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Christian-Muslim Relations:A Burdensome Past,

a Challenging FutureWILLEM A. BIJLEFELDR e a d i n g , V e r m o n t

F I F T Y Y E A R S A G O A N E S S A Y O N T H E S U B J E C T M A T T E R T H A T C O N C E R N S U S H E R E would most likely have included the words Christianity and Islam. Dur-ing the past decades many of us have learned to avoid these two terms as much

as possible, opting instead for the adjectives Christian and Muslim and the

nouns Christians and Muslims. In certain contexts it makes sense to distin-

guish between normative Islam or Christianity and the distortions of these ideals

in the realities of Christian or Muslim behavior, individually and collectively. But

the issue at stake in the framework of the present discussion is the need to avoidself-constructed and monolithic images of Islam and Christianity and all specula-

tions about the imagined relation between these two.

We want to deal, very selectively, with concrete data regarding Christian-

C o p y r i g h t 1 9 9 6 b y W o r d & W o r l d , L u t h e r S e m i n a r y , S t . P a u l , M N . A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . 1 1 7

W o r d & W o r l d

V o l u m e X V I , N u m b e r 2

S p r i n g 1 9 9 6

Willem Bijlefelds essay sets the stage for a consideration of the Christian engage-ment with Muslims in the present and in the future. What is written on the slate ofpast relationships has a controlling influence on the great challenge that faces the

church in the coming centuryits mission in the Muslim world. Essential to our

understanding of this presentation is the awareness that when we consider Islam we

are dealing with Muslim people. The essay is based on his inaugural address for the

Islamic Studies Program at Luther Seminary, May 2, 1995.

S c h o l a r , a c a d e m i c l e a d e r , a n d m i s s i o n a r y , W I L L E M A . B I J L E F E L D s a c a d e m i c c a r e e r s p a n s h i s n a t i v e

H o l l a n d , W e s t A f r i c a , a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h e r e h e w a s t h e l o n g - t i m e D i r e c t o r o f t h e D u n c a n

B l a c k M a c d o n a l d C e n t e r f o r I s l a m i c S t u d i e s a t H a r t f o r d , C o n n e c t i c u t , a n d e d i t o r o f t h e M u s l i m

W o r l d . H i s m a j o r a r t i c l e o n C h r i s t i a n - M u s l i m S t u d i e s , i n C h r i s t i a n - M u s l i m E n c o u n t e r s ( e d .

Y . a n d W . H a d d a d [ G a i n e s v i l l e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s o f F l o r i d a , 1 9 9 5 ] ) , s u m s u p h i s e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i -

e n c e a n d l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e f i e l d .
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Muslim relations in past and present, and that means with patterns of avoidance

and encounter at certain times and places, in specific situations, and under par-

ticular conditions. The fact that we reflect on these data from withinfor lack of abetter and equally convenient terma western Christian setting determines to a

significant degree the choice of material to be included.

Implied in what has been said is that no attempt will be made to interpret Is-

lam in the light of the gospelas some Christians venture to doand that no

sketch of a so-called Christian theology of Islam is forthcoming. It seems to me that

such exercises are dangerously premature. We have not yet reached the eschaton

and ought to acknowledge that also in this respect we know in part only. As

long as we live in history, we are not dealing with static and immutable entities,

but with the realities of living and ever-changing persons and communities of

faith.

I. FO R G E T T H E PA S T ?

Even for those who accept the appropriateness of this focus on Christian-

Muslim relations, the question of why we should begin with the past may still

arise. Would it not be far more desirable to limit ourselves to the present and the

future, especially since the past of our relationships is often seen and experienced

in so many respects as extremely painful and most disheartening? One needs to be

only superficially acquainted with what lies behind us to sense the appeal of the

oft-quoted plea from the Second Vatican Council:

O v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s m a n y q u a r r e l s a n d d i s s e n s i o n s h a v e a r i s e n b e t w e e n C h r i s -

t i a n s a n d M u s l i m s . T h e s a c r e d C o u n c i l n o w p l e a d s w i t h a l l t o f o r g e t t h e p a s t ,

a n d u r g e s t h a t a s i n c e r e e f f o r t b e m a d e t o a c h i e v e m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

