УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКСedu.semgu.kz/ebook/umkd/0f647c6f-3993-11e4-8251... · Web viewаллюзия an indirect reference, by word or phrase,

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИРЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН

СЕМИПАЛАТИНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТимени ШАКАРИМА

Документ СМК 3 уровня УМКДУМКД 042-14.5.07.102/03-2010УМКД

Учебно-методические материалы по дисциплине «Стилистика»

Редакция № 2 от 05.10.2010 г. взамен Редакции № 1 от

30.09.2009 г.

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКСДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

«Стилистика»для специальности 050119 - «Иностранный язык: два иностранных языка»

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ

УМКД 042-14.5.07.102/03-2010 Ред. № 2 от 05.10.2010 г. взамен Ред. № 1 от 30.09.2009 г.

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1 Глоссарий 32 Лекции 383 Самостоятельная работа студента 62



1 ГЛОССАРИЙ

В данных УММ использованы следующие термины с соответствующими определениями:

affective epithetserves to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker See: <figurative epithet> or <transferred epithet>, <epithet>, <lexical SDs>

allegoryаллегориявыражение отвлечённой идеи в развёрнутом художественном образе с развитием ситуации и сюжета e.g. See: Sonnet LX by W.Shakespeare, Дж. Бэньяна «Путь паломника», «Божественная комедия» Данте

alliterationаллитерацияthe repetition of consonants, usually in the beginning of words

••a) a phonetic <stylistic device>, which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance;b) repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the eginning of successive words;

••1) повтор согласных или гласных звуков в начале близко расположенных ударных слогов2) повтор начальных буквSee: <repetition>, <phono-graphical level>, <assonance>

allusion



аллюзияan indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writingSee: <set expressions>, <lexical SDs>

anadiplosiscatch repetitionreduplicationlinkingepanalepsisанадиплозис, подхват, эпаналепсис, стык(. . . a, a . . .)the end of one clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following oneThe stylistic function is to elucidate the notion, to concretise and to specify its semantics on a more modest level. See: <framing>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>Syn.: anadiplosis, catch repetition, reduplication, linking, epanalepsis

anaphoraанафора(a . . . , a . . . , a . . . ,)the beginning of two or more sentences (clauses) is repeatedThe main stylistic function is not so much to emphasise the repeated unit as to create the background for the non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty, becomes foregrounded. Ant.: <epiphora>See: <repetition>

antithesisантитезаa semantically complicated <parallel construction>, the two parts of which are semantically opposite to each other- is to stress the heterogenity of the described phenomenon, to show that the latter is a dialectical unity of two (or more) opposing features.

••- stylistic opposition, based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs

The words involved in the opposition do not display any additional nuance of <meaning> caused by being opposed one to another.- is generally moulded in <parallel construction>;- is often signalled by the introductory connective but, when so, the other structural signal, the parallel arrangement, may not be evident, it may be unnecessary;- a device, bordering between stylistics and logic;



It is essential to distinguish between antithesis and what is termed contrast. Contrast is a literary (not a linguistic) device based on logical opposition between the phenomena set one against another.- has the following basic functions: rhythm-forming (because of the parallel arrangement on which it is founded); copulative; dissevering; comparative

••стилистическая фигура, усиливающая выразительность за счёт столкновения (противопоставления) в одном контексте прямо противоположных понятий и образов See: <oxymoron>, <parallel construction>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

antonomasiaантономазияtype 1: a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun, i.e. a lexical SD in which the <nominal meaning> of a proper name is suppressed by its <logical meaning> or the logical meaning acquires the new – nominal – componenttype 2: (vice versa) a common noun serves as an individualising nametype 3: “speaking names” whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived

••- особое использование собственных имён: переход собственных имён в нарицательные (Дон Жуан), или превращение слова, раскрывающего суть характера, в собственное имя персонажа, как в комедиях Р.Шеридана, или замена собственного имени названием связанного с данным лицом события или предмета.See: <lexical SDs>

anticlimaxантиклимакс, спадa <climax> suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats expectations of the reader (listener) and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasised idea Ant.: <climax>See: <lexico-syntactical SDs>

apokoinu constructionsapo-koinu constructionsGreek "with a common element"the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective- create a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses so that;- the predicative or the object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one;

••the peculiar introducer or demonstrative construction whose attributive semi-clause has a finite verb predicate- specific semi-complex sentence;



- formed much on the pattern of common subject overlapping;- should be classed as a familiar colloquialism of occasional use; See: <ellipsis>, <completeness of sentence structure>

aposiopesisапозиопезис“a stopping short for rhetorical effect” - used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speaker’s emotions prevent him from finishing the sentence See: <completeness of sentence structure>Syn.: break-in-the-narrative, aposiopesis

archaismsархаизмыsuch <special literary words> asa) historical words – denoting historical phenomena which are no more in useb) poetic words and highly literary words – used in poetry in the 17 – 19 cc.c) archaic words proper – in the course of language history ousted by newer synonymous words or forms;

assonanceассонанс или вокалическая аллитерацияthe repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables

••повторение ударных гласных внутри строки или фразы или на конце её в виде неполной рифмы See: <repetition>, <phono-graphical level>, <alliteration>

asyndetonасиндетонdeliberate omission of conjunctions, cutting off connecting words- helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active prose.

••connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a <SD>, if there is deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language Ant.: <polysyndeton>See: <attachment>, <types of connection>

attachmentseparating the second part of the utterance from the first one by full stop though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong See: <detachment>, <types of connection>, <punctuation>, <syntactical SDs>



autologyавтология

особый стилистический приём (минус-приём) преднамеренной простоты описания посредством слов, употреблённых только в прямых значениях See: <stylistic device>

barbarismsварваризмыforeign words of phrases, sometimes pervertedиностранные слова или обороты, противоречащие нормам данного языка

belles-lettres style(the) style of imaginative literatureстиль художественной литературыembracing numerous and versatile genres of imaginative writingThe unlimited possibilities of creative writing, which covers the whole of the universe and makes use of all language resources, led some scholars to the conviction that because of the liability of its contours, it can be hardly qualified as a functional style.

••The purpose (the cognitive function) is not to prove but only to suggest a possible *interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to See the viewpoint of the writer.[u]Substyles:[/u] the language of poetry (verse), emotive prose (fiction), the language of drama.- <features of belles-lettres style>Syn.: belles-lettres style, style of imaginative literatureSee: <poetic style>, <supra-phrasal unit>, <functional style>, <stylistic device>, , <stylistic analysis of poetry>, <stylistic analysis of prose>

break-in-the-narrativecacophonya sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing See: <alliteration>, <assonance>

chain repetitionchain-repetition(. . . a, a . . . b, b. . .)several successive repetitionsThe effect is that of the smoothly developing logical reasoning. See: <repetition>

chiasmusreversed parallel constructionхиазм



a) reversed parallelism of the structure of several sentences (clauses)b) <inversion> of the first construction in the second part

••- a group of stylistic devices based on repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases;- reversed parallel construction, the word-order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared with that of the other;- sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa;- is effective in that it helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterence, which is opposite in structure;- can appear only when there are two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a sentence;- is sometimes used to break the monotony of parallel constructioins;- always bring in some new <shade of meaning> or additional emphasis on some portion of the second part;One cannot help noticing that the first part is somewhat incomplete, it calls for continuation, and the anticipation is rewarded by the second part of the construction, which is, as it were, the completion of the idea.- contributes to the rhythmical quality of the utterance, and the pause caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be likened to a caesura in prosody;See: <parallel construction>, <inversion>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>Syn.: chiasmus, reversed parallel construction

cluster SDsa small group (cluster) of SDs, which- operate on the same linguistic mechanism: namely, one word-form is deliberately used in two <meaning>s;- have humorous effect, and- include: <pun> or <paronomasia> or <play on words>, <zeugma>, <violation of phraseological units>, <semantically false chains>, <nonsense of non-sequence>;See: <lexical SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

climaxgradationнарастаниеa semantically complicated <parallel construction>, in which each next word combination (clause, sentence) is logically more important or emotionally stronger and more explicit Three types:logical climaxa three-step <climax> (the most widely spread model), in which intensification of logical importance, of emotion or quantity (size, dimensions) is gradually rising step by step

••is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them



emotive climaxa two-step <climax>, in which the second part repeats the first one and is further strengthened by an intensifier

••is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with <emotive meaning> quantitative climaxan evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts

••an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance importance, or emotional tension in the utterance

••расположение слов и выражений в порядке возрастающего их значения Syn.: climax, gradationAnt.: <anticlimax> See: <parallel construction>, <repetition>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

colloquial type of language- is characterised by the unofficiality, spontaneity, informality of the communicative situation- manifests a conscious, mindful effort in choosing and preferring certain means of expression for the given communicative circumstances, - is shaped by the immediacy, spontaneity, unpremeditativeness of the communicative situation See: <colloquial words>, <group genitive>; <official style>

colloquial words- employed in non-official everyday communication;- mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational;- their use is associated with the oral form of communication;d) include <special colloquial words>;See: <special colloquial words>, <stratum of words>, <colloquial type of language>

completeness of sentence structureincludes: <ellipsis>, <apokoinu constructions>, <break-in-the-narrative> or <aposiopesis>See: <types of connection>, <syntactical SDs>

contextual emotive meaning- an <emotive meaning>, acquired by a word only in a definite contextSee: <emotive meaning>, <meaning>

contextual meaninga meaning imposed by and depends on the context;See: <meaning>



continuous infinitiveit gives more prominence to the idea of the continuity of her love, and this is obviously much stronger than the mere statement that love might still be there now. The stylistic difference is thus unquestionable, but there would Seem to be also a grammatical difference. The <meaning> of the continuous aspect is well brought out here, though the lexical meaning of the verb love would Seem to go against it.See: <morphological level>

continuous infinitive passivecan only be used occasionally, with a strong stylistic colouring See: <morphological level>

continuous participleis occasionally found, but this use appears to be obsolete:The use of the continuous participles Seems to be a means of giving prominence to the fact that the actions indicated were actually happening at that very moment.See: <morphological level>

conventional epithetstanding epithetпостоянный эпитетSee: <epithet>Syn.: conventional epithet, standing epithet

convergenceконвергенциясхождение в одном месте пучка стилистических приёмов, участвующих в единой стилистической функцииSee: <syntactical convergence>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>

conversionI have a must. A win in this match is a must. Green waters flowers every day. Running exercises leg muscles. She madams everybody.

couplingсцеплениепоявление сходных элементов в сходных позициях See: <parallel construction>

denotational meaningSee: <referential meaning>



detachmentdetached constructiona <stylistic device> based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation)

••placing one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer so that it Seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation.See: <attachment>, <parenthesis>, <syntactical SDs>Syn.: detachment, detached construction

dialectical wordsдиалектизмыsuch <special colloquial words> which- are normative and devoid of any <stylistic meaning> in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong;- markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them;- differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating <synonyms> for the words, accepted by the language in general.

(direct) onomatopoeiaзвукоподражаниеthe use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object of action e.g. babble, chatter, giggle, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whisper; buzz, cackle, croak, crow, hiss, howl, moo, mew, roar; bubble, splash; clink, tinkle; clash, crash, whack, whip, whisk

••a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.), by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc.) and by animals e.g. hiss, powwow, murmur, bump, grumble, sizzle, ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinnabulation, mew, ping-pong, roar

••использование слов, фонетический состав которых напоминает называемые в этих словах предметы и явления – звуки природы, крики животных, движения, сопровождающиеся каким-нибудь шумом, речь и различные звуки, которыми люди выражают своё настроение, волю и т.д. See: <indirect onomatopoeia>, <phono-graphical level>, <morphological level>

double negative двойное отрицание



two negative words in a sentence - can be used to express an affirmative, but this is rare or sometimes heard in joking; - is acceptable when there is co-ordination;- is also possible in different clauses:

••- is possible in standard English, but then both words normally have their full <meaning>- is sometimes used instead of simple positive structures for special stylistic effects - is rather literary- can Seem unnatural or old-fashioned in spoken EnglishSee: <negation>, <morphological level>

double passiveдвойной пассивthe construction whereby a passive infinitive directly follows a passive verbDouble passives are more acceptable when used in a reporting context. It is better to avoid the passive form of the verb as much as possible as it tends to convey a weak approach by the individual writing it.See: <complex subject>, <secondary predication constructions>, <double predicate>

double possessive double genitiveдвойной генитивthe ’s construction after the of-construction This can happen because we usually put only one determiner in front of a noun.The use of demonstratives often suggests criticism:See: <morphological level>

double predicateдвойное сказуемое, глагольно-именное сказуемоеa special type of predicate which presents a crossing of two predicates – a verbal predicate and a nominal predicate

••combines the features of two different types of predicate: the simple verbal predicate, expressed by a notional verb denoting an action or process performed by the person/non-person expressed by the subject, and the compound nominal predicate, expressed by a noun or an adjective which denotes the properties of the subject in the same way as the predicative of the compound nominal predicate proper does.There are a number of verbs that often occur in this type of predicate, performing the double function of denoting a process and serving as link verbs at the same time. They are: to die, to leave, to lie, to marry, to return, to rise, to sit, to stand, to shine, etc.. As in Modern English is a growing tendency to use this type of predicate, the verbs occuring in it are not limited by any particular lexical class.

