 .

41

(triplex board foodboard): . , , , ..

(Whitelined Chipboard): , . , ( ) . (folding boxboard) ( ) . 300 g/m2. , .., ( ).

42

, . , - , :

% = ( / ) 100 /. .

43

() (LXWXD). To L X W L . RSC , L = 2W = D. RSC , L = 2W = D.

44

45

( ) . :

, , , .

, .

, . (marketing) , . , (.. , , ..) () (. , ..) , , , , , , , ..

46

, . 90% . , . . . ( Kraft, ). . , .

, (.. ), , . (, F), (.. ).

47

/

110+10 / m 0.467 cm 1.54

155+10 / m 0.246 cm 1.32

C 130+10 / m 0.361 cm 1.43

E 295+10 / m 0.157 cm 1.27

F 420+10 / m 0.114 cm 1.23

N 170+10 / m 0.104 cm 1.20

, .

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Cardboard_All_Flutes.jpg

48

, , RSC DIE. RSC . RSC , , , , , .. DIE , , , .. DIE , , (, , ..). , (), . , RSC DIE , . , , , . , RSC , DIE .

Microwelle: , . , : , , ( ) , .

, ,

, , , , , .. , microwelle . , . , .

, , , , . , ( ) . .

49

, , , . 8,5 21 . 17 40 . .

, , , .

50

, , , , , . , . :

. .

. .

. , , , . , . (under-packaging) , , (over-packaging), () , . , , ,

. . . , . .

(shock). . , , , .

(vibration). . ,

51

, .

. , . 1,5 psi 6C 1000m . , , .

. . . .

. , , , .

. . , .

, . . . , , . , .

shock , . (- -). . , , . .

G . shock 20 G . , 0,5 G. G . . . , G . , , G, . , , G

52

. :

. , , , . shock , .

. , , / , . , . ; .

. , , , . . .

. , , . , , .

. , . , , , . , , ( ) ( ) , . () , .

. . . , . , , , .

. . . .

53

, . . :

, . . . , . . , .

( )

: ) , ) , ) , ) . . . (pallet pattern). , . :

54

. . . , , . , , . . , , , . o , shocks . , . (0-10 kg) , . . , .. 30 cm , . , , . ( , ). , 3-5. shock , , . , , . , shock. . .

55

shock. , . , . (shock) , . . (fn), . . , . . , . . . . , , . , - . . , -. . , . , . - , , . , (-, fn). , - . . shock , . shock, , 2 10 Hz, . shock , .

56

. , o, :

. , . . , ,

. , , .

. . . . . , . . , .

. . . .

. 5 Hz ( ), 5 18.000 . , -, . ) , , ) ) .

. ( 0,5 G). 1 G, . , , . , (Less than Truck Load LTL). , ) , ) (Truck Load TL) ) .

. . . . . .

. G , G

57

. . G .

58

. (UNIT LOADS) , , (94/62/EC). . , , , , , , , . . , , . ,:

/.

: /.

(unit loads) . , , , , , 12-15% . 1.2%.

59

, . , . .. , , , 10 , . . . , . . 600x400 . . , . . 30 . . . , 15% . , . . , , . , , . , , , . (deformation) (strip chart recorder).

. , : ) , . , , , , . . . (swiveled) , . . .

. .

60

, , . . , , , . . , , , . .

. ASTM D-642 (Compression Test for Shipping Containers - ). 25 kg (50lb) , . 50 250 kg (100 500lb). , (kg, lb) (cm, in) .

, . . 250 kg 5 cm 250 5 . . . , . . . . , , . . , . 13 600 kg, . , 200 kg . , , 100 kg 11 mm, . . . .

61

. . , . , . , , . , . 11 mm 12 cm . , 11 mm 600 kg. , 0,1/12 = 0,0085. 0,0085 .

, = (100 X 6) + (0,0085 X 600) = 605 kg 11 mm . . . . . . . , , . 20% . , , . , 2/3 1/3 . 20% . 1/3 , , 1/6 = 17%. , . , .

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

(cm)

(K

G)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

(mm)

(kg

)

62

. . , . 1200 kg 12 cm 70 kg, 1200/70 + 1 = 18 , 16 1120 kg, 17 . 1120 kg 70 kg . 70 kg, 70. 17 - , , , .. 16 , 16 . .. 7 , 16/7 = 2,28. , . . ) , ) ) . , . . . , . . , . ,

= ( ) x x x

ASTM D-642, 23C (73F) 50% (RH). 50% 100%. .