1

The theological significance of the Declaration from which these lines arequoted cannot easily be overestimatedeven though its impact on actual relation-

ships seems to have been less significant thanoftenassumedbut this particular plea

to forget the past is unrealistic and in a sense inappropriate. It is equally true for

Christians as for Muslims that the past of our relationship is still very much with us

and contributes significantly to the present situation. As far as the Christian side is

concerned, several authorsof otherwise very differentpersuasions seem to concuron

this one point: for many centuries fear has been the most important factor in shaping

western attitudes to the Muslim world. Writing about the first thousand years of

western Christian contacts with Islam,BernardLewisreferred to thisphenomenon as

characteristic of this particular relationship. Mentioning the motives of faith and

greed, which sent missionaries and traders all over the world, he continued:

I n m e d i e v a l C h r i s t i a n E u r o p e , i n c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h I s l a m , t h e r e w a s a t h i r d m o -

t i v e , p e r h a p s m o r e c o m p e l l i n g t h a n e i t h e r o f t h e o t h e r t w o , a n d t h a t w a s f e a r .

2

1 1 8

B i j l e f e l d

l

D e c l a r a t i o n o n t h e R e l a t i o n o f t h e C h u r c h t o N o n - C h r i s t i a n R e l i g i o n s , p r o c l a i m e d b y P o p e

P a u l V I o n O c t o b e r 2 8 , 1 9 6 5 , i n D o c u m e n t s o f V a t i c a n I I , e d . A u s t i n P . F l a n n e r y ( G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s ,

1 9 7 5 ) 7 4 0 .

2

B e r n a r d L e w i s , C u l t u r e s i n C o n f l i c t : C h r i s t i a n s , M u s l i m s , a n d J e w s i n t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y ( N e w Y o r k :

O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 9 5 ) 1 1 .

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Edward Said raised the same issue in his discussion of the later development

of academic studies in this field: Modern Orientalism carried within itself the im-

print of the great European fear of Islam.3

And to give one more example, a fewyears ago Carsten Colpe published an interesting survey of the historical and theo-

logical reasons for the western fear of Islam. 4

Events of the past two decades have occasioned a flood of journal and maga-

zine articles that seek to rekindle the fear that is apparently still present in our soci-

ety, at least as an undercurrent. The battle cries against the perils of Islam that

appeared at the time of the Iranian Revolution and the hostage crisis have been

collected and discussed more than once. Several articles have been written about

what impact the Gulf War and the publicity surrounding it have had on

Christian-Muslim relations. And in the aftermath of the Oklahoma bombing in

April 1995, a large number of Muslims felt that some of their fellow Americans

treated them as if they were responsible for this disaster, suspicious of them for no

other reason than that they were Muslim. That Oklahoma police had to investigatedeath threats and threatening calls to two mosques in the city shortly after the

bombing is a sad comment on our times. For many westerners, the word Islam

stands for violence, cruelty, and oppression, and in their eyes fear of Muslims is

therefore fully justified. Fanaticism, violence, and the suppression of women are

three terms with which Islam was characterized in an article in the Frankfurter

Rundschau of February 1991. 5 This is just one illustration of the currency of anti- Is-

lamic sentiments in western Europe as well. Mohammed Arkoun, living in Paris,

did not overstate the case when he wrote in 1994:

I t i s n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e t o d a y t o u s e t h e w o r d I s l a m b e f o r e a W e s t e r n a u d i e n c e

w i t h o u t i m m e d i a t e l y c o n j u r i n g u p p o w e r f u l i m a g e r y c o m b i n i n g t h e s t r o n g l y

n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e t e r m s j i h a d , h o l y w a r , t e r r o r i s m , f a n a t i c i s m , v i o -

l e n c e , o p p r e s s i o n o f w o m e n , p o l y g a m y , r e p u d i a t i o n , t h e v e i l a s t h e I s l a m i c

h e a d s c a r f , t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e W e s t , t h e v i o l a t i o n o f h u m a n r i g h t s a n d s o o n .