••



В роли первого компонента выступает предикативная форма глаголов, имеющих значение: движения (to go, to come, to run, to fly, to ride, to rise, to fall, to return, etc.), положения в пространстве (to stand, to lie, to sit, to hang, etc.), состояния (to live, to die, etc.), проявления физических свойств, воздействия на органы чувств (to feel, to look, to ring, to smell, to taste, etc.), видимости (to Seem, to appear), неожиданности, случайности (to prove, to turn out)See: <double passive>, <secondary predication constructions>

elativeэлятивбезотносительно большая степень признака See: <morphological level>

ellipsisэллипсисa deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence

••omission of certain members of the sentence- is typical phenomenon in conversation- always imitates the common features of colloquial languageSee: <inversion>, <completeness of sentence structure>

emotional meaningevaluative meaningstylistic meaningconnotative meaningSee: <emotive meaning>

emotive meaning- also materialises a concept in the word, but, unlike logical meaning, it has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards these thighs or to his emotions as such;- bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through a kind of evaluation of them;- has function to reveal the subjective, evaluating attitude of the writer to the things or events spoken of;Ant.: <logical meaning>, referential meaning, direct meaningSee: <contextual emotive meaning>, <meaning>

enumerationперечислениеa <SD> by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being syntactically in the same position (homogeneous parts of speech), are forced to display some kind of semantic



homogeneity, remote through it may Seem. - integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one whole, unlike <polysyndeton>See: <polysyndeton>, <parallel construction>, <syntactical SDs>

epic simileHomeric simileextended <simile>, sustained expression of likenessSee: <simile>Syn.: epic simile, Homeric simile

epigramэпиграммаa) a <SD> akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the peopleb) terse, witty, pointed statement, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originatorSee: <set expressions>, <lexical SDs>

epiphoraэпифора(. . . a, . . . a, . . . a,)the end of successive sentences (clauses) is repeatedThe main stylistic function is to add stress to the final words of the sentence. Ant.: <anaphora>See: <repetition>

epithetэпитет<foregrounding> the <emotive meaning> of the word to suppress its <denotational meaning>- is the most widely used lexical SD;- expresses characteristics of an object, both existing and imaginary;- semantically there should be differentiated two main groups:- <affective epithet>s- <figurative epithet>s- <transferred epithet>s;- structurally there should be differentiated: single epithets, pair epithets, chains or strings, two-step structures, inverted constructions, phrase-attributes- <chains of epithets> or <strings of epithets>- <phrase-epithets>- <inverted epithets> or <reversed epithets>

••a <stylistic device> based on the interplay of emotive and <logical meaning> in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterise and object and pointing out



to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties

••1) экспрессивная оценочная характеристика какого-либо явления, лица или предмета, иногда, но необязательно, образная;2) лексико-синтаксический <троп>, отличается необязательно переносным характером выражающего его слова и обязательным наличием в нём эмотивных или экспрессивных или других коннотаций, благодаря которым выражается отношения автора к предметуРазличают:- постоянные эпитеты (conventional/standing epithet): lady gay, fair lady, fair England, salt seas, salt tears, true love;a) тавтологические эпитеты: soft pillow, green wood;b) оценочные эпитеты: bonny boy, bonnie young page, bonnie ship, bonnie isle; false steward, proud porter;c) описательные эпитеты: silk napkin, silver cups, long tables;- эпитеты частного характера выделяют в предметах и явлениях те качества, которые имею значение для данного мышления и не образуют постоянных парА.Н.Веселовский семантически делит эпитеты на:a) тавтологические эпитеты – семантически согласованные эпитеты, подчёркивающие какое-нибудь основное свойство необходимое определяемого: fair sun, the sable night, wide sea, т.е. повторяющие в своём составе сему, обозначающую неотъемлемое свойствоb) пояснительные эпитеты указывают на какую-нибудь важную черту определяемого, не обязательно присущую всему классу предметов, к которым он принадлежит, т.е. действительно характеризующую именного его: a grand Style, unvalued jewels, vast and trunkless legs of stonec) метафорические эпитеты – эпитет с обязательной двуплановостью, указанием сходства и несходства, семантическим рассогласованием, нарушением отмеченности:[m3]- анимистические, когда неодушевлённому предмету приписывается свойство живого существа: and angry sky, the howling storm;[m3]- антропоморфные, приписывающие человеческие свойства и действия животному или предмету: : laughing valleys, surly sullen bells;See: <lexical SDs>

euphonyэвфонияa sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing See: <alliteration>, <assonance>, < rhythm>, <rhyme>

expressive means EMsвыразительные средства



are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance See: <alliteration>; use of diminutive suffixes, use of words with <emotional meaning>, <special colloquial words>, <barbarisms>, <archaisms>, acronyms, idioms etc. See: <stylistic device>, <phono-graphical level>; <Stylistics>

features of belles-lettres style- use of words in contextual and very often in more than one <dictionary meaning>, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment.- a vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree of author's personal evaluation of things or phenomena;- a peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy;- the introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems)- individual, distinctive properties, aesthetic-cognitive effect.See: <belles-lettres style>,

features of newspaper style- alleges and claims, restrictions of time and space- special political and economic terms, non-term political vocabulary, newspaper clichés, abbreviations, neologisms;- syntactic constructions, indicating a lack of assurance of the reporter as to the correctness of the facts reported or his desire to avoid responsibility;- complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;- syntactical complexes: verbal constructions (infinitive, participial, gerundial) and verbal noun constructions;- specific word order – five-w-and-h-pattern rule: (who-what-why-how-where-when);- attributive noun groups (e.g. leap into space age);- headlines are the most concise;- considerable amount of appraisal (the size and arrangement, the use of emotionally coloured words and elements of emotive syntax).See: <особенности газетного стиля>, <newspaper style>

features of official style- conventionality of expression;- special system of clichés, set expressions \[and highly literary formal words\];- terms;- the encoded character of language; symbols: special terminological nomenclature, abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions;- use of words in their logical <dictionary meaning>. There is no room for words with <contextual meaning> or for any kind of simultaneous realisation of two meanings;



- word with <emotive meaning> are also not to be found, except those which are used in business letters as conventional phrases of greeting or close (as Dear Sir);- absence of any emotiveness: (commercial correspondence) emotional words and phrases;- compositional patterns, compositional design; infinitive object clauses;- a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncement into one sentence, the whole document in one sentence \[according to\] its formal syntactical structure.See: <official style >features of publicist style- combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal;- features, common with the style of scientific prose and emotive prose;- coherent and logical syntactical structure, expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing;- use of words with <emotive meaning>, the use of other SD as in emotive prose, but the SD are not fresh or genuine;- individual element is little in evidence here, generally toned down and limited;- brevity of expression (sometimes epigrammatic) – leading feature;See: <publicist style>

features of scientific style- logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence; logical coherence of ideas expressed;- objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality, striving for the most generalised form of expression; - developed and varied system of connectives;- use of terms specific to each given branch of science;- direct referential (and primary logical) <meaning> of the general vocabulary; self-explanatory terms; neutral and common literary words; the possibility of ambiguity is avoided;- hardly a single word will be found here which is used in more than one <meaning>, nor will be any words with <contextual meaning>;- sentence-patterns (postulatory, argumentative, formulative);- based on facts already known, on facts systematised and defined;- quotations and references;- foot-notes, digressive in character;- impersonality: frequent use of passive constructions;- impersonal passive constructions are frequently used with the verbs suppose, assume, point out;- far greater amount of preliminary knowledge;- there may be hypotheses, pronouncements and conclusions, (backed up by strong belief);See: <scientific style>

figurative epithettransferred epithet



an <epithet> that is formed of <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <simile>, expressed by adjectives See: <affective epithet>, <epithet>, <lexical SDs>Syn.: figurative epithet, transferred epithet

figurative periphrasismetaphoric periphrasismetonymic periphrasisперифраз фигуральный (метафорический, метонимический)a <periphrasis> that is made of phrase-metonymies or phrase-metaphors - is to convey a purely individual perception of the described objectSee: <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <periphrasis>Syn.: figurative periphrasis, metaphoric periphrasis, metonymic periphrasis

foregroundingвыдвижениеthe ability of a verbal element to obtain extra significance, to say more in a definite context (Prague linguists) (I.V.A.:11)

••способ формальной организации текста, фокусирующий внимание читателя на определённых элементах сообщения и устанавливающий семантически релевантные отношения между элементами одного или чаще разных уровней See: <irony>, <epithet>, <stylistic device>

framingрамка, кольцевой повтор(a . . . a)the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus forming the “frame” for the non-repeated part of the sentence (utterance)The stylistic function is to elucidate the notion mentioned in the beginning of the sentence, to concretise and to specify its semantics. See: <catch repetition> or <anadiplosis>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>

functional style FSфункциональный стиль, стиль речиa) a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim of communicationb) includes: <official style>, <scientific style>, <publicist style>, <newspaper style>, <belles-lettres style>c) the co-ordination of the language means and <stylistic device>s which shapes the distinctive features of each style, and not the language means or SD themselvesd) a patterned variety of literary text characterised by the greater or lesser typification of its constituents, supra-phrasal units, in which the choice and arrangement of interdependent and interwoven language media are calculated to secure the purport of the communication



•• – научный, разговорный, деловой, поэтический, ораторский, публицистический – являются подсистемами языка, каждая из которых обладает своими специфическими особенностями в лексике и фразеологии, в синтаксических конструкциям, а иногда и в фонетике.Стили различаются между собой не столько наличием специфических элементов, сколько специфическим их распределением. Поэтому наиболее показательной характеристикой функционального стиля является характеристика статистическая. See: <stylistic device>, <individual style>, <Stylistics>

functional stylistics- deals with sets, “paradigms” (known as <functional style>s) of language units of all levels of language hierarchy serving to accommodate the needs of certain typified communicative situations (Prague School);- dealing in fact with all the subdivisions of the language and all its possible usages, is the most all-embracing “global” trend in style study- at large and its specified directions proceed from the situationally stipulated language “paradigms” and concentrate primarily on the analysis of the latter.See: <functional style>, <Stylistics>

gap-sentence linka way of connecting two sentences Seemingly unconnected and leaving it to the reader’s perspicacity to grasp the idea implied, but not worded- is generally indicated by and or but- the omissions are justified because the situation easily prompts what has not been said;- is based on the peculiarities of the spoken language and is therefore most frequently used in represented speech;- has various functions: it may serve to signal the introduction of inner represented speech, it nay be used to indicate a subjective evaluation of the facts; it may introduce an effect resulting from a cause which has already had verbal expression;- displays and unexpected coupling of ideas;- aims at stirring up in the reader’s mind the suppositions, associations and conditions under which the sentence uttered can really existSee: <types of connection>

gender markerslinguistic features of “female” and “male” languages- men and women Seem to differ in terms of their communicative competence or, in other words, in their knowledge of how to use language in society;- women and men typically employ different linguistic “styles” of speech;- men and women use certain linguistic patterns which are typical of “powerful” and “powerless” (the “men’s” and “women’s” styles of) language;



- Male and female speakers tend to use different kinds of expressions when the make a request. This reflects the different ideas between male and female speakers about gender and intimacy.- <gender markers of male language>- <gender markers of female language>

gender markers of female language- are found not to change their expressions as much depending on the sex of the persons they speak to- generally use more polite expressions both to the male and female listeners alike. - tend not to change their way of speaking, depending on whom they are talking to.

••1. The use of ‘hedges’ of ‘<parenthesis>’. 2. Excessive use of super-polite forms of expression.3. The use of ‘tag questions’. 4. Speaking ‘in italics’, i.e. the use of emphatic so and very which is equivalent to [u]underlining[/u] words in written language, often followed by the sudden rise in intonation pitch: 5. The use of the ‘empty’ adjectives or adverbs. 6. Hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation.7. Lack of sense of humour which means that women are usually poor at telling jokes comparing to men.8. Direct quotations.9. Special vocabulary, e.g. the use of diminutive forms of specialise colour terms. 10. Question intonation in declarative contexts, which may cause a problem for interpreters desperately trying to figure out whether may cause what was said should be regarded as a statement or as a question.Ant.: <gender markers of male language>See: <gender markers>

gender markers of male language- tend to change their expressions depending on the degree of their intimacy with the listeners- use polite forms of making a request when the listeners are not intimate. - if those who do them a favour are close friends, they will ask them in a more casual way, even bluntly without showing any politeness. - generally use more polite expressions when they speak to female friends than to males- choose from different expressions, depending on whom they are talking toAnt.: <gender markers of female language>See: <gender markers>

(general) slangsuch <special colloquial words> which- used by most speakers in very and highly informal, substandard communication



- are highly emotive and expressive and as such- lose their originality rather fast and- are replaced by newer formations, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groupsSee: <special slang>

grammatical meaningstructural meaningграмматическое значение- refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-systemSee: <meaning>

graphonграфон1) intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act (– стилистически релевантное искажение орфографической нормы, отражающее индивидуальные или диалектные нарушения нормы фонетической.) 2) all changes of the type (italics, CapiTaliSation), s p a c i n g of graphemes, (hy-phe-na-ti-on, m-m-multiplication) and of lines

••Имена нарицательные пишутся с Заглавной буквы при обращении или олицетворении, что придаёт тексту особую значительность и торжественно-приподнятую окраску. Приподнятость может быть иронической, пародийной.Целые слова могут быть набраны большими буквами и выделяются как произносимые с особой эмфазой или особенно громко.Курсивом выделяются эпиграфы, поэтические вставки, прозаический текст, цитаты, слова другого языка, названия упоминаемых произведений (необязательно) и вообще всё, что по отношению к данному тексту является инородным или требует необычного усиления (эмфатический курсив).See: <phono-graphical level>

group genitivegroup possessiveгрупповой генитивПадежный суффикс генитива ('s) может присоединяться не к основе, как обычно, а к целому словосочетанию или предложениюМорфема - показатель генитива - присоединяется во всех этих примерах не к основе, а к целому определительному комплексу - существительному с определяющим его придаточным предложением.

••



is the construction by which the ending -'s of the possessive case can be added to the last word of a noun phrase, which is regarded as a single unit:Expressions like these are natural and acceptable. Informal language, however, permits the extension of the construction to long and complicated phrases: In these, the connection between the words forming the group possessive is much looser and more complicated than in the earlier examples. The effect is often somewhat ludicrous. Expressions of this sort should not be used in serious prose. See: <morphological level>, <colloquial type of language>

hyperboleгиперболаa <stylistic device> in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggerationIt does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker.