RH

100% 125% 100% 10 65% 25% 110% 50% 30 60% 50% 100%

100 55% 75% 80% 1 50% 85% 60%

90% 50%

63

(f) , , , , , . F , W(H-h)/h, F . F . , F ,

F = 1 / x x

,

8,0 4,5 3,0

, ,

4,5 3,0 2,0

,

3,0

2,0

1,5

F ( ) .

. . , . , .

. RSC (regular slotted cases), , . , . , ( ). , .

. , , . , , . , , .

64

. . , . , . , , , , . , , . , . , , , - .

. . , , , , .

. . , (94/62/EC), , , -, (). , , , , , , , . , , .

. , . . , , , , .

65

. , , 320 , 30 . , , ( ), , .

. , 600x400 mm, - , 800x600 mm. - 600x400 mm ( ), 1200x1000 mm , 300x400 mm.

, , 400x600 mm. , . : 1200x800, 800x600, 600x400 1200x1000mm.

. .

. - - . , , , , . , , . . . , 15% . 2400 mm 2800 3050 mm. high cube. , .. 3050 mm, . , . , .

66

. , . :

(kgs)

Euro Euro :

Euro Euro

- 1000

- 1500

- 2000 - , .

- 4000

- Euro 500 2000

- Euro 250 750

- 1250 6000

a) . 145 162 mm.

, , .. . 10 mm -. , - , ,

b) . , . . .

, .

/ = / / = x B / L x W

/ . , . / ,

% = / 100 ( ).

% = / 100. . , , / .

67

68

. , . , , , , , , . , , , . , , . , . , :

. . , . , . , , , .

. , . , , .

. , / . , .

. , , .

. , , . , .

. , . , . , , . , , , .

. , , , .

. , , ,

69

, .

70

. . "". , . , .

Plastics

Polyethylene (PE) Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS)

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE)

Polyamide (PA) Polyester

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polycarbonate (PC) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)

Polylactic acid (PLA)

, ( , , methacrylate polymethyl acrylics, , , ..). , (thermoset), , , : , polyaddition, (Tg). , ( ) ( ). , , ()-, (), . , , methacrylate poly(methyl), (thermosets). : . 20.000 500.000, . , " ". "", 1000' . , , , . . . . . : Charles Goodyear (1839) Parkes, (1813-1890) 1855. , ( ), .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyesterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinylidene_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acid

71

, "Parkesine." , Leo Hendrik Baekeland 1909, (bakelite). () , , (polyethene), (polypropene), (), , (acrylics), , . . 1959, Koppers , . , , , , , , . - : Goodyear . , , . , . . Parkes " ", "pyroxlin" "Parkesine". Parkesine . , . , Parkesine . John Wesley Hyatt . , Hyatt "". 1863. , . , , . , , . 1900, . , , . 1884, , Comte de Chardonnay, " chardonnay". , , . , chardonnay . 1894, , Charles Cross, Edward Bevan, Clayton, " " . Courtauld, 1905, " ". , , " ", '30, . , . , . "". , . Bakelite (). , "" "-". Leo Hendrik Baekeland, . (C6H5OH) (HCOH) . , , "" . . 1912, "bakelite".

72

, '20. 1930, Catalin Catalin . Bakelite . , . "" . "" , thermoset . T thermoset . Bakelite , , . , , , , , , . - . , . , . , . " ", . . . Lebedev 1910, 1930 Wallace Carothers, Lebedev Hermann Staudinger. 1931 , "", DuPont E.K. . , . 1935, , " Buna". "copolymers", , . Buna, copolymer , . 1942 . . ( ) . Edward Robbins. 1944 50 , . . (nitrocellulose) , . , , (Caltech) , , . , Caltech . '50, , . , . : , ,.. , . 1936, , , methacrylate polymethyl (PMMA), "". , " ", , "Plexiglas" "lucite". Plexiglas . , "" (PE), 1933 Reginald Gibson Eric Fawcett (ICI). PE , , "polyfluoroethylene". , "" (PP),