6

Forgetting the past is apparently extremely difficult for Christians as far as

their relations with Muslims are concerned. For the majority of Muslims forget-

ting the past is absolutely impossible. They feel that what happened for several

centuries in their contacts with the Christian West still shapes to a considerable

extent the reality in which they live, and this sentiment is not surprising. One of

the facts people in the west easily overlook is that the period of colonialism and

imperialism came to an end less than a lifetime ago. In his Welteroberung und Chris-

tentum, Horst Grnder dates the epoch of imperialismcharacterized by him as a

vehement stage in the process of western dominanceas beginning around

1 1 9

C h r i s t i a n - M u s l i m R e l a t i o n s

3

E d w a r d W . S a i d , O r i e n t a l i s m ( N e w Y o r k : P a n t h e o n , 1 9 7 8 ) 2 5 3 - 2 5 4 .

4

C a r s t e n C o l p e , P r o b l e m I s l a m ( F r a n k f u r t : A t h e n a u m , 1 9 8 9 ) 1 1 - 3 8 .

5

I n a n a r t i c l e b y M . L u d e r , a s q u o t e d b y F u a d K a n d i l , D i a l o g d e r R e l i g i o n e n , C I B E D O : B e i t r g e

z u m G e s p r c h z w i s c h e n C h r i s t e n u n d M u s l i m e n 8 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 1 7 7 .

6

M o h a m m e d A r k o u n , I s I s l a m T h r e a t e n e d b y C h r i s t i a n i t y ? i n I s l a m : A C h a l l e n g e f o r C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

e d . H a n s K n g a n d J r g e n M o l t m a n n ( M a r y k n o l l : O r b i s , 1 9 9 4 ) 4 9 .

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1880 and lasting till the early 1940s. 7 Covering a period extended by a hundred

years, from 1798 till 1956, Jensens Militant Islam gives a listing of military and po-

litical events showing that

d u r i n g t h e s e 1 5 0 - o d d y e a r s s c a r c e l y a d e c a d e , i n d e e d s c a r c e l y h a l f a d e c a d e ,

p a s s e d w i t h o u t s o m e M u s l i m a r e a s o m e w h e r e i n A s i a o r A f r i c a b e i n g l o s t t o t h e

W e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n p o w e r s o r M u s l i m s f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f

t h e s e p o w e r s .

8

These few quotations and observations must suffice as a preliminary justifica-

tion for thesuggestion that we cannot deal meaningfully with the present and thefu-

ture of Christian-Muslim relations without paying careful attention to the past.

II. TH E H I S T O R Y O F CH R I S T I A N -MU S L I M RE L A T I O N S

The problem facing us is that the study of the past of our relationship is not

only extremely difficult emotionally, but is also hampered by the relative scarcity

of available data. No comprehensive survey of this history has been written, and

none will ever be produced. Admittedly, valuable studies exist on the history of

polemical exchanges between Christians and Muslims and on the apologetic lit-

erature produced in that connection.9 But who would want to claim that thesein

a sense elitistdocuments give us any idea of how millions and millions of

anonymous Muslims and Christians have related to each other during the thir-

teen hundred years of coexistence? Thinking of the endlessly diverse regional

situations, the political contexts, the socioeconomic conditions, the cultural frame-

work, and the patterns of human interaction that all need to be studied, one real-

izes how extremely limited our knowledge is.

There are a few areas about which relatively detailed information exists for

specific time spans, e.g., Spain from the eighth until the early eleventh century, butthese instances are the rare exceptions for the period up to the beginning of this

century. There is a marked improvement in our knowledge of the situation since

that time, thanks to a number of ethnological, sociological, anthropological, and

area studies as well as to a gradual methodological shift in the field of the history of

religions, a move away from an exclusive concern with classical historical and liter-

ary data. However, recent publicity on instances of alleged Muslim-Christian con-

flicts has created its own problems. Some people tend to interpret all events in

which Muslims and Christians are involved in terms of their religious background.