••a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike <periphrasis>) to the object or phenomenon- is a device which sharpens the reader’s ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance

••заведомое преувеличение, повышающее экспрессивность высказывания и сообщающее ему эмфатичность Ant.: <understatement>See: <lexical SDs>

indirect onomatopoeiaa combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense (“echo – writing”)

individual style1) a unique combination of language units, <expressive means> and <stylistic device>s peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer’s works or even utterances easily recognisable;2) deals with problems, concerning the choice of the most appropriate language means and their organisation into a message, from the viewpoint of the addresser;See: <stylistic norm>, <Stylistics>

(stylistic) inversionInversion(стилистическая) инверсия



a syntactical <stylistic device> in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate precedes the subject (complete inversion), or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair (partial inversion)

••aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface <meaning> of the utterance

••нарушение обычного порядка следования членов предложения, в результате которого какой-нибудь элемент отказывается выделенным и получает специальные коннотации эмоциональности и экспрессивности

••- full inversionSee: <chiasmus>, <ellipsis>, <syntactical SDs>

inverted epithetsreversed epithets[p]colloq.[/p]инвертированные эпитетыbased on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa. The article with the second noun will help in doubtful casesSee: <epithet>Syn.: inverted epithets, reversed epithets

ironyирония- is a <stylistic device> in which the contextual <evaluative meaning> of a word is directly opposite to its <dictionary meaning>- is the <foregrounding> not of the logical but of the <evaluative meaning>;- is the contradiction between the said and implied;- is subdivided into <verbal irony> and <sustained irony>;The context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the evaluation, and the word positively charged is understood as a negative qualification and (much-much rarer) vice versa. The context varies from the minimal – a word combination to the context of a whole book.See: <lexical SDs>

jargonismsspecial slangsuch <special colloquial words> which- stand close to <slang>, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang- are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (<professional jargonisms> or <professionalisms>) or socially (<jargonisms proper>)- cover a narrow semantic field, function and sphere of application



- tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groupsSyn.: jargonisms, special slang

jargonisms propersuch <jargonisms> which- served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated;- originated from the thieves’ jargon (l’argo, cant);- was to be cryptic, secretive (major function);See: <jargonisms>, <special colloquial words>

lexical levelword-stockstratum of wordsincludes: <literary words>, <neutral words>, <colloquial words>See: <trope>; <phono-graphical level>, <syntactical level>; <Stylistics>

lexical meaningdictionary meaningлексическое значение- refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary;- a means by which a word-form is made to express a definite concept;- are closely related to a concept;- are sometimes identified with a concept;See: <meaning>

lexical stylistic deviceslexical SDsinclude: <metaphor>, <personification>; <metonymy>, <synecdoche>; <cluster SDs>; play on words, <irony>, <epithet>, <hyperbole>, <understatement>, <oxymoron>See: <set expressions>, <cluster SDs>, <tropes>, <syntactical SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

lexico-syntactical stylistic deviceslexico-syntactical SDscertain structures, whose emphasis depends not only on the arrangement of sentence members but also on the lexico-semantic aspect of the utterance - include: <antithesis>, <climax>, <anticlimax>, <simile>, <litotes>, <periphrasis>See: <lexical SDs>, <cluster SDs>, <syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

literary wordslearned wordsbookish wordshigh-flown words



- serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, high poetry and poetic messages, authorial speech of creative prose;- mainly observed in the written form;- contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness.See: <neutral words>, <colloquial words>; <special literary words>; <lexical level>Syn.: literary words, learned words, bookish words, high-flown words

litotesлитотаa two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a possessive evaluation- the first component is always the negative particle “not”, while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase

••a) is a <stylistic device> consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions: the negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing- is a deliberate <understatement> used to produce stylistic effect: it is a negation that includes affirmation;- is a means by which the natural logical and linguistic property of negation can be strengthened;- is used in different styles of speech, excluding those which may be called the matter-of-fact styles, like official style and scientific proseb) a construction with two negations

••фигура речи, состоящая в употреблении частицы с антонимом, уже содержащий отрицательный префикс- в разговорном стиле передаёт преимущественно воспитанную сдержанность или иронию;- в научном стиле сообщает высказыванию большую строгость и осторожность:- интересна свей национальной специфичностью; Её принято объяснять английским национальным характером, отражённым в речевом этикете англичан: английской сдержанностью в проявлении оценок и эмоций, стремлением избежать крайностей и сохранить самообладание в любых ситуациях:See: <understatement>, <transference>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

(logical) comparison(логическое) сопоставлениеa) an ordinary comparison of two objects belonging to the same classes b) weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference- takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared



Compare: <simile>See: <lexico-syntactical SDs>

logical meaningreferential meaningdirect meaningлогическое значение- the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object;- the name by which we recognise the whole of the concept;- is liable to change;- of one <word> may denote different concepts;- has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective realitySyn.: logical meaning, referential meaning, direct meaningAnt.: <emotive meaning>, <emotional meaning>See: <nominal meaning>, <meaning>

logical periphrasiseuphemistic periphrasiseuphemismперифраз логический (эвфемистический)a phrase synonymic with the words which were substituted by <periphrasis> because the direct nomination of the not too elegant feature of appearance was substituted by a roundabout description- offers more polite (euphemistic) qualification instead of a coarser one

••эвфемизмa) a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable oneb) a synonym which aims at producing a deliberately mild effectSee: <periphrasis>Syn.: logical periphrasis, euphemistic periphrasis, euphemism

meaningзначение- representation of a concept;- takes one of the properties, by which a concept is characterised and makes it represent the concept as a whole;- in reference to concept becomes, as it were, a kind of <metonymy>;- a component (the inner form) of the word through which a concept is communicated (Antrushina)- presents a structure which is called the semantic structure of the word

••- <grammatical meaning> or <structural meaning>- <lexical meaning> or <dictionary meaning>



- <logical meaning> or <referential meaning> or <direct meaning> or <denotational meaning>- <nominal meaning>- <stylistic meaning> or <connotative meaning>- <emotive meaning> or <emotional meaning> or <evaluative meaning>- <contextual meaning>See: <word>, <sign>, <lexical SDs>

metaphorметафора<transference> of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic structures.The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects – the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own “legal” name, while each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected – the more expressive – is the metaphor.

•• a) the power of realising two <lexical meanings> simultaneouslyb) a <SD> when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties

••скрытое сравнение, основанное на ассоциации по сходству, осуществляемое путём применения названия одного предмета к другому и выявляющее таким образом какую-нибудь важную черту второго See: <personification>, <simile>, <lexical SDs>

metonymyметонимия<transference> of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic

••is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and <contextual meaning>s, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent

••- <троп>, основанный на ассоциации по смежности: вместо названия одного предмета употребляется название другого, связанного с первым постоянной внутренней или внешний связьюSee: <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>



mixed metaphortwo or more metaphors that sound strange or funny when you use them togetherSee: <metaphor>, <convergence>

morphemic repetitionrepetition of a morpheme, both root and affixational, to emphasise and promote it See: <repetition>, <occasional words>, <morphological level>

morphological levelincludes: <onomatopoeia>, <morphemic repetition>, <stylistic use of articles>, <negation>, <tense of verbs>, <perfect continuous passive>, <continuous participle>, <continuous infinitive passive>, <perfect infinitive passive>See: <phono-graphical level>, <syntactical level>, <Stylistics>

negationотрицание- в целом более экспрессивно, чем утверждение;- встречается в среднем во много раз реже, чем утверждение, появление его оказывается особо информативным;- экспрессивность зависит от функции указывать на то, что связи между названными элементами реально не существует;- подразумевает контраст между возможным и действительным, что создаёт экспрессивный и оценочный материал;- позволяет сделать фразу предельно лаконичной и усилить выражение необратимости:- передаёт компрессию информации:- может передавать волнение, нерешительность, колебание:- накопление может свидетельствовать о взволнованности, возбуждении, оживлении:- средство усиления иронии:See: <litotes>, <irony>, <double negative>

•• - может употребляться, а может и нет;- говоря строго логически, в повествовании не нужно (если чего-либо нет, то зачем об этом говорить?), поэтому несёт дополнительные смыслы; - присутствует в создании экспрессивности языкового выражения; - имеет широкие выразительные возможности; - выражает слабое утверждение (<understatement>);- выражает литоту (<litotes>);- выражает иронию (<irony>);- выражает отталкивание от какого-то стандарта, от того, что ожидает читатель;(включение текста в общий поток литературного процесса, активное воздействие автора на вкусы и взгляды читателя)



- ответ на невысказанное предположение;- само по себе не может выразить сложные оттенки смысла, но лишь участвует в создании стилистико-смыслового эффекта. Основную роль играет содержание высказываний.See: <litotes>, <double negative>, <morphological level>

neologismsнеологизмыnew words or expressions

neutral wordsthe overwhelming majority of lexis See: <literary words>, <colloquial words>

newspaper styleгазетный стиль1) observed in the majority of information materials printed in newspapers;- is often regarded as part of the publicist domain and is not always treated individually;

••2) a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate unity that basically serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader.- primary function is to impart information, Seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters (brief news items and communiqués, press reports, purely informational, advertisement and announcements, editorials)- <features of newspaper style>- <особенности газетного стиля>See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

nominal meaning- indicates a particular object out of a class;- serves the purpose of singling out one definite and singular object out of a whole class of similar objects;See: <logical meaning>, <meaning>

nonsense of non-sequencejoining two semantically disconnected clauses into one sentence See: <cluster SDs>

occasional wordsnonce-wordsextension of the normative valency which results in the formation of new words



An effective way of using a morpheme for the creation of additional information. They are not neologisms in the true sense for they are created for special communicative situations only, and are not used beyond these occasions. Syn.:occasional words, nonce-wordsSee: <morphemic repetition>

official style(the) style of official documentsофициально-деловой стильrepresented in all kinds of official documents and papers

••The main aim is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking (the state and the citizen, citizen and citizen, the society and its members, two or more enterprises or bodies, a person and subordinates)- the aim is to reach agreement between two contracting parties.- <features of official style>[u]Substyles:[/u] the language of business documents, the language of legal documents, the language of diplomacy, the language of military documents- each of subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions;Syn.: official style, the style of official documents, officialeseSee: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

officialeseканцелярский слогSee: <official style>

one-word sentencespossess a very strong emphatic impact, for their only word obtains both the word- and the sentence-stress. The word constituting a sentence also obtains its own sentence-intonation which, too, helps to foreground the content. See: <punctuation>, <syntactical SDs>

order of wordsпорядок словand <punctuation> are used to convey the corresponding pausation and intonation in the written form of speech See: <punctuation>, <stylistic inversion>, <syntactical SDs>

ordinary repetition(. . . a, . . . a . . ., a . . .)(. . a . ., . . a . ., . . a . .)no definite place in the sentence, the repeated unit occurs in various positionsThe stylistic function is to emphasise both the logical and the <emotional meaning> of the reiterated word (phrase).



See: <repetition>

oxymoronоксюморонa combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity

••a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense

••<троп>, состоящий в соединении двух контрастных по значению слов (обычно содержащих антонимичные семы), раскрывающий противоречивость описываемого. See: <lexical SDs>

paragraphабзац- a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end;- a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an integral unity;- (as a linguistic category) a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties which can be disclosed by scrupulous analysis of the morphological aspect and <meaning> of the component parts, etc.- a linguistic expression of a logical, pragmatic and aesthetic arrangement of thought;- the length normally varies from eight to twelve sentences (in <newspaper style> - one or two);See: <supra-phrasal unit>, <newspaper style>, <syntactical SDs>

parallel constructionпараллельная конструкцияreiteration of the structure of several sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical “flesh”almost always includes some type of lexical <repetition>, and such a convergence produces a very strong effect, <foregrounding> at one go logical, <rhythm>ic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. e.g. When a man wants to kill a tiger he calls it sport; when a tiger wants to kill a man it is ferocity. ••- identical. or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence in close succession;- is often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions (<polysyndeton>);- may be partial or complete (balance); - is most frequently used in <enumeration>, <antithesis> and in <climax>, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices;- is used in different styles of writing with slightly different functions;



- carries, in the main, the idea of semantic equality of the parts (matter-of-fact styles), an emotive function (<belles-lettres style>),See: <chiasmus>, <coupling>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>

parenthesisпарентезаa qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes. (Random House Dict. of the Engl. Lang.)- a variant of <detached construction>See: <detached construction>, <syntactical SDs>

perfect continuous infinitive passive can only be used occasionally, with a strong stylistic colouring See: <morphological level>

perfect continuous passiveTo imagine this ungainly verbal predicate in a sentence, consider:See: <morphological level>

periphrasiscircumlocutionперифразa) using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler oneb) using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a wordThey are classified into <figurative periphrasis> (<metaphoric periphrasis> or <metonymic periphrasis>) and <logical periphrasis> (<euphemistic periphrasis>)

••a device which, according to Webster’s dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression- aims at pointing to one of the Seemingly insignificant or barely noticeable features or properties of the given object, and intensifies this property by naming the object by the property;- makes the reader perceive the new appellation against the background of the one existing in the language code and the twofold simultaneous perception secures the stylistic effect;- like <simile>, has a certain cognitive function inasmuch as in deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described;

••<троп>, состоящий в замене названия предмета описательным оборотом с указанием его существенных, характерных признаков See: <euphemism>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>Syn.: periphrasis, circumlocution



personificationолицетворение или персонификацияa <metaphor> that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects

••1) <троп>, который состоит в перенесении свойств человека на отвлечённые понятия и неодушевлённые предметы, что проявляется в валентности, характерной для существительных – названий лица 2) транспозиция, при которой явления природы, предметы или животные наделяются человеческими чувствами, мыслями, речью (антропоморфизм) See: <transposition>, <synecdoche>, <lexical SDs>

phono-graphical levelincludes: <onomatopoeia>, <alliteration>, <assonance>, <graphon>See: <morphological level>, <Stylistics>

phrase-epithetsфразовые эпитеты, голофрaзисыокказиональное функционирование словосочетания или предложения как цельнооформленного образования, графически, интонационно и синтаксически уподобленного слову See: <epithet>poetic style- dealt with verbal forms specific for poetryBut poetry, within the last decades, lost its isolated linguistic position; it makes use of all the vocabulary and grammar offered by the language at large and there is hardly sense in singling out a special poetic style for contemporary linguistic situation, though its relevance for the language of the 17th, 18th and even the biggest part of the 19th centuries cannot be argued.See: <belles-lettres style>, <literary words>

polysyndetonмногосоюзие, полисиндетонrepeated use of conjunctions- is to strengthen the idea of equal logical/emotive importance of connected sentences

••the <SD> of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part- makes an utterance more <rhythm>ical; so much so that prose may even Seem like verse- has a disintegrating function (generally combines homogeneous elements of thought into one whole resembling enumeration);- causes each member of a string of facts to stand out conspicuously unlike <enumeration>, which integrates both homogeneous and heterogeneous elements into one wholeAnt.: <asyndeton>



See: <attachment>, <enumeration>, <repetition>, <types of connection>practical stylisticsпрактическая стилистикаthe stylistics, proceeding form the norms of language usage at a given period and teaching these norms to language speakers, especially the ones, dealing with the language professionally (editors, publishers, writers, journalists, teachers, etc.). See: <functional stylistics>, <Stylistics>,

professional jargonismsprofessionalismsпрофессионализмыsuch <jargonisms> which- connected with the technical side of some profession- are formed according to the existing word-building patterns of present existing words in new <meaning>s, and,- covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional itemSee: <special colloquial words>Syn.: professional jargonisms, professionalism

publicist styleпублицистический стильcovering such genres as essay, feature article, most writing of “new journalism”, public speeches, etc.

