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END 011END 011 科技英文寫作 科技英文寫作 (( 二二 )-1)-122

English Technical Writing (English Technical Writing ( 二二 )-1)-122

Prof. Jeffrey Shiang FuProf. Jeffrey Shiang Fu傅祥 教授傅祥 教授

jeffsfu@gmail.comjeffsfu@gmail.com0987-520-488 / (03)2118-800*57950987-520-488 / (03)2118-800*5795

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DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION

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OVERVIEWOVERVIEW

In this chapter we look at the fourth In this chapter we look at the fourth section of the experimental research section of the experimental research report. Usually titled report. Usually titled discussiondiscussion, it is , it is the last major section of the report, the last major section of the report, followed by the list of references.followed by the list of references.

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In the discussion section you step In the discussion section you step back and take a broad look at your back and take a broad look at your findings and your study as a findings and your study as a whole. As in the introduction, whole. As in the introduction, researchers use the discussion researchers use the discussion section to examine their work in section to examine their work in the larger context of their field.the larger context of their field.

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Sometimes this section is called “conclusions” instead of “discussion”. In either case, the writing conventions reflect some common features.

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INFORMATION CONVENTIONSINFORMATION CONVENTIONS

This section moves the reader back This section moves the reader back from the from the specific informationspecific information reported in reported in the methods and the results sections to the methods and the results sections to a more general view of how the a more general view of how the findings should be interpreted.findings should be interpreted.

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Ordering your informationOrdering your information

The information that you include in this The information that you include in this section depends greatly on the findings section depends greatly on the findings of your study; however, the specific-to-of your study; however, the specific-to-general movement indicated by the general movement indicated by the shape of the shaded area in Figure 8.1 shape of the shaded area in Figure 8.1 is a convention that most writers follow.is a convention that most writers follow.

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The kinds of information that you The kinds of information that you can include in your discussion can include in your discussion section are not fixed. However, the section are not fixed. However, the first elements are typically those first elements are typically those that refer that refer most directlymost directly to the study to the study and its findings. They include:and its findings. They include:

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FIRST INFORMATION FIRST INFORMATION ELEMENTS IN DISCUSSION:ELEMENTS IN DISCUSSION: Specific Reference to the StudySpecific Reference to the Study

1.1. A reference to the A reference to the main purposemain purpose or or hypothesis hypothesis of the study;of the study;

2.2. A review of the most important A review of the most important findings,findings, whether or not they support the original whether or not they support the original hypothesis, and whether they agree with hypothesis, and whether they agree with the findings of other researchers;the findings of other researchers;

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3.3. Possible Possible explanationsexplanations for or for or speculations speculations about the findings;about the findings;

4.4. LimitationsLimitations of the study that restrict of the study that restrict the extent to which the findings can the extent to which the findings can be generalized.be generalized.

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As the discussion section As the discussion section continues, the writer moves the continues, the writer moves the reader’s attention away from the reader’s attention away from the specific results of the study and specific results of the study and begins to focus begins to focus more generallymore generally on on the importance that the study may the importance that the study may have for other workers in the field.have for other workers in the field.

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LATER INFORMATION LATER INFORMATION ELEMENTS IN DISCUSSION:ELEMENTS IN DISCUSSION:General Statements about the StudyGeneral Statements about the Study

5.5. ImplicationsImplications of the study of the study (generalizations from the results);(generalizations from the results);

6.6. Recommendations Recommendations for future for future research and research and practical applicationspractical applications..

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NOTE:NOTE:

The order of discussion elements The order of discussion elements shown here is not strictly followed by all shown here is not strictly followed by all authors. However, the progressive authors. However, the progressive move from specific to more general move from specific to more general information elements is conventional.information elements is conventional.

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Researcher’s Position Researcher’s Position towards the findingstowards the findings

In the discussion section more than In the discussion section more than any other place in the report, any other place in the report, researchers make explicit their own researchers make explicit their own views on the study and its findings.views on the study and its findings.

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The researcher may take a The researcher may take a position with respect to the position with respect to the explanations, implications, explanations, implications, limitationslimitations, or , or applicationsapplications of the of the findings (Elements 3,4,5, and 6).findings (Elements 3,4,5, and 6).