73

'50 Giulio Natta. , , . 1989, Phillips, Paul Hogan Robert Banks, "" . Friedrich Bayer & Company 1937, , , , . ( non-blown ) spandex. 1939, IG Farben " polyepoxide" "". Epoxies thermoset . , "", . , glass-reinforced , , "- ", . , - , , , . Rex Whinfield james Dickson, , 1941 " " (PET PETE), , " ", "dacron", "terylene". PET " ", . PET , , , . PET . , , "polytetrafluoroethylene" (PTFE), "", , , . polyfluoroethylene . . Du Pont, Roy Plunkett 1938. , , . '60, "" . "Gore - Tex", "" . Gore - Tex (heat-seeking). , . , , , , . , , . "Tupperware" Tupper's, sealable . Tupper Tupperware . Tupperware , . " " . '50 "Formica", . Formica . , , . , . , , . , styrofoam . . '70 Du Pont "Kevlar", . , . ,

74

, . , ( ) . , . , , , . - . :

- - - , ( ). - - ( ) - - ( ).

: - - - (

) - (

) , . , , , .

, (homopolymer) . , , CH3OH. .

75

, (cross linking) . , (addition polymerization) (step growth polymerization) ( / condensation polymerization) .

, - (copolymers). - (copolymerization) (random polymers), - (alternating copolymers). - (block copolymer) . (graft) - .

76

RANDOM A-A-A-B-B-B-B-A-B-A-B-B-A-A-A-B-A-B-B-B-A-A-A BLOCK -(A..A)-(B.B)-(A..A)-(B.B)-(A..A)-(B.B)-(A..A)-(B.B)-

ALTERNATING A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B GRAFT A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-

I B I B I B

, , .

- . :

,

77

o , ,

o , , ,

-, , .

. - (poly-disperse) - (mono-disperse). , (chain length distribution) - . , . , Gibbs (G) , () (S) (, S> 0) . Gibbs . . :

, S , . , , - . , , , . , . . , . . . , , , . (Heat capacity, thermal capacity) . SI Joules Kelvin (K) : M1L2T21. ( SI mole) . , . ( ), . -, . .

78

, . , , , , . , . , , , . . . , . , . , . . , . , . , . . (g),

79

. , (supercooled) . ( ) . , . , , , . (coefficient of thermal expansion) , . : , , . . , , . . , , . . , . , . , , , :

p , V, ( ) . , , . , . (Glass transition temperature, g) Tg (DSC, ). , 10 / . Tg ( ). , 3-5K/min . Tg .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tgdscenglish.svg

80

- ( ) ( ) -. , . . (20 K / min) 1,012 *s, . , . . , , . -6 47 C, Nylon-6,6 70C, -130 -80 C. , , 60-80% , g . .

(Crystallinity) . , . , , .

Tg (C)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 125

(rubber) 70

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) 35

Polypropylene (PP atactic) 20

Polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) 20

Polypropylene (PP isotactic) 0

Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) 15

Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) 30

Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) 45

Polyamide (PA) 47 - 60

Polylactic acid (PLA) 60 - 65

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 70

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) 80

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) 85

Polystyrene (PS) 95

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA atactic) 105

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 105

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 115

Poly(carbonate) (PC) 145

Polysulfone 185

Polynorbornene 215

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_polyethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinylidene_fluoridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_fluoridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly-3-hydroxybutyratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_acetatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorotrifluoroethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_alcoholhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysulfonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynorbornene

81

, , , . . . ( ).

(crystallization mechanism) , , . . , 1 . , . , . -. - (), ( ), (PTFE) ( ).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polymerketten_-_amorph_und_kristallinEN.svg

82

- - - -. , . , . , , , . (Nucleation) , -, , . , , . , , , , . . . .

(Crystal growth) . . , . . van der Waals .

.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Isotactic_polypropylene.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atactic_polypropylene.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spherulite2.PNG

83

( ), - (dentric structures). , , 1 100 , . (Crystallization by stretching) (injection moulding) . .

, , .., . . , . . , (blow moulding), . , , . [10] (degree of crystallinity) , 10% 80%. , , . .