••The general aim is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer of the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view … not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well (brain-washing function).[u]Substyles:[/u] oratorical (direct contact with the listeners); radio commentary; essay (moral, philosophical, literary; book review in journals and magazines, pamphlets); articles (political, social, economic).- <features of publicist style>See: <publicist style>

••имеет своей основной функцией воздействие на волю, сознание и чувства слушателя или читателя See: <functional style>, <stylistic device>

punparonomasiaplay on wordsпарономасия, игра словsimultaneous realisation of two <meaning>s through



a) misinterpretation of one speaker’s utterance by the other, which results in his remark dealing with a different meaning of the misinterpreted word or its homonymb) speaker’s intended violation of the listener’s expectation

••близость звучания контекстуально связанных слов. Syn.: pun, paronomasia, play on wordsSee: <cluster SDs>

punctuationпунктуацияPoints of exclamation, points of interrogation, dots, dashes; commas, semicolons and full stops serve as an additional source of information and help to specify the <meaning> of the written sentence which in oral speech would be conveyed by the intonation. See: <order of words>, <one-word sentences>, <syntactical SDs>

question-in-the-narrativeis asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author- does not contain statement unlike a <rhetorical question>;- assume a semi-exclamatory nature;- is very often used in oratory;- sometimes gives the impression of an intimate talk between the writer and the reader;- may also remain unanswered (there are only hints of the possible answers)See: <rhetorical question>, <syntactical SDs>

repetitiontypes: <anaphora>, <epiphora>, <framing>, <catch repetition> or <anadiplosis>, <chain repetition>, <ordinary repetition>, <successive repetition>; <synonymical repetition>;- is a powerful mean of emphasis;- adds <rhythm> and balance to the utterance;See: <syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>; <reprise>

repriseрепризафигура речи, которая состоит в повторении звуков, слов, морфем, синонимов или синтаксических конструкций в условиях достаточной тесноты ряда, т.е. достаточно близко друг от друга, чтобы их можно было заметить. See: <repetition>, <morphemic repetition>, <alliteration>, <assonance>, <synonymical repetition>

rhetorical questionриторический вопросpeculiar interrogative construction which semantically remains a statement;- does not demand any information but- serves to express the emotions of the speaker and also



- serves to call the attention of listeners;- makes an indispensable part of oratoric speech for they very successfully emphasise the orator’s ideas.

••a) a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the <grammatical meaning> of the interrogative sentence;b) a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence;c) an utterance in the form of a question which pronounces judgement and also expresses various kind of modal shades of meanings, as doubt, challenge, scorn, irony and so on;- is generally structurally embodied in complex sentences with the subordinate clause containing the pronouncement;- may be looked upon as a <transference> of <grammatical meaning>;

••вопрос, который не предполагает ответа, ставится не для того, чтобы побудить слушателя сообщить нечто неизвестное говорящему, а чтобы привлечь внимание, усилить впечатление, повысить эмоциональный тон, создать приподнятость

••- contains a statement disguised as a question;- usually a positive question hiding a negative statement. No answer is expected.See: <order of words>, negative-interrogative sentences, <transposition>, <question-in-the-narrative>, <syntactical SDs>rhymeрифмаthe repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of wordsfull rhymeidentity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (might – right, needless – heedless)See: <rhyme>- incomplete rhymes: vowel rhymesthe vowels of the syllable in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different (flesh -–fresh – press)See: <rhyme>consonant rhymesshow concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels (worth – forth, tale – tool – Treble – trouble; flung – long)See: <rhyme>See: < rhythm>, <euphony>,

rhythm1) a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterised by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements or features (Webster’s New World Dictionary)



2) a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard See: <rhyme> , <euphony>,

scientific styleнаучный стильfound in articles, brochures, monographs and other scientific and academic publications

••The aim is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. - <features of scientific style>

••имеет своей основной функцией только передачу интеллектуального содержания- <общие особенности научного стиля>- <лексические особенности научного стиля>- <морфологические особенности научного стиля>- <синтаксические особенности научного стиля>

semantically false chainsa variation of <zeugma> when the number of homogeneous members, semantically disconnected, but attached to the same verb, increases See: <cluster SDs>

semeshade of meaningnuance of meaningсема, оттенок/элемент значения- a component part of meaning;Syn.: seme, shade of meaning, nuance of meaningSee: <meaning>, <word>, <sign>

semi-marked structureполуотмеченная структураструктура с нарушением лексической (once bellow a time) или грамматической (chips of when) сочетаемости (Н.Хомский)

sentence structureструктура предложенияNot only the clarity and understandability of the sentence but also its expressiveness depend on the position of clauses, constituting it.loose structure- opens with the main clause, which is followed by dependent units;- less emphatic and is highly characteristic of informal writing and conversation;periodic sentences



- open with subordinate clauses, absolute and participial constructions, the main clause being withheld until the end- are known for their emphasis and are used mainly in creative prosebalanced sentences- subordinate-main-subordinate similar structuring of the beginning of the sentence and its end;- known for stressing the logic and reasoning of the content and thus preferred in publicist writing;See: <punctuation>, <syntactical SDs>

set expressionsinclude: clichés, proverbs and sayings, <epigram>s, quotations, <allusion>s

signa material, sensuously perceived object (phenomenon, action) appearing in the process of cognition and communication in the capacity of a representative (substitute) of another object (or objects) and used for receiving, storing, recasting and transforming information about this object. See: <word>, <lexical SDs>, <Stylistics>simileсравнениеan imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some qualityThe one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the following link words: “like”, “as”, “as though”, “as if”, “as like”, “such as”, “as ... as”, etc.

••characterisation of one object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things- excludes all the properties of the two objects except one which is made common to them;- forcibly set one object against another regardless of the fact that they may be completely alien to each other;Compare: <logical comparison>See: <metaphor>, <epic simile> or <Homeric simile>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>

special colloquial words<slang>, <jargonisms>, <vulgarisms>, <dialectical words>

special literary wordssuch <literary words> as <terms> and <archaisms>

SPU



supra-phrasal unitсверхфразовое единство- a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity;- is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence;- generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with);- can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence;- can be embodied in a sentence if the sentence meets the requirements of this compositional unit;- though usually a component part of the paragraph, may occupy the whole of the paragraph;- This structural unit, in its particular way of arranging ideas, belongs almost exclusively to the <belles-lettres style>, though it may be met with to some extent in the <publicist style>. Other styles, judging by their recognised leading features, don not require this mode of arranging the parts of an utterance except in rare cases which may be neglected.See: <paragraph>, <belles-lettres style>, <syntactical SDs>

strings of epithetschains of epithetsцепочки эпитетовpresent a group of homogeneous attributes varying in number from three up to sometimes twenty and even moreSee: <epithet>Syn.: strings of epithets, chains of epithets

stylistic analysis of poetryстилистический анализ поэзии- звуковая сторона поэтической речи (ритмика, рифма, эвфония и звукопись);[m3]See: <rhythm>, <rhyme> , <euphony>, <phono-graphical level>- использование лексики (синонимия, антонимия);[m3]See: <synonymy>, <antonymy>, <lexical level>- тропы (метафора, метонимия)[m3]See: <trope>, <tropes>, <lexical SDs>- использование экспрессивных возможностей морфологии (грамматические архаизмы, глагольные формы, артикль);[m3]See: <stylistic use of articles>, <negation>, <morphological level>- использование экспрессивных возможностей синтаксиса;[m3]See: <syntactical level>See: <expressive means>, <stylistic device>

stylistic analysis of proseстилистический анализ прозы



- использование функциональных стилей, архаизация;[m3]See: <functional style>, <archaisms>- фонетический аспект речи;[m3]See: <euphony>, <phono-graphical level>- использование системной организации лексики (синонимия, антонимия);[m3]See: <synonymy> , <antonymy>, <lexical level>- тропеические средства (метафора, метафорическое сравнение, сюжетная метафора, метонимия)[m3]See: <trope>, <tropes>, <lexical SDs>- стилистические возможности морфологии (грамматическое и художественное время, употребление артиклей, употребление отрицания);[m3]See: <tense of verbs>, <stylistic use of articles>, <negation>, <morphological level>- выразительные возможности синтаксиса;[m3]See: <syntactical level>- построение содержания текста:[m3]- образ рассказчика;[m3]- динамика и статика текста;[m3]- трансформация реальности (фантастические объяснения, впоследствии получающие более или менее реалистическое объяснение);[m3]- позиция наблюдателя;See: <expressive means>, <stylistic device>

Stylisticsstyle of languageстилистика- is a system of co-ordinated, interrelated and inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of communication and aiming at a definite effect; - наука о подсистемах литературного языка (стилях языка) и о средствах языкового выражения, применением которых обусловлен требуемый эффект (цель) высказывания (I.R.G.:6);- отрасль лингвистики, исследующая принципы и эффект выбора и использования лексических, грамматических, фонетических и вообще языковых средств для передачи мысли и эмоции в разных условиях общения ;- это раздел языкознания, изучающий систему стилей языка, языковых норм, способы употребления литературного языка в различных условиях языкового общения, в разных видах и жанрах письменности, в различных сферах общественной жизни; - is primarily the study of synonymic language resources (Charles Bally);See: <practical stylistics>, <functional stylistics>, <functional style>; <stylistic device>, <expressive means>, <stylistic norm>; <phono-graphical level>, <morphological level>, <lexical level>, <syntactical level>

stylistic device SDстилистический приём



is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalised status and thus becoming a generative model (I.R.G.:29) – намеренное и сознательное усиление какой-либо типической структурной и/или семантической черты языковой единицы (нейтральной или экспрессивной), достигшее обобщения и типизации и ставшее таким образом порождающей моделью. (перевод <I.V.A.>)Types: <lexical SDs>, <cluster SDs>, <syntactical SDs>; <lexico-syntactical SDs>See: <expressive means>, <convergence>, <foregrounding>, <autology>

stylistic normстилистическая нормаthe invariant of the phonemic, morphological. lexical and syntactical patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time See: <individual style>, <Stylistics>

successive repetition(. . . a, a, a . . .)a string of closely following each other reiterated unitsThe most emphatic type of repetition which signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker. e.g. Of her father’s being groundlessly suspected, she felt sure. Sure. Sure. (Dickens)See: <repetition>

superfluityизбыточностьвеличина, характеризующая представление сообщения большим числом знаков, чем это было бы необходимо при отсутствии помех

suspensea deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence with the help of embedded clauses (homogeneous members) separating the predicate from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence (utterance)

••a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence (I.R.G.:218)See: <periodic sentences>, <syntactical SDs>

sustained ironya) a type of <irony>, intuitively feeling the reversal of the evaluation, formed by the contradiction of the speaker’s (writer’s) considerations and the generally accepted moral and ethical codes;



b) a number of statements, the whole of the text, in whose meaning we can trace the contradiction between the said and implied.Ant.: <verbal irony>See: <lexical SDs>

sustained metaphorprolonged metaphora group (cluster) of <metaphor>s, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to present an elaborated image Syn.: <sustained metaphor>, <prolonged metaphor>

syllepsisсиллепсисобъединение двух или более однородных членов, так или иначе различающихся в грамматическом отношенииSee: <zeugma>

synecdocheсинекдохаa <metonymy> based on the relations between the part and the whole

••- разновидность метонимии, состоящая в замене одного названия другим по признаку партитивного количественного отношения между ними. Например, название целого заменяется названием его части, общее – названием частного, множественное число – единственным и наоборот. See: <personification>, <lexical SDs>

synonymical repetitionсинонимический повторthe repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of <meaning> intensify the impact of the utterance See: <repetition>

synonymsсинонимыслова, принадлежащие к одной части речи, близкие или тождественные по предметно-логическому значению хотя бы в одном из своих лексико-семантических вариантов и такие, что для них можно указать контексты, в которых они взаимозаменяемы See: <synonymical repetition>; <logical periphrasis>; <lexical SDs>

syntactical levelinclude <syntactical stylistic devices>, <repetition>, <sentence structure>, <types of connection>, arrangement of sentence members, <completeness of sentence structure>



The most conspicuous places in the sentence are considered to be the first and the last: the first place because the full force of the stress can be felt at the beginning of an utterance and the last place because there is a pause after it. See: <phono-graphical level>, <morphological level>, <lexical level>, <Stylistics>

syntactical convergenceсинтаксическая конвергенциягруппа из нескольких совпадающих по функции элементов, объединённых одинаковым синтаксическим отношением и подчиняющему их слову или предложению- может быть основана на семантической неоднородности синтаксически однородных членов.Комический или сатирический эффект создаётся так называемым хаотическим перечислением, при котором в один ряд ставятся предметы мелкие, прозаические и возвышенные, живые люди и абстрактные понятия, далёкое и близкое.See: <convergence>, <repetition>, <syntactical SDs>

syntactical stylistic devicessyntactical SDsinclude: sentence length, <one-word sentences>, <punctuation>, <rhetorical question>, <parallel construction>, <chiasmus>, <stylistic inversion>, <suspense>, <detachment>, <ellipsis>, one-member sentences, <apokoinu constructions>, <break-in-the-narrative>, <polysyndeton>, <asyndeton>, <attachment>, <secondary predication constructions>See: <repetition>, <enumeration>; <lexical SDs>, <cluster SDs>, <lexico-syntactical SDs>, <stylistic device>

(the) tenor(the) vehicleSee: <simile>

terms<special literary words>, denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique

there is/are the••

В большинстве случаев существительное в конструкции с вводящим there употребляется с неопределённым артиклем или без артикля. Употребление определённого артикля, однако, не исключается. Часто употребление определённого артикля в таких случаях обусловлено стилистически, что находит отражение в переводе.