We personally witnessed in Nigeria in 1966 the beginnings of the Biafra war, and it

1 2 0

B i j l e f e l d

7

H o r s t G r n d e r , W e l t e r o b e r u n g u n d C h r i s t e n t u m : E i n H a n d b u c h z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e r N e u z e i t

( G t e r s l o h : G e r d M o h n , 1 9 9 2 ) 1 2 - 1 3 .

8

G . H . J a n s e n , M i l i t a n t I s l a m ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r & R o w , 1 9 7 9 ) 6 5 .

9

I n E n g l i s h t h e r i c h e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l i s J e a n - M a r i e G a u d e u l , E n c o u n t e r s a n d C l a s h e s : I s l a m

a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y i n H i s t o r y , 2 v o l s . ( R o m e : P o n t i f i c i o I s t i t u t o d i S t u d i A r a b i & I s l a m i c i , 1 9 8 4 ) . F o r d a t a f r o m

t h e m e d i e v a l p e r i o d s e e t h e e x c e l l e n t s t u d y b y E r d m a n n F r i t s c h , I s l a m u n d C h r i s t e n t u m i m M i t t e l a l t e r

( B r e s l a u : M l l e r & S e i f f e r t , 1 9 3 0 ) . I n F r e n c h , m e d i e v a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y m a t e r i a l i s m a s t e r f u l l y s u r -

v e y e d i n G e o r g e s C . A n a w a t i , P o l m i q u e , A p o l o g i e e t D i a l o g u e I s l a m o - C h r t i e n s . P o s i t i o n s c l a s s i q u e s

m e d i e v a l e s e t p o s i t i o n s c o n t e m p o r a i n e s , E u n t e s D o c e t e 2 2 ( 1 9 6 9 ) 3 7 5 - 4 5 1 .

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was surprising to notice how many people at that time objected strongly and

highly emotionally to warnings not to interpret this exclusively or even primarily

as a Muslim-Christian conflict, but to take into account the whole array of Ibo-Hausa relationships. For whatever reasons, even some of those directly involved

wanted this war to be known in the outside world as a religious war. And in an ar-

ticle entitled How Religious are the Religious Disturbances? an observer of the

1991 riots in Bauchi State, Nigeria, rightly challenged the interpretation of these

events as primarily religiously determined.1 0 The same holds true for other regions

where in recent years tragic unrest has involved people from different religious

communities.

Even when we direct our attention to the relatively well-documented area of

theological exchanges, we are faced once again with the difficult taskof placing these

pronouncements in the contextof the situation in which they arose. It is irresponsible

to suggest that theological statements are fully determined by the time and the place

of their origin, but it is also meaningless to study them without paying careful atten-tion to their Sitz im Leben. Just a few references to the history of Christian theological

assessments of Islam can elucidate this point. The radical differences in pronounce-

mentsabout Islam made by Byzantine Christians in the west andby Christiansliving

in the Arab world in the ninth to the twelfth centuries cannot be interpreted solely in

terms of different creeds. A ninth-century Nestorian patriarch writes that Muham-

mad walked on the way of the prophets, and a twelfth-century Melkite bishop in Si-

don emphasizes how much the Bible and the Quran have in common. In the same

period some Byzantine theologians, at least one of them writing directly at the re-

quest of the emperor, do not hesitate to state in no uncertain terms that Muslims, far

from worshiping God, worship the apostate demon. 1 1 A study of the Councils of

Ephesus and Chalcedon and of the history and theology of these churches in general

is certainlyimportantwhen oneconsiderstheir attitudes to Islam.However, ignoring

the differences between the political and, certainly no less importantly, the pastoral

settings in Constantinople and Sidon would thwart any effort at understanding the

contrasting statements about Islam.