Degree of crystallinity (D, %) and densities of crystalline (c) and amorphous (a, g/cm3) polymers.[3]

D c a

Nylon (PA66 and PA6) 3545 1.24 1.08

Polyoxymethylene (POM) 7080 1.54 1.28

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 3040 1.50 1.33

Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) 4050

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 6080 2.35 2.00

isotactic polypropylene 7080 0.95 0.85

atactic polypropylene ~0

High-density polyethylene 7080 1.0 0.85

Low-density polyethylene 4555 1.0 0.85

, (DSC), (XRD), (NMR). .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization_of_polymers#cite_note-dens-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyoxymethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybutylene_terephthalatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-density_polyethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_polyethylenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kristallisation_durch_Verstreckung_(Polymer)EN.svg

84

, , . , 15 %, . , 6 ( ) c = 1,24 g / cm3 a = 1,08 g / cm3). . % . - . , . ( , , -) g m . , . , - .

85

.

) ) (fusion) - (soupercooling). ) , .

, : ) , , ) ) )

, : ) ) - ) ) ) .

. . , . DPE 85% , LDPE 55%, (tensile properties). . . , (Heiter-London). , . :

) , ) .

. , ( - (-80C) - (+100C). - (----).

(Tm, oC) - - 135

- -CH3 170 - -CH2-CH3- 128 - -CH2-CH2-CH3- 80 - -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3-

. .

86

. .

. , . -, .

- - .

87

C-CH3, C-Cl, C-CN, .

. , (weight average) (number average molecular weight) .

88

To . . , . . , . .

89

. . .

(Properties of semicrystalline polymers) , . . Tg , , . , . , . (). / . , , , . . (viscoelastic) , , (). , , ( ), , , . . ( ) ( ). , - , , 50%, . .

90

(extruders) , :

) (melt viscosity). (melt-index) (low shear viscosity) , . . ) (melt strength). . (blown film extrusion) (parison) ( extrusion blown moulding). ) (melt elasticity). (dies) . H , 1,0 2,5, , , .

. 9residence time distribution) , (hang-up) .

(Infrared spectroscopy) (Nuclear magnetic resonance)

91

( "" , , ). (g), . . . , , . . 70-72% (SiO2). -, 30% . Pyrex 10%. 24%. ( " ") 100% . , ( 1 %) , 0,05 %. , 100% , . , . , " ". , o , . , : , , , , , , . 3000 ... , . , , 2500 .. . . . , . , , , . 1500 .. . , , . . SciGlass Interglad. (.., liquidus) , . . - Na2O CaO , - , . (SiO2) - 100%, . Glassproperties.com. , . (spreadsheet) : 1. 2. , 3. ()

92

4. . -. . , - of fusion A supercooled , . supercooled , - .

93

(ACTIVATION ENERGY) , , , 1889 Svante Arrhenius . . (Ea), (kJ/mole). , ( ) ( ). , . , : 1. . , , , , . : 2. ( ) . . ( ). , : 3. . , , , , . , . , , () (). , .

. , ( ) . - . , . kilojoules .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Activation2_updated.svg

94

Arrhenius, . Arrhenius, :

: , R , ( Kelvin). , . , . , , , . . , , (electronvolt), . 10 ( kT~0.04eV) ( ). ( Boltzmann). (Transition states)

(Ea) (H) . ( ) . , , . , . (10-15 sec). . - , . ,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Activation_energy.svg

95

. ( , ). . . . , , . , (). . . , . ( , ), . Arrhenius. Arrhenius , , , , , [1]. J.H. van't Hoff 1884 , Svante Arrhenius . , [2]. , Arrhenius k ( Kelvin) a , : .[3]

. :

- R .

- . s-1, . , , .. (Jouls) , Boltzmann . ( ) . , . , , -

, , ' - . Arrhenius, - . " , , T - , / ( ) , Arrhenius. Arrhenius, :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation#_note-1#_note-1

96

. , Arrhenius, ln(k) me to T-1 , a . . (-R) ln(k) (1/T):

Arrhenius Arrhenius , , , a. , a axwell-Boltzmann ,

. , , : " " , Trautz William Lewis 1916-18. , , a. Arrhenius, "" . , , T1/2. , - , a, . . Arrhenius Wigner, Eyring, Polanyi Evans '30. , :

G Gibbs, kB Boltzmann, h Planck. . , . , , Arrhenius. , .

97

. (STRESS) , (stress) , , (strain) . , , . , . ( ) , , . .

98

99

(STRAIN) , - . . , . . (stress)- (strain), , . , , , . , () (.. , ). , , - . , . . , . , , , ( -).

, ,

100

. , . , , , . - . . (stress vs. strain diagram) , , , , . , ( , , ) . (), (), , (). , , , , . , . .