See: <stylistic use of articles>, <morphological level>

transferenceпереносact of name-exchange, of substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional, individual ones, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things, for the name of one object is transferred onto another, proceeding from their similarity (of shape, colour, function, etc.), or closeness (of material existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole, etc.) See: <metaphor>, <metonymy>

transpositiongrammatical metaphorтранспозиция1a) расхождение между традиционно обозначающим и ситуативно обозначающим на уровне морфологии1b) стилистический эффект употребления слов разных частей речи и их форм в необычных лексико-грамматических и грамматических значениях и/или с необычной референтной отнесённостьюSee: <personification>2) употребление синтаксических структур в несвойственных им денотативных значениях и с дополнительными коннотациямиНапример:Риторические вопросы служат эмфатическим утверждением, а повелительные предложения могут иногда передавать не побуждение к действию, а угрозу или насмешку. Эмфатическое отрицание выражается предложениями, в которых нет отрицательных слов.- выражается в нарушении валентностных связей, что создаёт дополнительные коннотации оценочности, эмоциональности, экспрессивности или стилистической отнесённости, а также в семантическом осложнении лексического значенияSee: <rhetorical question>Syn.: transposition, grammatical metaphor

tropeтроптроплексическое изобразительно-выразительное средство, в котором слово или словосочетание употребляется в преобразованном значении See: <tropes>; <lexical SDs>

tropesinclude: <epithet>, <metaphor>, <metonymy>, <oxymoron>, <periphrasis>, <personification>, <simile>See: <trope>; <lexical SDs>



types of connectioninclude: <polysyndeton>, <asyndeton>, <attachment>, <gap-sentence link>See: <enumeration>, <completeness of sentence structure>

understatementпреуменьшениеa <stylistic device> in which emphasis is achieved through intentional underestimation (underrating)

••is dealt with when the size, shape, dimensions, characteristic features of the object are intentionally underratedIt does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker.Ant.: <hyperbole>See: <lexical SDs>

verbal ironya type of <irony> when it is possible to indicate the exact word whose <contextual meaning> diametrically opposes its <dictionary meaning>, in whose meaning we can trace the contradiction between the said and impliedAnt.: <sustained irony>See: <lexical SDs>

violation of phraseological unitsrestoring the literal original <meaning> of the word, which lost some of its semantic independence and strength in a phraseological unit or cliché. See: <cluster SDs>

vulgarismsвульгаризмыcoarse <special colloquial words> with a strong <emotive meaning>, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation e.g. There is so much bad shit between the two gangs that I bet there will be more killings this year.Source: <V.A.K.>

whitewashing deviceSee: <euphemism>

zeugmaзевгма



a cluster SD, when a polysemantic verb that can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups is deliberately used with two of more homogeneous members, which are not connected semantically

••a) the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, literal, and, on the other, transferredb) the realisation of two <meaning>s with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect)

••Английские авторы часто используют этот приём для создания определённого юмористического или иронического эффекта.See: <semantically false chains>, <cluster SDs>

zoonymic metaphorzoomorphismзоонимическая метафора, зооморфизмприменение к людям слов второго разряда, т.е. названий животных, птиц и фантастических существ (метафорическое, эмоционально окрашенное и нередко обидное) Syn.: zoonymic metaphor, zoomorphism



2 ЛЕКЦИИ

2.1 General Notes on Style and StylisticsAims: teaching – To give the idea of stylistics as a science, explain the general meaning of Expressive Means and Stylistics Devices, to give general notes on Functional Styles of Language;developing – To deepen understanding of the idea of stylistics, to develop ability to find its connection with other sciences and people life;educational (pedagogic) – To increase mental enrichment of students with the help of connection of stylistics with other sciences.

1. Expressive Means (EM) and Stylistic Devices (SD)In linguistics there are different terms to denote particular means by which utterances are fore grounded, i.e. made more conspicuous, more effective and therefore imparting some additional information. They are called expressive means, stylistic means, stylistic markers, stylistic devices, tropes, figures of speech and other names.In the European philological tradition there have always existed phenomena regarded as linguostylistic concepts proper. They are: Tropes which are based on the “transfer” of meaning, when a word (or combination of words) is used to denote (указывать) an object which is not normally correlated with this word. And Figures of speech whose stylistic effect is achieved due to the unusual arrangement (классификация) of linguistic units, unusual construction or extension (добавление) of utterance (произношение). Tropes and figures are organized into levels: 1.Phonetic devices – alliteration, assonance – f. repetition of the same sound - a university should be a place of light, of liberty, and of learning – they produce effect of euphony.2. Graphical – graph on. 3. Lexical – interrelation of different meaning of one word of connotative meanings of different words. Metaphor – t. use of words (word combinations) in transferred meanings by way of similarity or analogy - art is a jealous mistress t - Metonymy, antonomasia, hyperbole, f - zeugma, pan, oxymoron4. Syntactical – is based on the arrangement of the members of the sentence, on the competence - incompetence of sentence structure. Inversion, detachment, ellipsis, f. polysindeton, asyndeton, rhetorical question.



5. Lexico-syntactic – f. simile, litotes. 2. General Notes on Functional Styles of LanguageStyle is depth, deviations, choice, context style restricted linguistic variation, style is the man himself (Buffon). According to Galperin the term ‘style’ refers to the following spheres: 1) the aesthetic function of language. It may be seen in works of art- poetry, imaginative prose, fiction, but works of science, technical instruction or business correspondence have no aesthetic value. 2) synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea. The possibility of choice of using different words in similar situations is connected with the question of style as if the form changes, the contents changes too and the style may be different. 3) expressive means in language - are employed mainly in the following spheres – poetry, fiction, colloquial speech, speeches but not in scientific articles, business letters and others. 4) emotional coloring in language. Very many types of texts are highly emotional – declaration of love, funeral oration, poems(verses), but a great number of texts is unemotional or non-emphatic (rules in textbooks). 5) a system of special devices called stylistic devices. The style is formed with the help of characteristic features peculiar to it. Many texts demonstrate various stylistic features: She wears ‘fashion’ = what she wears is fashionable or is just the fashion metonymy. 6) the individual manner of an author in making use the individual style of speaking, writing must be investigated with the help of common rules and generalization. Galperin distinguishes five styles in present-day English: I. Belles Lettres ( беллетристика) 1. Poetry 2. Emotive prose3. The Drama III. Publicistic Style 1. Oratory and Speeches 2. The Essay 3. Articles IV. Newspapers 1. brief News Items (короткие новости) 2. Headlines3. Advertisements and Announcements (объявления)4. The Editorial ( редакторская статья)V. Scientific ProseVI. Official DocumentsHe didn’t single out a colloquial style. Its created by the work of the author –the result of creative activity. Arnold classification consists of four styles:1. Poetic style 2. Scientific style3. Newspaper style 4. Colloquial style



Singling out a poetic and a scientific style seems valid. But Arnold insists on the validity of the ‘newspaper style’ theory. She says that the specificity of mass media make acknowledgement of newspaper style, as one of functional style. In the handbook by Morokhovsky, Vorobyova, Likhosherst give following classification of style:1. official business style 2. scientific – professional style3. publicistic style4. literary colloquial style5. familiar colloquial styleKozhina lists type - forming and socially significant spheres of communication as follows: 1) official 2) scientific 3) artistic 4) publicistic 5) of daily intercourse (=colloquial). Just as in some of the above classification we can doubt the validity of treating separately (and thus opposing) the artistic (belles-lettres) and the publicistic spheres. Not only writers of poetry or fiction, but publicists and orators as well make abundant use of ornament and expressive means of language - tropes and figures first and foremost Problematic aspects: Newspaper style as a part of publicist style. That is why it can’t be individual. It has no situation of communication. Newspaper style is used to give information, to influence, to represent social, political idea, means of persuade. It’s important to concentrate. That is why the text of newspaper style should be organized in the certain style. It must contain elements of stylistic colored words and have certain graphic organization. The articles contain questions, the sentence interrogative, elliptical construction and direct speech is included. The use of political words and expressions, clichés, colloquial words, slang, professionalisms, large amount of stylistic devises, various graphical means. The text of NP style is read by people of different social status. Belles – Lettres style is so many colored. It includes features of all the styles if it necessary. The author uses professional words of all levels. The basic function – informative and aesthetic. Poetic style in the past many scholars distinguished this style. Nowadays it included in Belles – Lettres style. S. of official Documents here are included the language of business documents, the language of legal documents, diplomacy, military, the function – to achieve the agreement between contrastive parts; has very strict organization. All the words are used in the dictionary meanings, a large number of abbreviation, terms, clichés. Publicistic style in the past it named oratorical style. The aim of the style also influence of public opinion. Brevity of expression, strong logic, strict organization of syntactical structure and a wide system of syntactical connection; the use of colloquial words, neutral, direct address to the audience. Scientific style is the style of reporting and conveying serious scientific idea. It is connected with oral and written forms. Here are included seminars, sc. Articles, discussions, written form – monograph, brochures, all kinds of academic publications. The aim is to prove a hypothesis. The use of large number of terms. Clarity of expression. The use of references, logical connection with the previous one, interdependence the speeches is usually produced in the second person – we.



Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984.3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 5. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997.

2.2 General Notes on Style and StylisticsAims: teaching – To give the idea of style and stylistics, to give general notes on the development of the English Literary Language;developing – To deepen the idea of style and stylistics, to give general notes on the development of the English Literary Language;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning from a stylistic point of view.

1. Varieties of LanguageBasic subdivision; formal, informal, neutral. Formal words: Poetic words-constitute

the highest level of the scale; every poetic word pertains to the uppermost part of the scheme; it demonstrates the maximum of aesthetic value.

Archaic words, are also stylistically heterogeneous. They are usually thought to pertain to the upper strata of vocabulary. This words practically unknown to the public at large. e. g. Thou, thee, knight. Bookish words –the words thus called are used as their name shows, in cultivated spheres of speech: in books or in such types of oral communication as public speeches, official negotiations, and so on. Bookish words are either formal synonyms of ordinary neutral words. e. g. Commence and begin, respond and answer, individual and man.

Barbarism, or foreign words. Words originally borrowed from a foreign language are usually assimilated into the native vocabulary, so as not to differ from its units in appearance or in sound. e. g. From French (bouquet, garage). Italian (dolce-far-niente) or Latin (alter ego). Neologisms or new creations. A neologisms seems, to the majority of language users, a stranger, a new comer and hence a word of low stylistic value, although the intention of the speaker may be quite opposite. Special terms. This word-class constitute the actual majority of the lexical units of every modern language serving the needs of a highly developed science and technology. In special (professional) spheres the term performs no expressive or aesthetic function whatever. In non professional spheres (imaginative prose, newspaper texts, everyday speech) popular terms are of the first (minimal) or the second (medial) degree of elevation. The use of special non-popular terms, unknown to average speaker, shows a pretentious manner of speech, luck of taste or tact.

Informal words: Colloquial words demonstrate the minimal degree of stylistic degradation. They are words with a tinge of informality or familiarity about them. There is



nothing ethically improper in their stylistic coloring, except that they cannot be used in formal speech. e.g. drifter (a person without steady job), gaffer (grand father) and so on.

Jargon words. These appear in professional or social groups as informal. Jargon can be subdivided into two groups. One of them consists of names of objects, phenomena, and processes characteristic of the given profession – not the real denominations , bat rather nicknames as opposed to the official terms used in this professional sphere. e.g. in soldiers jargon, the expression picture show is current, which has nothing to do with the cinema, but denotes a purely military concept for which there is an official word – the word battle. The other group is made up of terms of the profession used to denote non-professional objects, phenomena, and processes. e.g. big gun – important person. Every professional group has its own jargon. We distinguish students’, musicians’, lowers’, soldiers jargon and so on.

Slang. Slang is part of the vocabulary consisting of commonly understood and widely used words and expression of humorous or derogatory character – intentional substitutes for neutral or elevated words and expressions. e.g. food: chuck, chow, hash; money: jack, tin, brass, oof, and so on.

Vulgar words. This stylistically lowest group consists of words which are considered too offensive for polite usage. Objectionable words may be divided into two groups: lexical stylistic vulgarisms. To the first group belong words expressing ideas considered unmentionable in civilized society. Quite unmentionable are so- called “four- letters words”. The second group – stylistic vulgarisms- are words and phrases the lexical meanings of which have nothing indecent or on the whole , improper about them. Their impropriety in civilized life is due solely to their stylistic value – to stylistic connotation expressing a derogatory attitude of the speaker towards the objects of speech. e.g. old bean (old man ), smeller (nose), pay dirt (money) and the like.

2. A Brief Outline of the Development of the English Literary (Standard) Language.Up till now we have done little more than mention the literary (standard) language,

which is one of the most important notions in stylistic and general linguistic. it is now necessary elucidate this linguistic notion by going a little deeper into what constitutes the concept and to trace the stages in the development of the English standard language. This is necessary in order to avoid occasional confusion of terms differently used in works on the history, literature and style of the English language. Confusion between the terms “literary language” and “language of literature” is frequently to be met.

Literary language is a historical category. It exists as a variety of the national language. The literary language is that elaborated form (variety) of the national language which obeys definite morphological, phonetic, syntactical, lexical, phraseological and stylistic norms recognized as standard and therefore acceptable in all kinds and types of discourse. It allows modifications but within the frame work of the system of established norms. IT casts out some of the forms of language which are considered to be beyond the established norm. The norm of usage is established by the language community at every given period in the development of the language. Sometimes we may even say that two norms co- exist. But in



the case we may be positive that one of two co-existing forms of the language will give way to its rival and either vanish from the language entirely or else remain on its outskirts.

There is no hard and fast division between the literary and non-literary language. They are independent. The literary language constantly enriches its vocabulary and forms from the inexhaustible resources of the vernacular. It also adopts some of its syntactical peculiarities and by so doing gives them the status of norms of the literary language. Thus selection is the most typical feature of the literary language. The process of selecting and admitting lexical or morphological forms into literary language is not conscious afford on the part of scholars. It is rather a reluctant concession than a free and deliberate selection. When a linguistic item circulating in the non-literary language gains admission into the sacred precincts of the literary language, it is mostly due to the conscious choice of the man – of – letters, who finds either and aesthetic value in the given unit or some other merit that will justify its recognition as lawful member of the literary language.

This however is not the case with structural units. As the national language

3. Meaning from a Stylistic Point of ViewWords differ not only in their emotive charge but also in their stylistic reference.

Stylistically words can be roughly subdivided into literary, neutral and colloquial layers.The greater part of the l i t e r а r у l a y e r of Modern English vocabulary are

words of general use, possessing no specific stylistic reference and known as n e u t r a l w o r d s . Against the background of neutral words we can distinguish two major subgroups — st a n d a r d c o l l o q u i a l words and l i t e r a r y or b o o k i s h words. This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost identical in their denotational meaning, e. g., ‘parent — father — dad’. In comparison with the word father which is stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as bookish. The stylistic reference of standard colloquial words is clearly observed when we compare them with their neutral synonyms, e.g. chum — friend, rot — nonsense, etc. This is also true of literary or bookish words, such as, e.g., to presume (cf. to suppose), to anticipate (cf. to expect) and others.

Literary (bookish) words are not stylistically homogeneous. Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out various specific subgroups, namely: 1) terms or scientific words such as, e g., renaissance, genocide, teletype, etc.; 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g., whilome — ‘formerly’, aught — ‘anything’, ere — ‘before’, albeit — ‘although’, fare — ‘walk’, etc., tarry — ‘remain’, nay — ‘no’; 3) barbarisms and foreign words, such as, e.g., bon mot — ‘a clever or witty saying’, apropos, faux pas, bouquet, etc. The colloquial words may be subdivided into:1) Common colloquial words.2) Slang, i.e. words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard English, e.g. governor for ‘father’, missus for ‘wife’, a gag for ‘a joke’, dotty for ‘insane’.3) Professionalisms, i.e. words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation, such as, e.g., lab for ‘laboratory’, hypo for ‘hypodermic syringe’, a buster for ‘a bomb’, etc.4) Jargonisms, i.e. words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing a secret and cryptic character, e.g. a sucker — ‘a person who is easily deceived’, a squiffer — ‘a concertina’.