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RESEARCHER’S POSITION ON RESEARCHER’S POSITION ON INFORMATION IN THE INFORMATION IN THE DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION

One possible One possible explanations isexplanations is

that speed jobs do not tax older that speed jobs do not tax older workers to their limits. workers to their limits. (explanation)(explanation)

We can no We can no longer assumelonger assume

that it is satisfactory to seek that it is satisfactory to seek explanations only in economic explanations only in economic factors. factors. (implication)(implication)

PositionPosition Information elementInformation element

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We We acknowledgeacknowledge

that other industries may that other industries may produce different results. produce different results. (restriction)(restriction)

Clearly,Clearly, this technique has promise as a this technique has promise as a tool in evaluation of forages. tool in evaluation of forages. (application)(application)

PositionPosition Information elementInformation element

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LANGUAGE CONVENTIONSLANGUAGE CONVENTIONS

In this part of the chapter we examine In this part of the chapter we examine the sentence structure used in the the sentence structure used in the discussion section to present discussion section to present elements of information and to give a elements of information and to give a point of view about that information.point of view about that information.

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We also look at the verb forms We also look at the verb forms that commonly occur in this that commonly occur in this section and at some of the special section and at some of the special expressions authors use to expressions authors use to indicate their positions towards the indicate their positions towards the information they present.information they present.

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Complex Structure in Discussion Complex Structure in Discussion StatementsStatements

To accommodate the information To accommodate the information requirements of the discussion requirements of the discussion section, writers often use statements section, writers often use statements that are complex in grammatical that are complex in grammatical structure-that is, that contain a main structure-that is, that contain a main clause and a clause and a noun clausenoun clause..

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Typically, the researcher’s Typically, the researcher’s position is carried by the main position is carried by the main clause while the information being clause while the information being reported is contained in the noun reported is contained in the noun clause.clause.

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COMPLEX SENTENCE COMPLEX SENTENCE STRUCTURE IN DOSCUSSION STRUCTURE IN DOSCUSSION STATEMENTSSTATEMENTS

++ ++

We can We can conclude with conclude with certaintycertainty

thatthat both theories are able both theories are able to explain significant to explain significant amounts of variance.amounts of variance.

Main clause Main clause (researcher’s (researcher’s position)position)

THATTHAT Noun clauseNoun clause

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Verb Tenses Used in Verb Tenses Used in Discussion StatementsDiscussion Statements

The verb tenses used in the The verb tenses used in the discussion section depend on the discussion section depend on the type of information you want to type of information you want to present.present.

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Remember that the first information Remember that the first information elements of the discussion refer elements of the discussion refer specifically to the study and its specifically to the study and its findings. The verb tense most findings. The verb tense most commonly used in referring to the commonly used in referring to the purpose, the hypothesis, and the purpose, the hypothesis, and the findings is the findings is the simple past.simple past.

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VERB TENSES IN FIRST VERB TENSES IN FIRST DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:Simple Past TenseSimple Past Tense

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: This research This research attempted attempted to assess two theories of behavior.to assess two theories of behavior.

Referring to the purposeReferring to the purpose

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EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: We originally We originally assumed assumed that that physical decrements would be more physical decrements would be more apparent in speed jobs than in skill jobs.apparent in speed jobs than in skill jobs.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The principle of readability The principle of readability was not followedwas not followed in the income tax booklet in the income tax booklet of any of the states studied except of any of the states studied except Virginia.Virginia.

Referring to the hypothesisReferring to the hypothesis

Referring to the findingsReferring to the findings

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NOTENOTE

In some fields the In some fields the present perfectpresent perfect tense may be used in referring to tense may be used in referring to the the purposepurpose.

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In discussion statements that In discussion statements that explain possible reasons for, or explain possible reasons for, or limitations to, the findings, the limitations to, the findings, the past, presentpast, present, or , or modal auxiliariesmodal auxiliaries may be used.may be used.

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The choice depends on whether the The choice depends on whether the explanation for the specific findings is explanation for the specific findings is restrictedrestricted to your study to your study (past)(past) or or whether it refers to a whether it refers to a general conditiongeneral condition (present).(present). Modal auxiliaries may also Modal auxiliaries may also be used to emphasize the speculative be used to emphasize the speculative nature of these statements.nature of these statements.

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VERB TENSES IN FIRST VERB TENSES IN FIRST DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:Past, Present, and Modal AuxiliariesPast, Present, and Modal Auxiliaries

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: It is possible that microbial It is possible that microbial activityactivity caused caused some immobilization of some immobilization of labial soil phosphorous. labial soil phosphorous.