(Elastic deformation) , , . , . Hooke, :

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress_Strain_Ductile_Material.png

101

, Young (Youngs modulus) , . Young. . . . . , . Hooke. (fracture) . . . . . . , . , . , , , . , , , , , .

. / / / . . , , . ( ) . , . . , , .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress-strain1.svg

102

. , . . . .

103

(permanent deformation) , - . , , . , (). , ,

( ), , ( ) () . , , , .

(HARDNESS) , . E , . . , , . , , , , , , , .

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104

, , . , () , , . , 12 . , . . (PUNKTURE) . . T (RESILIENCE) H . , . , (resilience) ( ) , . . - . ,

=

2

2

Ur , y , Young.

(TENSION) , - . . , . , , . . , ().

105

(CREEP) , . . 1/3 , 2/5 . . . , , . , . (thermal softening). , . , necking. H ,

=

, C , m b , Q , (), d , k Boltzmann . . . . , - . t=0, ,

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106

(). , t=1 ().

. , . , . ( ), . , .

, .

107

. , . , .

(BENDING) . . , , . . ( , ...) . ( ). . ( ) .

, 10 . . , , , .

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108

. . , , , . , . .

(kg)

(, , ) (cm)

0 10 122 76 46 10 20 107 61 38 20 30 91 46 30 30 40 76 46 23 40 50 61 46 15

50 100 46 46 8 100 300 30 23 15

300 23 15 8

, ( ) . , , . . . (0-10 kg) , . . , .. 30 cm , . , , . ( , ). , 3-5. shock. , .

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109

. . . G. , , , Newton. , , . ,

, (g), .

g = 9,81 m/sec2 = 32,2 ft/sec2 = 386,4 in.sec2

, shock 30 G, 30 .

gt

V

g

t

V

g

EG

*

G . 30 G, , shock 30 G, . G , G . Newton , , = x G. . . , .

( /) 15 25 G ( ) 25 40 G (/, , ) 40 60 G 60 85 G 85 115 G > 115 G

. . , . , , . , . , .

110

. , 2 100 ms, . , . , , . , , G, . . x x . 0,5 , 1 0,636 . , = x x ,

= x x G

shock shock .

G

G

, ms

( ) ( ) shock , = / . , . . , . ( ) . . , : )

Vi Vr

111

, ) . Vi Vr , , .

= V = Vi Vr

ghVi 2

g = 9.81m/sec2, . g. K , . . G . G

gx

shock

G

1

1/g G. G G. (restitution coefficient)

Vi

Vre

, e ,

e

, e. , e, 1. e = 0, e=1 . 0 < e < 1. O e , , e.

112

113

(Edge-crush test). , . . . . , .

: ) , ) , ) , ) . McKee RSC :

BCT = k1ECTbS1-bZ2b-1

:

BCT = k1(CT0,75)S0,25Z0,5

S , :

114

S = (SMD * SCD)1/2

(MD) (CD), . k1 BCT . ECT (edge crush compression test) . . (kN/m, lbf/in, 1lbf/in = 0,1751268 N/m). ECT , . ECT , : ECT = k ( + ) 1,54, 1,34 C 1,45. k . McKee , t,

= 5,76 x ECT x (Z x t)1/2

:

ECT = (Edge Crush Test) (lb/in) Z = (in) t = (in).

RCS (Regular Slotted Container), , in (inches, 1 in = 2,54 cm) lb (pounds, 1 lb = 0.454 kg). McKee . , . , . McKee ECT. , McKee. ECT . , 35 kg, (1) 75 % RH, 60% 80% , . , 50% . , , . ,

x 60% x 80% x 50% = 24% ,

, :

115

(24% / 35 kg) + 1

. . , , , . . , , . , , . . . , ISTA-Project 1A (International Safe Transit Association, ), , . , . ,

Fh

hHWL )(

, W = = h = , F = .

, . , , . , , / . (F) .

) , ) , ) .

, . , (8) , . . . , . (torsion) , Nm ftlbf. (shear stress), .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_stress

116

:

:

T Nm.

JT r ( ). . G (shear modulus) (modulus of rigidity) GPa, lbf/in2 (psi), ;h lbf/ft2. To JT G (torsional rigidity), wT.