5) Vulgarisms, i.e. coarse words that are not generally used in public, e.g. bloody, hell, damn, shut up, etc.6) Dialectical words, e.g. lass, kirk, etc.7) Colloquial coinages, e.g. newspaperdom, allrightnik, etc.

Stylistic reference and emotive charge of words are closely connected and to a certain degree interdependent. As a rule stylistically coloured words, i.e. words belonging to all stylistic layers except the neutral style are observed to possess a considerable emotive charge. That can be proved by comparing stylistically labelled words with their neutral synonyms. The colloquial words daddy, mammy are more emotional than the neutral father, mother; the slang words mum, bob are undoubtedly more expressive than their neutral counterparts silent, shilling, the poetic yon and steed carry a noticeably heavier emotive charge than their neutral synonyms there and horse. Words of neutral style, however, may also differ in the degree of emotive charge. We see, e.g., that the words large, big, tremendous, though equally neutral as to their stylistic reference are not identical as far as their emotive charge is concerned.

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984.3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. 5. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975.



2.3 Neutral, Common Literary and Common Colloquial VocabularyAims: teaching – To give the idea of style and stylistics, to give general notes on the development of the English Literary Language;developing – To deepen the idea of style and stylistics, to give general notes on the development of the English Literary Language;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning from a stylistic point of view.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary.1. Neutral VocabularyNeutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings. The wealth of the neutral stratum of words is often overlooked. This is due to their inconspicuous character. But their faculty for assuming new meanings and generating new stylistic variants is often quite amazing. This generative power of the neutral words in the English language is multiplied by the very nature of the language itself. It has been estimated that most neutral English words are of monosyllabic character, as, in the process of development from Old English to Modern English, most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes. This phenomenon had led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word-building. Word compounding is not so productive as conversion of word derivation, where a new word is formed because of a shift in the part of speech in the first case and by the addition of an affix in the second. Unlike all other groups, the neutral group of words cannot be considered as having a special stylistic colouring, whereas both literary and colloquial words have a definite stylistic colouring.

2. Common Literary VocabularyCommon Literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word. The reason for this lies in certain objective features of the literary layer of words. Which these objective features are, is difficult to say because as yet no objective criteria have been worked out. But one of them undoubtedly is that literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms, literary an d colloquial, can be formed which stand in contrasting relation.The following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist between the neutral, literary and colloquial words in the English language.

Colloquial Neutral Literarykid child infantdaddy father parentchap fellow associateget out go away retirego on continue proceed



teenager boy (girl) youth (maiden)flapper young girl maidengo ahead begin commence

Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a markedly obvious tendency to pass into that layer. The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very easily pass into neutral layer. The lines of demarcation between common colloquial and neutral, on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are blurred. It is here that the process of interpenetration of the stylistic strata becomes more apparent.Synonyms of neutral words, both colloquial and literary, assume a far greater degree of concreteness. They generally present the same notions not abstractly but as a more or less concrete image, that is, in a form perceptible by the senses. This perceptibility by the senses causes subjective evaluations of the notion in question, or a mental image of the concept. Sometimes an impact of a definite kind on the reader or hearer is the aim lying behind the choice of a colloquial or literary word rather than a neutral one

3. Common Colloquial VocabularyCommon colloquial vocabulary is represented as overlapping into standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary which falls out of standard English altogether. Just as common literary words lack homogeneity so do common colloquial words and set expressions. Some of the lexical items belonging to this stratum are close to the non-standard colloquial groups such as jargonisms, professionalisms, etc. These are on the border-line between the common colloquial vocabulary and the special colloquial or non-standard vocabulary. Other words approach the neutral bulk of the English vocabulary. Thus, the word teenager (a young girl or young man) and hippie (hippy) (a young person who leads an unordered and unconventional life) are colloquial words passing into the neutral vocabulary. They are gradually losing their non-standard character and becoming widely recognized. However, they have not lost their colloquial association and therefore still remain in the colloquial stratum of the English vocabulary. So also are the following words and expressions: take (in “as I take it”= as I understand); guy (young man); pro (= a professional).The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on the inner qualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one another. However, the qualities themselves are not unaffected by the function of the words, inasmuch as these qualities have been acquired in certain environments. It is interesting to note that anything written assumes a greater degree of significance that what is only spoken. If the spoken takes the place of the written vice versa, it means that we are faced with a stylistic device.Certain set expressions have been coined within literary English and their use in ordinary speech will inevitably make the utterance sound bookish. In other words, it will become literary. The following are examples of set expressions which can be considered literary: in



accordance with, with regard to, by virtue of, to speak at great length, to lend assistance, to draw a lesson, responsibility rests.

Recommended literature:1. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.2. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 3. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 4. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. M., 19815. Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980.



2.4 Special Literary VocabularyAims:teaching – To give the idea of special literary vocabulary, terms, archaic words;developing – To deepen the idea of special literary vocabulary, terms, archaic words;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning from a stylistic point of view.

1. TermThe Term is a word or phrase used as the name of something, especially one that connected with a particular subject or used in a particular type of language. Ex.: technical, legal, scientific terms Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. But their use is not confined to this style. The may appear in other styles – in newspaper style in Publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language. But their function in this case changes. When used in belles-lettres style, for instance, a term may acquire a stylistic function and consequently become a SD. The function of terms, if encounted in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. With the increase of general education and the expansion of technique to satisfy the ever-growing needs and desires of mankind, many words that were once terms have gradually lost their quality of terms and have passed into the common literary or even neutral vocabulary. This process may be called “de-terminization”. Such words as “radio”, “television”, and the like have long been in common use and their terminological character is no longer evident. Such terms as “loan”, “rate of interest” and the phrase “to secure for money” are widely known financial terms which to the majority of the English and American reading public need no explanation.

2. Poetic and Highly Literary WordsPoetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect.Poetic words and expressions are used to create a special elevated atmosphere of poetry. This may be said to be the main function of poetic words.Poetic tradition has kept alive such archaic words and forms as: yclept – p.p. of the old verb clipian – to call, name quoth - p.t. of cwethan – to speak eftsoons – eftsona – again, soon afterThese poetic words are used by modern ballad mongers nowadays. Poetical words in the ordinary environment may also colour the utterance with certain air of loftiness, but generally fail to produce a genuine feeling of delight because they are to hackneyed for the purpose, to stale.hackneyed - is used so often that it has lost its impact and become dull



stale – no longer fresh and often tasting or smelling unpleasantGood illustrations of the use of poetic words which are considered to be archaic are the following examples from Byron’s poetry:Albion’s isle – the oldest name of the island of Britainto dwell – to livene – not riot – wasteful livingvex’d – disturbed mirth – fun Ah me! – interjection expressing regret, sorrowsore – severely, harshlyrevel – noisy festivalungodly – wicked glee – entertainment

3. Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete words The word-stock of a language is in increasing state of change. Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. New words spring up and replace the old ones. Some words stay in the language for a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time and are like bubbles on the surface of water – they disappear leaving no trace of their existence. Dictionaries serve to retain this or that word in a language. We distinguish three stages in the aging process of words:Obsolescent words. The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category first of all belong morphological forms of earlier stages in the development of the language:Ex: 1.the corresponding verbal ending -est 2.the verb forms 3.pronouns: thow and its forms: thee – object form of thow thy – yours thine – your 4.the ending -(e)th instead of -(e)s 5.the pronoun ye – you (pl)To the category of obsolescent words belong many French borrowings which have been kept in the literary language as a means of preserving the spirit of earlier periods.Ex: a pallet – a straw mattress a paltry – a small horse garniture – furniture Obsolete words The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community. These words are called obsolete.



Ex: methinks – it seems to me nay – no Archaic proper words The third group which may be called archaic proper are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable.Ex: troth – faith a losel – a lazy fellow The boarder lines between the groups are not distinct. In fact they interpenetrate. It is specially difficult to distinguish between obsolete and obsolescent words. But the difference is important when we come to deal with the stylistic aspect of an utterance in which the given word serves a certain stylistic purpose. Obsolete and obsolescent words have separate functions

4. Barbarisms and foreignismsBarbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated

into the English language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms; e.g. chic (= stylish); bon mot (= a clever witty saying); en passant (= in passing); ad infinitum (= to infinity) and many other words and phrases.It is very important to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign words proper. Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are, as it were a part and parcel of the English word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary. Foreign words, though used foe certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda (приложение) which gives the meanings of the foreign words most frequently used in literary English. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary. There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfil a terminological function. Therefore, though they still retain their foreign appearance, they should not be regarded as barbarisms. Such words as ukase, udarnik, soviet, kolkhoz and the like denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality not familiar to English – speaking communities. There are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained. Terminological borrowings. Such words as solo, tenor, concerto, blitzkrieg, luftwaffe and the like should also be distinguished from barbarisms. They are different in functions and in their nature. They are terms or terminological borrowings that have no synonyms. Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely used in various styles of l-ge with various aims. One of these functions is to supply local colour. In order to depict local conditions of life, concrete feats and events, customs and habits, special care is taken to introduce into the passage such l-ge. Elements that will reflect the environment. Foreign words and phrases may sometimes be used to exalt the expression of the idea, to elevate the l-ge.



5. Literary Coinages (Including Nonse – Words ) There is a term in linguistics which by its nature is ambiguous (двусмысленный ) that is the term neologism. In dictionaries it is generally defined as “a new word on a new meaning for an established word”. Coinage is a newly invented word or phrase. Neologism – a new word on expression: (there are many neologisms in computing terminology l-ge: floppy disk, monitor etc.) Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or now meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. The coining of new words generally arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It may also be the result of a search for a more economical, brief and compact form of utterance which proves to be a more expressive means of communicating the idea. The first type of newly coined words those which designate newly-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages. The second type are words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages. Among new coinages of a literary bookish type must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appearing in the publisistic style mainly in newspaper articles and magazines and also in the newspaper style – mostly in newspaper headlines. To these belongs the word Blimp – a name coined by the well-known English cartoonist. The name was coined to designate an English colonel famous for his brutality and conservatism. This word gave birth to a derivative Blimpish (very brutal and conservative). If a newly coined word can serve the demand of the moment, the freshness of the creation is its primary quality then. Many coinages disappear entirely from the l-ge, learning no mark of their even brief existence. There are many ways of coining new words. Semantic word building, that is giving an old word a new meaning, is rarely employed by writers who coin new words for journalistic purposes. Conversion, derivation and change of meaning may be registered as means by which literary-bookish coinages are formed. These three means of word-building are mostly used to coin new terms in which new meanings are imposed on old words. The new meaning exists with the old ones. Old and new meanings are ranged in a dictionary according to their rate of frequency. But there are cases when new meanings imposed on old words drive out old meanings. In this case we register a gradual change in the meaning of the word which may not incorporate (include) the old one. In most cases the old meaning is hardly felt.



Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984.3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.

2.5 Special Colloquial VocabularyAims:teaching – To give the idea of special colloquial vocabulary, slang, dialectal words;developing – To deepen the idea of special colloquial vocabulary, slang, dialectal words;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of special colloquial vocabulary, slang, dialectal words.

1. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.Webster’s dictionary gives the following meanings of the term:Slang [origin unknown] 1: language peculiar to a particular group: as a: the special and often secret vocabulary used by a class (as thieves, beggars) and usu. felt to be vulgar or inferior: argot; b: the jargon used by or associated with a particular trade, profession, or field of activity; 2: a non-standard vocabulary composed of words and senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usu. a currency not limited to a particular region and composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties usu. experiencing quick popularity and relatively rapid decline into disuse.The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows:“a) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type; b) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period; c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”In most of the dictionaries slang is used as convenient stylistic notation for a word or phrase that cannot be specified more exactly. Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary of the language. V.V. Vinogradov writes that one of the tasks set before the branch of linguistic science that is now called stylistics, is a thorough study of all changes in vocabulary, set phrases, grammatical constructions, their functions, an evaluation of any breaking away from the established norm, and classification of mistakes and failures in word coinage.So broad is the term “slang” that, according to Eric Partridge, there are many kinds of slang, e.g. Cockney, public-house, commercial, society, military, theatrical, parliamentary and others. This leads the author to believe that there is also a standard slang, the slang that is common to all those who, though employing received standard in their writing and



speech, also use an informal language which, in fact, is no language but merely a way of speaking, using special words and phrases in some special sense.The term “slang” is ambiguous because, to use a figurative expression, it has become a Jack of all trades and master of none.

2. Jargonisms. In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called jargonisms. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Thus the word grease means “money”; loaf means “head”; a tiger hunter is “a gambler”; a lexer is “a student preparing for a law course”.Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Britain and in the US almost any social group of people has its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.There is a common jargon and there are also special professional jargons. Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark. In fact, there are no outsiders where common jargon is concerned. It belongs to all social groups and is therefore easily understood by everybody. That is why it is so difficult to draw a hard and fast line between slang and jargon. When a jargonism becomes common, it has passed on to a higher step on the ladder of word group and becomes slang and colloquial.Hummen – “a false arrest” (American)Man and wife – “a knife” (rhyming slang)Jargonisms, like slang and other groups of the non-literary layer, do not always remain on the outskirts of the literary language. Many words have overcome the resistance of the language lawgivers and purists and entered the standard vocabulary. Thus the words kid, fun, queer, bluff, fib, humbug, formerly slang words or jargonisms, are now considered common colloquial. Thy may be said to be dejargonized.

3. Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms generally remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common social interests. The semantic structure of a professionalism is often dimmed by the image on which the meaning of the professionalism is based, particularly when the features of the object in question reflect the process of the work, metaphorically or metonymically. Like terms, professionalisms do not allow any polysemy, they are monosemantic. E.g. tin-fish (= submarine); block-buster (= a bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings).Professionalisms should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfil a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message.



4. Dialectal Words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. Dialectal words are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles. Writers use dialectal words for the purpose of characterizing the speech of a person. Other writers use dialectal words sparingly, introducing only units which are understandable to the intelligent English reader, or they make use of units which they think will enrich the standard English vocabulary. Among words which are easily understood by the average Englishman are: maister, weel, eneugh, laird, naething, and the like, characteristic of Scottish.Dialectal words, unlike professionalisms, are confined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal, with the everyday life of the country.

5. Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms are:1) expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like “damn”, “bloody”, “to hell”, “goddam” and, as some dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations;2) obscene words. These are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent.Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without any thought of what they mean, or in imitation of those who use them in order not to seem old-fashioned or prudish. However, they will never acquire the status of standard English vocabulary and will always remain on the outskirts. Vulgarisms, besides being coarse properly, are also rude and emotionally strongly charged and, like any manifestation of excess of feelings, are not very discernible as to their logical meaning.

6. Colloquial Coinages (nonce-words), unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous and elusive. Nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are almost imperceptible to the linguistic observer until the word finds its way into print.Nonce-coinage appears in all spheres of life. Almost every calling has some favorite catch-words which may live but a short time. They may become permanent and generally accepted terms, or they may remain nonce-words.

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984.3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.5. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 6. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997.

2.6 Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic DevicesAims:



teaching – To give the idea of phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices (alliteration, rhyme, rhythm);developing – To deepen the idea of phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices (alliteration, rhyme, rhythm);educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices (alliteration, rhyme, rhythm).

1. General notesThe stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense.

There is another thing to be taken into account, which in a certain type of communication plays an important role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other words that a word may acquire a desired phonetic effect. The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic effect, but this is a matter of individual perception and feeling and therefore subjective.The theory of sense - independence of separate sounds is based on a subjective interpretation of sound associations and has nothing to do with objective scientific data. However, the sound of a word, or more exactly the way words sound in combination, cannot fail to contribute something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound effect has been deliberately worked out. This can easily be recognized when analyzing alliterative word combinations or the rhymes in certain stanzas or from more elaborate analysis of sound arrangement.

2. OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which alms at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and animals. Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, burr, bang, cuckoo. These words have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others require the exercise of a certain amount of imagination to decipher it. Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding - dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean 1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested.Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo writing". An example is: And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain" (E. A. Poe), where the repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.

3. Alliteration



Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, "Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before" (E. A. Poe).Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. But even so we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units.

4. RhymeRhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. For instance, we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, including the initial consonant of the second syllable (in polysyllabic words), we have exact or identical rhymes.Incomplete rhymes present a greater variety They can be divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel-rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different as in flesh - fresh -press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth - forth, tale - tool -treble - trouble; flung - long.Modifications in rhyming sometimes go so far as to make one word rhyme with a combination of words; or two or even three words rhyme with a corresponding two or three words, as in "upon her honour - won her", "bottom –forgot them- shot him". Such rhymes are called compound or broken. The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound like one word - a device which inevitably gives a colloquial and sometimes a humorous touch to the utterance. Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye - rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical, as in love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave. It follows that compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eye - rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse.

5. RhythmRhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical or symmetrical as in architecture. The most general definition of rhythm may be expressed as follows: "rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements of features" (Webster's New World Dictionary).



Rhythm can be perceived only provided that there is some kind of experience in catching the opposite elements or features in their correlation, and, what is of paramount importance, experience in catching regularity of alternating patterns. Rhythm is a periodicity, which requires specification as to the type of periodicity. Inverse rhythm is regular succession of weak and strong stress. A rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low and other contrasting segments of speech.Academician V.M. Zhirmunsky suggests that the concept of rhythm should be distinguished from that of a metre. Metre is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind being determined by the character and number of syllables of which it consists. The metre is a strict regularity, consistency and unchangeability. Rhythm is flexible and sometimes an effort is required to perceive it. In classical verse it is perceived at the background of the metre. In accented verse - by the number of stresses in a line. In prose - by the alternation of similar syntactical patterns. Rhythm in verse as a S. D. is defined as a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it, variations which are governed by the standard. There are the following rhythmic patterns of verse:iambusdactulumphibrachanapaest.Rhythm is not a mere addition to verse or emotive prose, which also has its rhythm. Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense. Much has been said and writhen about rhythm in prose. Some investigators, in attempting to find rhythmical patterns of prose, superimpose metrical measures on prose. But the parametres of the rhythm in verse and in prose are entirely different.

Recommended literature:1. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.2. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 3. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 4. I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M., 1981.5. Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980.

2.7 Interaction of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed MeaningsAims:teaching – To give the idea of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed Meanings;developing – To deepen the idea of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed Meanings;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed Meanings.



1. Metaphor“A Metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning based on

similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts” . Metaphor is usually called a compressed or hidden simile. For example, The wind had dropped and the snow, tired of rushing round in circles trying to catch itself up, now fluttered gently down until it found a place on which to rest, and sometimes the place was the Pooh’s nose and sometimes it wasn’t, and in a little while Piglet was wearing a white muffler round his neck… (A. Miln)Instead of description how much snow has fallen the author uses the metaphor “white muffler” round Piglet’s neck and the reader understands that the weather is snowy. The example given above may serve as an illustration of genuine metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected or quite unpredictable. Those which are commonly used in speech and, therefore, are sometimes fixed in dictionaries are trite metaphors (for instance, flood of tears).

“The expressiveness of the Metaphor, writes V.Kukharenco, is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects (concepts): the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own “legal” name. The wider the distance between these two objects the more striking and unexpected is the Metaphor.”

A.Avtenieva believes that “Metaphor always expresses two meanings of one and the same word. The first is an “old” one (lingual) and the second is a “new” one (contextual)”

If a Metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with Personification. For instance, How sweet to be a Cloud Floating in the Blue Every little cloud Always sings aloud… (A.Miln)In this example Winnie-the-Pooh compares himself with a Cloud.

2. MetonymyMetonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and

contextual meaning. “Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and is based on their contiguity.” Since the types of relation between two objects can be finally limited they are observed again and again, and Metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one’s bread). “Genuine Metonymy reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another on the ground of some strong impression, produced by a feature of the thing or material.” E.g.: He went about her room after his introduction, looking at her pictures, her bronzes and clays, asking after the creator of this, the painter of that… (Th. Dreiser)“The scope of transference in Metonymy is much more limited than that in Metaphor, - writes V.Kukharenko, - which is quite understandable: the scope of human imagination identifying two objects (phenomena, actions) on the grounds of commonness of one of their innumerable characteristics is boundless, while actual relation between objects are more limited.” E.Aznaurova considers that fixed associations lie in the basis of Metonymy. “However, she writes, unlike associations caused by the context or by some extra linguistic



factors, Metonymy appears on the basis of associations potentially permanent for the certain types of relations: items of clothing – person, parts of body – person, etc.”

Metonymy is based on a different type of relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on a proximityThe proximity may be revealed:1) between the symbol and the thing it denotes;2) in the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument; e.g. His pen is rather sharp.3) in the relation between the container and the thing it contains; e.g. He drank one more cup.4) the concrete is put for the abstract; e. g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).5) a part is put for the whole; e.g. the crown - king, a hand - worker.Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many cases is trite. e.g.:" to earn one's bread", "to keep one's mouth shut".

3. IronyAccording to I.Galperin Irony is a SD also based on the simultaneous realization of

two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied.e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day). Thus in the passage, “You seem so sad Eeyore.”“Sad? Why should I be sad? It’s my birthday, the happiest day of the year.”the word “happiest” acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning. Skrebnev writes “irony is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same context, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation.”

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984.3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.5. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975.

2.8 Interaction of Logical and Emotive MeaningsAims:teaching – To give the idea of Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings;developing – To deepen the idea of Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings;



educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings.

1. Interjections and Exclamatory Words Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as a part of speech. But there is another view which regards the interjection as a sentence.However a close investigation proves that interjection is a word with strong emotive meaning. e. g. Oh, where are you going to, all you Big Steamers?The interjection oh, by itself may express various feelings such as regret, despair, disappointment, sorrow, surprise and many others. Interjections can be divided into primary and derivative. Primary interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning. Interjections such as: Heavens! Good gracious! God knows! Bless me! are exclamatory words generally used as interjections. It must be noted that some adjectives and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections - such as terrible! awfully! great! wonderful! splendid! These adjectives acquire strong emotional colouring and are equal in force to interjections.

2. The epithetThe epithet is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties.Classification of EpithetsFrom the point of view of their compositional structure epithets may be divided into:1) simple (adjectives, nouns, participles): e.g. He looked at them in animal panic.2) compound: e.g. apple - faced man;3) sentence and phrase epithets: e.g. It is his do - it - yourself attitude.4) reversed epithets - composed of 2 nouns linked by an ofphrase: e.g. "a shadow of a smile";Semantically according to I. Galperin.1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: dark forest; careful attention.2) unassociated with the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader: smiling sun, voiceless sounds.

3. OxymoronOxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meaning is opposite in sense. e. g. speaking silence, cold fire, living death.Close to oxymoron is paradox - a statement that is absurd on the surface. e.g. War is peace. The worse - the better.Trite oxymoron. e.g. Awfully beautiful.



If the primary meaning of qualifying word changes the stylistic effect of oxymoron is lost. In oxymoron the logical meaning holds fast because there is no true word combination.

Recommended literature:1. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.2. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 3. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 4. I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,1981.5. Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980.

2.9 Peculiar Use of Set ExpressionsAims:teaching – To give the idea of Peculiar Use of Set Expressions;developing – To deepen the idea of Peculiar Use of Set Expressions;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea Peculiar Use of Set Expressions.

1. A clichéThe Cliché is generally defined as an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. Definitions taken from different dictionaries show that cliché is a derogatory term and it is therefore necessary to avoid anything that may be called by that name. The term “cliché” is used to denote all stable word-combinations, whereas it was coined to denote word-combinations which have long lost their novelty and become trite, but which are used as if they were fresh and original and so have become irritating to people who are sensitive to the language they hear and read. What is familiar should not be given a derogatory label. On the contrary, if it has become familiar, that means it has won general recognition and by iteration has been accepted as a unit of the language.Examples of real clichés are “rosy dreams of youth”, “the patter of little feet”, “deceptively simple”.

2. Proverbs and sayingsProverbs and Sayings are facts of language. They are collected in dictionaries. There are special dictionaries of proverbs and sayings. It is impossible to arrange proverbs and sayings in a form that would present a pattern even though they have some typical features by which it is possible to determine whether or not we are dealing with one. These typical features are: rhythm, sometimes rhythm and/or alliteration. As is known, a proverb or a saying is a peculiar mode of utterance which is mainly characterized by its brevity. A proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of two meanings: the face-value or primary meaning, and an extended meaning drown from the context, but bridled by the face-value meaning. In other words, the proverb itself becomes a vessel into which new content is poured.Proverbs and sayings have certain purely linguistic features which must always be taken into account in order to distinguish them from ordinary sentences. Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community



and serving as conventional practical symbol for abstract ideas. They are usually didactic and image bearing. Many of them through frequency of repetition have become polished and wrought into verse-like shape, as in the following:“Early to bed and early to rise,Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.”Brevity in proverbs manifests itself also in the omission of connectives, as in:“First come, first served.” “Out of sight, out of mind.”But the main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from ordinary utterances remains their semantic aspect. Proverbs and sayings, if used appropriately, will never lose their freshness and vigour.

3. EpigramsAn epigram is a stylistic device akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people. In other words, we are always aware of the parentage of an epigram and therefore, when using one, we usually make a reference to its author.Epigrams are terse, witty, pointed statements, showing the ingenious turn of mind of the originator. They always have a literary-bookish air about them that distinguishes them from proverbs. Epigrams possess a great degree of independence and therefore, if taken out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea they express. They have generalizing function and are self-sufficient. The most characteristic feature of an epigram is that the sentence gets accepted as a word-combination and often becomes part of the language as a whole.Epigrams are often confused with aphorisms and paradoxes. It is difficult to draw a demarcation line between them, the distinction being very subtle. Real epigrams are true to fact and that is why they win general recognition and acceptance.Ex. Keats: “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.”

4. QuotationsQuotation is a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writing and repeated in order to prove a point or support an idea. They are marked graphically: by inverted commas: dashes, italics.A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (“ ”), dashes (-), italics or other graphical means. They are mostly used accompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation, unless he is well known to the reader or audience. The reference is made either in the text or in a foot-note.A quotation is always set against the other sentences in the text by its great volume of sense and significance. The use of quotations presupposes a good knowledge of the past experience of the nation, its literature and culture. The stylistic value of a quotation lies mainly in the fact that it comprises two meanings: the primary meaning, the one which it has in its original surroundings, and the applicative meaning, i.e. the one which it acquires in the new context.



Quotations, unlike epigrams, need not necessarily be short. They are used as a stylistic device with the aim of expanding the meaning of the sentence quoted and setting two meanings one against the other.

5. AllusionsAllusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical. literary, mythological fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact, thing oк person alluded to on the part of the reader or listener.An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. Allusions are based on the accumulated experience and the knowledge of the writer who presupposes as a similar experience and knowledge in the reader.Allusions and quotations may be termed nonce-set-expressions because they are used only for occasion.Allusion needs no indication of the source. It is assumed to be known. Therefore most allusions are made to facts which the general reader should be familiar. However, allusions are sometimes made to things and facts which need commentary before they are understood. Allusions are used in different styles.

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984.3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.5. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975.

2.10 Problems Concerning the Composition of Spans of Utterance Larger than the SentenceAims:teaching – To give the idea of Problems Concerning the Composition of Spans of Utterance Larger than the Sentence;developing – To deepen the idea of Problems Concerning the Composition of Spans of Utterance Larger than the Sentence;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of Problems Concerning the Composition of Spans of Utterance Larger than the Sentence.

1. Supra-Phrasal Unitssupra-phrasal unit

- a combination of sentences presenting a structural and semantic unity backed up by rhythmic and melodic unity;



- is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence;- generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally (usually by

means of pronouns, connectives, tense-forms) and semantically (one definite thought is dealt with);

- can be extracted from the context without losing its relative semantic independence;

- can be embodied in a sentence if the sentence meets the requirements of this compositional unit;

- though usually a component part of the paragraph, may occupy the whole of the paragraph;

- This structural unit, in its particular way of arranging ideas, belongs almost exclusively to the <belles-lettres style>, though it may be met with to some extent in the <publicist style>. Other styles, judging by their recognised leading features, don not require this mode of arranging the parts of an utterance except in rare cases which may be neglected.

Source: <I.R.G.>:194-196See: <paragraph>, <belles-lettres style>, <syntactical SDs>

2. The Paragraph- a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at

the beginning and a break in the line at the end;- a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an integral unity;- (as a linguistic category) a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means:

intonation, pauses of various lengths, semantic ties which can be disclosed by scrupulous analysis of the morphological aspect and <meaning> of the component parts, etc.

- a linguistic expression of a logical, pragmatic and aesthetic arrangement of thought;

- the length normally varies from eight to twelve sentences (in <newspaper style> - one or two);

Source: <I.R.G.>:198-199See: <supra-phrasal unit>, <newspaper style>, <syntactical SDs>

Recommended literature:1. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.2. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 3. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997.4. I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M., 1981.5. Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980.