(restricted to study)(restricted to study)

Explaining the findingsExplaining the findings

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EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: It is possible that microbial It is possible that microbial activity activity causescauses some immobilization of some immobilization of labial soil phosphorous. labial soil phosphorous. (general (general condition)condition)

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Our sample Our sample waswas very small. very small.

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Other industries Other industries may may produceproduce different results. different results.

Limiting the findingsLimiting the findings

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When comparing your findings to When comparing your findings to those of other researchers, use the those of other researchers, use the present tensepresent tense..

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VERB TENSES IN FIRST VERB TENSES IN FIRST DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:Present TensePresent Tense

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: These results These results are are in in substantial agreement with those of Bates substantial agreement with those of Bates (2)(2)

Comparing findingsComparing findings

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As you move from the specific As you move from the specific considerations of your study to considerations of your study to broader, more general statements broader, more general statements about the importance of the study about the importance of the study as a whole, use as a whole, use simple present simple present tensetense and and modal auxiliaries / modal auxiliaries / tentative verbs.tentative verbs.

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VERB TENSES IN LATER VERB TENSES IN LATER DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:DISCUSSION ELEMENTS:Present and Modal Auxiliaries / Present and Modal Auxiliaries / Tentative VerbsTentative Verbs

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: It It appearsappears that squatter that squatter housing markets behave as economically housing markets behave as economically rational entities.rational entities.

ImplicationsImplications

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EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: The approach outlined in The approach outlined in this study this study should be replicatedshould be replicated in other in other manufacturing plants.manufacturing plants.

EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: We We recommend recommend that the that the approach outlined in this study be approach outlined in this study be replicated in other manufacturing plants.replicated in other manufacturing plants.

Recommendations and applicationsRecommendations and applications

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Expressions Indicating the Expressions Indicating the

Researcher’s PositionResearcher’s Position

The main clause of a complex sentence in The main clause of a complex sentence in the discussion section often contains special the discussion section often contains special expressions that indicate the researcher’s expressions that indicate the researcher’s own point of view, or position, towards the own point of view, or position, towards the information contained in the noun clauses.information contained in the noun clauses.

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At the beginning of the discussion At the beginning of the discussion section, certain expressions make section, certain expressions make in clear that you are reconsidering in clear that you are reconsidering the the hypothesis hypothesis of your study.of your study.

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EXPRESSIONS FOR RESTATING EXPRESSIONS FOR RESTATING THE HYPOTHESISTHE HYPOTHESIS

Main clause Main clause (position)(position) THATTHAT Noun clause Noun clause

(information)(information)++ ++

It was It was anticipatedanticipated

thatthat older workers in older workers in speed jobs would speed jobs would have poorer have poorer performance than performance than younger workers.younger workers.

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Main clause Main clause (position)(position)

THATTHAT Noun clause Noun clause (information)(information)++ ++

The theory led The theory led

us to inferus to infer

In line with this In line with this hypothesis, we hypothesis, we assumedassumed

thatthat older workers in older workers in speed jobs would speed jobs would have poorer have poorer performance than performance than younger workers.younger workers.The results seem The results seem

inconsistent with inconsistent with our hypothesisour hypothesis

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Other expressions are typically Other expressions are typically used when you need toused when you need to explain explain your findings.your findings.

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EXPRESSIONS FOR EXPRESSIONS FOR EXPLAINING FINDINGSEXPLAINING FINDINGS

Main clause Main clause (position)(position) THATTHAT Noun clause Noun clause

(information)(information)++ ++

These results These results can be can be explained by explained by assumingassuming

thatthat skill increases with exskill increases with experience.perience.

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Main clause Main clause (position)(position) THATTHAT Noun clause Noun clause

(information)(information)++ ++

One reason One reason could becould be

that that jobs in light jobs in light manufacturing do not manufacturing do not tax older workers to tax older workers to their limits.their limits.

It is It is unlikelyunlikely thatthat age of the subjects age of the subjects had much of an effect had much of an effect on attitude.on attitude.

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Still other expressions are used Still other expressions are used when you wish to suggest the when you wish to suggest the implicationsimplications of your findings. of your findings.

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EXPRESSIONS FOR EXPRESSIONS FOR SUGGESTING IMPLICATIONSSUGGESTING IMPLICATIONS

Main clause Main clause (position)(position) THATTHAT Noun clause Noun clause

(information)(information)++ ++

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These These findingsfindings

suggestsuggest

thatthat frost affects the frost affects the pan by breaking pan by breaking its massive its massive structure.structure.

implyimply

lend support to the assumption

lead us to believe

provide evidence