. , . , mm. , , 50mm 25 torgue-inch-lb (TIP) . 20% . 20 . , , . , , , (). , , , , . , .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulus_of_rigidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsional_rigidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twisted_bar.png

117

. , , , . . , : , . , 4000 cm-1 666 cm-1 (2,5 15 m). (wavenumbers) (), cm-1, cm. m, (wavenumber) :

= 1x104 /

() (), ,

x = c ( ~ 300 x 106 m/sec)

. :

VIS/UV e-

R Microwaves Ultra high frequency (R)

. , . . , % ( cm-1). , , . . .

118

. : -

. (H2, O2, N2) . , .

- , . , , .

- , . :

o (stretching) , ,

o (bending) - , , . , , . , FT-IR . . , . , . . . FTIR FT-IR Fourier , . , IR , . , . , , . . FT-IR

. . , . , ( ) . , . , . FT-IR :

119

FT-IR FT-IR . ( ), , ' . Fourier. , .

(-CH3) . , PE. , , , , . 1378 cm-1 (7,25 m), (-CH3), (. ASTM D2238-68). FT-IR (VCM). , 8 14 m, . VCM , VCM . , , , .

120

, c 4 : , , , . , , . . (S), . , , , . ( ), . : S ( ) >> S ( )> S ( ) U. () :

W = V,

P V .

Q = T S,

(Kelvin) S .

:

U = Q - W = T S - V :

U = TS - PV + i,

. , , , Gibbs, (G) . P T :

G = U - T S + P V = Q - S = - T S = Q ( ) . , G = 0 . G . G . . Tm ( ), , (a) , ( b) . , , -, . , (G) .

121

. , ( = a - b), . ( ), . H = Q. , m (, , ) . . . , . , . , , . , (softening points).

122

. , . 12 . , , , . , , . (thermogram) (thermal decomposition curve).

) ) ) ( ) ) -/ , ) , .

123

, , , , , , .. , , .

.

124

, . (differential thermal analysis, DTA) , . mgs R S . ( = s Tr).

. , :

125

(Tg) . , . , , . ( ). , . , . . . , , . . .

126

- Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) To . , , .. . . , (Cp) . , , . . ( ) ( ) , . . DSC

1. 2. 3. 4. % 5. 6. 7.

DSC DSC .

DSC - Heat flux DSC. , .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_scanning_calorimetry

127

DSC - Power Compensated DSC.

, .

DSC, constantan. . (chromel/constantan). . , . ( Ohm) , . . , ,

q = (q = T / R)

T = R =

mW. DTA.

128

(Deflection Temperature)

. . . :

in/in/oF 13 x 10-6 7,5 x 10-6 4,4 x 10-6 90 x 10-6 85 x 10-6 370 x 10-6 LDPE 90 x 10-6 HDPE 47 x 10-6 PP 38 x 10-6 PVC 38 x 10-6 PET 36 x 10-6

/ (expansion coefficient) . . 0,00001cm/cm/C, , 0,00001cm cm . , , . , . . , = () x x

RS = E x x T

, E = @ / @

129

. . . ( ). , . . :

SoC 252 (T2-T1) l1/2

SoF 140 (T2-T1) l1/2

. , , , , .., . , , , . () . .. , , . , . . . , (cloudy) (milky) , , . . , . 2,5 , . , , . (transmission, %), (reflection, %) (diffraction, %). (gloss) o , . . 100% . , . , 45 . . . . , , . .

130

, . . . . .

131

(Melt flow index) . 10 . ASTM D1238 SO 1133 , . . , .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM

132

. 190 C 230 C. , .

MFI . , MFI , . MFI (extruder) , . MFI . MFI .

1 2 , 2 1 - 1 2 .

133

. , ( ) . . . . :

Ff =

sFN

,

s, . - , .

, 0,4, = 0,47 . , .

FN, . , . . . . , , . :

FK =

KFN

, , , . , , . , , . :

http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B7http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AEhttp://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AE_%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CF%83%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82http://www.google.gr/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%AE&ei=3UoAVc2rLcH4OtmLgdgM&bvm=bv.87611401,d.bGQ&psig=AFQjCNEf8Ex2s5vkS1fIBf1lp1LwVUm96w&ust=1426168919460835

134

) F ( )

) , , maxFf =

sFN

) sFN,

, . , (), , .. .

0,38 0,30 0,20 0,15 0,35 0,30 0,45 0,30 0,40 0,30 0,20 0,15 0,40 0,25 0,20 0,15 0,13 0,10 0,53 0,33 0,40 0,32 0,40 0,28 0,63 0,40 0,63 0,40 0,58 0,35

. , . , . , , , , .. . . , , . . , , . , - . . () / . . . . .