2.11 Compositional Patterns of Syntactical ArrangementAims:teaching – To give the idea of Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement;developing – To deepen the idea of Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement;



educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement.

1. Stylistic InversionThey include: stylistic inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions ,

chiasmus, suspense, climax, antithesis.Stylistic Inversion. The English word order is fixed. Any change which doesn't

influence the meaning but is only aimed at emphasis is called a stylistic inversion. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion.

The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in both English prose and English poetry.1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies, e. g. With fingers weary and worn.3. The predicate is placed before the subject, e.g. A good generous prayer it was.4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence.e.g. My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall.5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject, e. g. In went Mr. Pickwick.

2. Detached constructions Detached constructions. Sometimes one of the secondary members of the sentence is

placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it refers to. Being formally independent this secondary member acquires a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. e.g. She was gone. For good.

3. Parallel construction Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the

sentence as in the macro - structures dealt with the syntactical whole and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of sentence.

4. ChiasumsChiasums is based on repetition of syntactical patterns, but it has a reversed order in

one of the utterances.e.g. She was a good sport about all this, but so was he.Suspense - is a compositional device which is realized through the separation of the Predicate from the Subject by deliberate introduction between them of a clause or a sentence. Thus the reader's interest is held up. This device is typical of oratoric style.

Climax (gradation) - an ascending series of words or utterances in which intensity or significance increases step by step.e. g. Every racing car, every racer, every mechanic, every ice - cream van was also plastered with advertising.



Antithesis is a SD based on the author's desire to stress certain qualities of the thing by appointing it to another thing possessing antagonistic features. e. g. They speak like saints and act like devils.Enumeration is a SD which separates things, properties or actions brought together and form a chain of grammatically and semantically homogeneous parts of the utterance. e. g. She wasn't sure of anything and more, of him, herself, their friends, her work, her future.

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984..3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980..5. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 6. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997.

2.12 Particular Ways of Combining Parts of the UtteranceAims:teaching – To give the idea of particular ways of combining parts of the utterance;developing – To deepen the idea of particular ways of combining parts of the utterance;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of particular ways of combining parts of the utterance.

1. AsyndetonAsyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in constructions in which they

would normally used.e.g. He couldn't go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated hotels.

2. Polysyndeton.Polysyndeton - is an identical repetition of conjunctions: used to emphasize

simultaneousness of described actions, to disclose the authors subjective attitude towards the characters, to create the rhythmical effect.e. g. The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.

3. Gap – sentence – link. Gap - sentence - link It presents two utterances the second is brought into the focus

of the reader's attention.e. g. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in I tally.

Recommended literature:



1. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 2. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 3. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 4. I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,1981.5. Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980.

2.13 The Belles-Lettres StyleAims:teaching – To give the idea of The Belles-Lettres Style;developing – To deepen the idea of The Belles-Lettres Style;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of The Belles-Lettres Style.

1. Language of PoetryThe Belles - Lettres Style, its Substyles and its PeculiaritiesThe term "Belles - lettres" is generic for 3 substyles:

- poetry;- emotive prose;- drama;

The Belles-lettres style has its own specific function which is double -phoned. Besides, iriformingthe reader, itirnpresses the reader aesthetically.

Its function is aesthetico - cognitive, cognitive on the one hand and receiving pleasure on the other

The means of this functional style are:- genuine imaginative means and SDs;- the use of words in its contextual meaning;- the individual choice of vocabulary which reflects the author's personal evaluation;- a peculiar individual selection of syntax;- the introduction of elements of other styles;

Poetry. Peculiarities - rhythm and rhyme. As a SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the standard.

2. Emotive prose Emotive prose is a combination of literary variant of the language and colloquial,

which is presented by the speech of the characters which is stylized that means it has been made "literature like" and some elements of conversational English were made use of. Emotive prose allows the use of elements of other styles but the author changes them and fulfils a certain function. SDs used: in emotive prose style are represented speech, detached constructions, gap - sentence link.

3. Language of Drama



Drama - the language of plays mainly consists of dialogues. The author's speech is in the form of stage remarks. Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure. The language of a play has the following peculiarities:- it is stylized (retains the modus of literary English);- it presents the variety of spoken language;- it has redundancy of information caused by necessity to amplify the utterance;- monologue is never interrupted;- character's utterances are much longer than in ordinary conversation;

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981.4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 5. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975.

2.14 Publicistic StyleAims:teaching – To give the idea of Publicistic Style;developing – To deepen the idea of Publicistic Style;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of Publicistic Style.

1. Oratory and SpeechesThe Pubicistic Style treats certain political, social, economic, cultural problems. The aim of this style is to form public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener.Substyles: The oratory essays, journalistic articles, radio and TV commentary.Oratory. It makes use of a great hummber of expressive means to arouse and keep the public's interest: repetition, gradation, antithesis, rhetorical questions, emotive words, elements of colloquial speech.Radio and TV commentary is less impersonal and more expressive and emotional.

2. EssayThe essay is very subjective and the most colloquial of the all substyles of the publicistic style. It makes use of expressive means and tropes.

3. The journalistic articles The journalistic articles are impersonal.The Newspaper FS, its Ssubstyles and their PeculiaritiesTo understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyse the following basic newspaper features:1) brief news items;2) advertisements and announcements;



3) headlines;Brief items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts without giving comments. The vocabulary used is neutral and common literary. Specific features are:a) special political and economic terms;b) non-term political vocabulary;c) newspaper clichms;d) abbreviations;e) neologisms.Headlines. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what the news is to follow about. Syntactically headlines are very short sentences, interrogative sentences, nominative sentences, elliptical sentences, sentences with articles omitted, headlines including direct speech.Advertisements and announcements. The function of advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader. There are two types of them: classified and non-classified. In classified the information is arranged according to the subject matter: births, marriages, deaths, business offers, personal etc.

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980.

2.15 Scientific Prose Style and The Style of Official DocumentsAims:teaching – To give the idea of Scientific Prose Style and The Style of Official Documents;developing – To deepen the idea of Scientific Prose Style and The Style of Official Documents;educational (pedagogic) – To increase meaning the idea of Scientific Prose Style and The Style of Official Documents.

1. Scientific Prose StyleThe style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences;2) the style of "exact" sciences;3) the style of popular scientific prose.Its function is to work out and ground theoretically objective knowledge about realityThe aim of communication is to create new concepts, disclose the international laws of existence.The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence, impersonality, unemotional character, exactness.



Vocabulary. The use of terms and words used to express a specialized concept in a given branch of science. Terms are not necessarily. They may be borrowed from ordinary language but are given a new meaning.The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional.Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established patterns.- postulatory;- formulative;- argumentative;The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across constructions but few.The parallel arrangement of sentences contributes to emphasizing certain points in the utterance.Some features of the style in the text are:- use of quotations and references;- use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas.Humanities in comparison with "exact" sciences employ more emotionally coloured words, fewer passive constructions.Scientific popular style has the following peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style

2. The style of official documentsThe Style of Official Documents and its Substyles1) Language of business letters;2) Language of legal documents;3) Language of diplomacy;4) Language of military documents; The aim:1. to reach agreement between two contracting parties;2. to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding. Each of substyles of official documents makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols.

The most noticable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with.

Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are -



the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members.

Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation.

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 3. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 4. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980

3 САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА СТУДЕНТА

3.1 Expressive Means (EM) and Stylistic Devices (SD)

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.2 Varieties of Language

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.



3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.3 Neutral Vocabulary


3.4 Common Literary Vocabulary




3.5 Common Colloquial Vocabulary


3.6 Peculiarities of Terms

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.3.7 Poetic and Highly Literary Words

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.



5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.8 Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words


3.9 Barbarisms and Foreignisms


3.10 Slang

Recommended literature:



1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.11 Jargonisms and Professionalisms


3.12 Dialectal Words

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.



7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.13 Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.3.14 Metaphor and Metonymy


3.15 Logical and Emotive Meanings





3.16 Peculiar Use of Set Expressions. The Cliché. Proverbs and Sayings. Epigrams


3.17 Peculiar Use of Set Expressions. Quotations. Allusions. Decomposition of Set Phrases




3.18 Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement. Stylistic Inversion. Detached Construction


3.19 Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement. Parallel Construction. Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction)


3.20 Particular Ways of Combining Parts of the Utterance: Asyndeton. Polysyndeton





3.21 The Belles-Lettres Style: Language of Poetry. Emotive Prose


3.22 Language of the Drama Stylistic Devices Based on Polysemantic Effect, Zeugma and Pun




3.23 Simile. Periphrasis


3.24 Euphemism. Hyperbole


3.25 Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement: Repetition. Enumeration

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.



2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.26 Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement: Suspense. Antithesis


3.27 Stylistic Use of Structural Meaning: Rhethorical Questions.Litotes

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2.Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3.Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4.Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5.Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6.Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8.I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,1981



9.Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

3.28 Newspaper Style: Brief News Items. Advertisements and Announcements. The Headline.The Editorial


3.29 The Belles-Lettres Style and Publicistic Style: Oratory and Speeches. The Essay. Journalistic Articles

Recommended literature:1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 4-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Флинта, Наука, 2002.2. Кухаренко В.А. Практикум з стилістики англійської мови: Підручник. – Вінниця. «Нова книга», 2000 - 160 с.3. Мороховский А.Н. и др. Стилистика английского языка. Киев: Вища шк., 1984. 247 с.4. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М., 1981. 172 с.5. Пелевина Н.Ф. Стилистический анализ художественного текста. Л.: Просвещение, 1980. 270 с.6. Скребнев Ю.В. Очерки по теории стилистики. Горький, 1975. 170 с.7. Arnold I.V. Stylistics of Modern English Language. M., 1997. 290 p.8. I.R.Galperin Stylistics. M.,19819. Maltzev V.A. An introduction to Linguistic Poetic. Minsk: Vysh. Sh., 1980. 238 p.

Методические рекомендации к выполнению СРС:

Авторская творческая работа состоит из трех частей. Первая часть "Базовое содержание темы" – это подробное изложение выбранной вами темы на основе подобранного вместе с тьютором источника (учебник, журнал, монография, нормативный акт, справочник, этический кодекс).



Текст набирается на компьютере, через 1 интервал шрифтом "Times new Romans", кегль 14. Поля: левое - 3см, верхнее, нижнее и правое – по 2 см.

Объем задания по первой части на 1 СРС (по часовому объему кратно 3 часам работы студента) включает примерно 3 "разворота" источника – то есть 6 страниц из базового текста источника (учебника, монографии, научной статьи из журнала), набранного согласно указанным выше требованиям. Учебные цели по первой части работы направлены на формирование у вас элементарных навыков скоропечатания на компьютере, на развитие навыков аналитического чтения и аналитического мышления. Не прибегайте к сканеру. Этим вы не разовьете в себе тех качеств, которые обязательны на современном рынке труда. Сканер не актуален на данном этапе вашего обучения.

Уважаемые студенты, обратите внимание на то, что при написании первой части СРС подстрочные сноски обязательны. Научитесь оформлять сноску через услугу компьютера. Только в таком виде (со сносками!) будет приниматься ваша работа. Затем студент приступает к собственно авторской самостоятельной работе – это вторая часть работы.

Вторая часть – креативная творческая часть: формирование тематических и прямых вопросов.

Вы самостоятельно формулируете к уже набранному тексту пять вопросов тематических. Тематический вопрос не предполагает вопросительного знака в конце предложения. Это вопрос-тема, вопрос-проблема. Его аналог вы видели неоднократно в школьных учебниках как подпараграфы, в экзаменационных билетах как вопрос, требующий подробного, комплексного ответа. Сформулировав тематический (проблемный) вопрос вы даете на основе этого же набранного текста подробный ответ. Затем – вы формулируете прямые вопросы. Это вопрос с наличием вопросительного знака или предлагающий назвать имя, дату, дать определения понятия.

Третья часть – креативная творческая часть: тестовые вопросы.Вы самостоятельно задаете к изученному и набранному тексту вопросы, и на каждый даете пять вариантов ответа, один из которых правильный. За основу Вы также берете материал данной темы в целом.

Тема, выбранная для авторской творческой работы, оформляется в виде письменной работы по стандартному образцу. Сначала – титульный лист. Затем – содержание работы. Далее – все составные части работы: Базовая часть (набранный материал с обязательными сносками на каждой странице), вторая кретивная творческая часть: тематические и прямые вопросы обязательно с ответами, третья креативная творческая часть: тестовые вопросы обязательно с ответами.

Одна из тем СРС готовится для презентации перед группой.Для подготовки к успешной презентации Вам необходимо обеспечить наглядность и доступность предлагаемой для аудитории информации, заинтересовать аудиторию при своем выступлении: текст не читается, а передается в формате свободного рассказа. Обязательна "обратная связь" после выступления. Это мониторинг усвоения материала, который вы предложили своим коллегам по обучению.



Именно в этой части вы проверите качество своих тестовых вопросов, прямых вопросов. Эти вопросы будут дополнять тот содержательный материал, который вы изложите перед группой через проблемные (тематические вопросы). Для обеспечения наглядности вам понадобятся Флиппчарты. Это современный, широко используемый в корпоративном обучении на бизнес-пространстве РК прием установления диалога с группой. Для всех специалистов в сфере коммуникативного поля обязательны навыки грамотного убедительного публичного выступления с применением современных приемов организационного и технического сопровождения. Именно эти навыки и отрабатываются в процессе СРСП презентационного формата. Презентация предполагает на только эффектность и убедительность вашего говорения, вашей вербальной культуры, но и вашу внешнюю, невербальную убедительность. Поэтому презентация предполагает соблюдение этических стандартов внутриофисного общения наряду со стандартами внутриофисной одежды и стиля. Оценка этих параметров будет производиться всей группой и тьютором курса. Презентация – это ответственное, интересное и полезное для вас мероприятие. Вы сможете увидеть и прочувствовать свои возможности в работе с людьми, понять, в чем вы более успешны, а с чем есть еще время поработать.

На презентацию Вы можете пригласить свою "группу поддержки" – друзей, младших братьев, сестер, и, конечно, родителей. Им будет приятно и интересно посмотреть на Вас, на ваших сокурсников, познакомиться с тьютором и иметь собственное впечатление об учебном процессе, который вы успешно осваиваете. Самостоятельная работа студента – это самый важный этап в вашем личностном росте и приобретении вами настоящей профессиональной компетенции. Подробное консультирование по особенностям организации и проведения СРС вы получаете в процессе индивидуальных консультаций тьютора курса в формате занятий "СРСП" – самостоятельная работа с преподавателем.