135

. dv/dz, ,

= F/S = *dv/dz ( Newton )

dv/dz.

, , , , .

136

. , . :

- , ,

- , , . .

. , . , , , , . . . . , . :

. , () . . , . . , ( Gibbs ).

() = 1 / 2,

, : - ( ).

, (kg) .

- ( (cA). , .

- (pA), .. , - . [myx = dyA / dxA], , m, . Fick . , :

A,z=

137

D . SI m2*s-1. . :

A,z=

xA c . , . . , , , , . . , , . , - . . . , . :

=

Kelvin. . , - . Fick

=

= [ ][]1

[][]1=

2

(binary diffusion coefficient) , . , . . , , . , , . .

138

, . , . , . , . , - . . , , , . . : (1) , (2) , (3) , - . , : (solubility) (diffusivity). . . , : (1) , (2), , . . , ( ) ( ). , . Fick . , . (Oxygen Permeability) . ( Brown), () . , . , (. , ), . , ( ), . , . ,

139

. Fick . (Permeability Coefficient) (steady state) , , . . , : . : (1) (2), (Relative-Humidity-Dependent Permeability Coefficient) () (). . , , . , , . . , , . , , , - (EVOH) (), . , . . . . : . : ) ) . , ( Dalton). . . . - - . , (.. 25+0,5C 75+2% RH 38+0,5C 90+2% RH) .

140

p . (2 14 ) . , p , . . , . . . , . , . . , . . , S / . .

(aw). . . , aw. aw, ) , ) , , ) , .

141

, , , , -, . . , . , , aw. -. aw = 1,0 . :

= o + RT ln ( f / fo )

:

( J mol - 1 ) , mole ,

o ( ) R ( 8.314 J mol - 1 K- 1 ) , f fO .

= f / fo. ,

aw = f / fo

aw , . , , (F ~ ), :

aw = f / fo ~ p / po

. ,

. . () () . . , . 100 (ERH) .

aw = p / po = ERH ( % ) / 100

142

. , ,

- ( .. ) -, , .

- - (.. ) -, ( H3O + -) , van der Waals ( ) , .

, . . , , , . (.. ). , . , , . , , . , , (.. , ) , . . , - , , / . ; (aw) . , , , . , - , . , , 0.91, 0,80. , . - - . , , . . , . "", "", " " . , . , . ( ) . . , -

143

. , -, . , . , . - , . , , . , . . , . , . , . , ERH. . . , . , , , , , . , , 0.030 1.000aw, 0.001aw 0.003aw. . , . 1,00 aw, 0.005aw 0,015 30 90 . , , , , . , . (Peltier) . . , . . , . , ( ) . . , , . . ERH. ERH . ERH . , .

144

30 90 . (shelf life, SL) . , , . , - . , . . , , . , , , , . , . , . , , , , . . . . , . , . , , . , . SL (, ). , (.1), (.2), (.3), :

FQ (t) , ai t . , ai , . . . , , , , . : . , : JSS = P p/l JSS , , ,

145

. . , , . (Food Deterioration Modeling) . , . , . Labuza , . , . , , , , , , . , , , , , , . , / , 1.2- 7.0-, , . (MAP modified atmosphere packaging). O2 CO2, , . , , , , O2 CO2 , . . , . , , - , . (, ), . , Michaelis-Menten. . . (t) , .

Mt = f(Meq, P)

, Mt = t Meq = , (Meq = f(RHeq) P =

146

:

) , ) , ) , ) .

:

) ) .

, P. . (Meq) () . Meq . , , . :

t

o

M

M wwsTMAeA

dM

PTP

Wt

),()(*

*)(

, t = W = P(T) = Ps = dM = Mo = Mt = t Aw(e) = Aw(M,T) =

T = , . : , , . . . , , . .

147

. , , Volt. , , (e). , . , . , , . , , . - . . , , , , . (electromagnetic interference, EMI), . (radio frequency interference, RFI), , -. RFI , 60 (z) RFI (kHz). , , . , RFI , . ESD, RFI . . , , .

148

, . , . . , , . NASA . 15 . , . . , , , . , 150 250 V. , (ESD Packaging). , . , ( ) . , . , . . . , . , : . . Faraday