The fact that all Christian theological assertions about Islam need to be con-

textualized in their historical and socio-political setting is also unmistakably clear,

for example, for sixteenth- and seventeenth-century German protestant pro-

nouncements about the Turks and their religion. Friedrich Heer may well have

been right in maintaining that ever since 1453 the fear of the Turks has done more

harm to inner-European developments than all the Turkish armies, occupations

and political actions in Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. 1 2

1 2 1


1 0

K l a u s H o c k , W i e r e l i g i s s i n d d i e r e l i g i s e n U n r u h e n ? A f r i c a S p e c t r u m 2 7 ( 1 9 9 2 ) 4 3 - 5 8 .

1 1

I n m y 1 9 5 9 s u r v e y o f n u m e r o u s s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t i n g d a t a i n c l u d i n g t h r e e o f t h o s e r e f e r r e d t o

a b o v e i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n w a s g i v e n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n s f r o m w i t h i n w h i c h t h e y a r o s e ; D e I s l a m a l s N a -

C h r i s t e l i j k e R e l i g i e ( s G r a v e n h a g e : v a n K e u l e n , 1 9 5 9 ) 4 7 - 4 8 , 8 0 - 8 1 . A n i m p o r t a n t s t u d y o n t h e t w e l f t h -

c e n t u r y b i s h o p o f S i d o n i s P a u l K h o u r y , P a u l d A n t i o c h e : v q u e M e l k i t e d e S i d o n ( X I I e s . ) ( B e i r u t : I m -

p r i m e r i e C a t h o l i q u e , [ 1 9 6 5 ] ) .

1 2

F r i e d r i c h H e e r , E u r o p a n a c h d e m F a l l K o n s t a n t i n o p e l s , S t i m m e n d e r Z e i t 1 5 2 ( 1 9 5 2 - 5 3 ) 2 5 7 .

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Even fears and hopes based on false rumors are formative historical facts, 1 3 and it

is not difficult to trace the interrelatedness of what Martin Luther and, following

in his steps, the authors of the Trkenbchlein said about Islam and the real or per-ceived immediacy and urgency of the Ottoman threat. Hartmut Brenner

pointed out that the proliferation of violently anti-Turkish pamphlets came to a

temporary halt early in the seventeenth century, after the Turkish setback of 1606.

Their publication resumed after 1664, when Sultan Muhammad IV succeeded in

extending Turkish holdings of Hungarian territory beyond any previous borders,

and came to a definite end only in the last decade of the century, after the final

Turkish withdrawal from the walls of Vienna in 1683.1 4

These historical details can serve as a warning to the situation in which we

find ourselves. Writing about the spirit of detached and academic or humane

inquiry [about Islam]...of the last one hundred years, R. W. Southern observed:

This spirit of detachment was a product of superiority and of the conviction that

there was nothing to fear. Since in our time more and more people in the westbegin to feel that they are no longer fully in control of their own and of world af-

fairs, and since fear of the Muslims begins to shape once again the reactions of

many, chances that a detached interest in Islam and a more sympathetic attitude

toward Muslims will spread to ever wider circles of the population are disturb-

ingly slim. The relatively few existing endeavors to promote a more adequate un-

derstanding of the Muslim world in our midst, and every new effort in this

direction, should therefore be recognized and supported as being of the greatest

importance.

III. OB S T A C L E S T O CH R I S T I A N -MU S L I M U N D E R S T A N D I N G

If fairly little is known of the history of Christian-Muslim relations, one maywonder whether it is justifiable to characterize that past with the single adjective

burdensome. This summary description is indeed one-sided. There have been

countless instances of sustained and mutually enriching friendships between

Muslims and Christians in many parts of the world. Muslim insights and contribu-

tions have had a major impact on western civilization in the areas of diplomacy

and economics, in the sciences (especially mathematics and medicine), and in phi-

losophy, as well as in various branches of the fine arts. But, as Robert Caspar ob-

served, this opening up to the richness of the other never extended to the sphere

of religion: In this area, he wrote, the incomprehensibility is almost total. 1 6

1 2 2

B i j l e f e l d

1 3

T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e i s t h e l e g e n d o f P r e s t e r J o h n a n d i t s i m p a c t o n E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y

f r o m t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S e e , e . g . , G r n d e r , W e l -

t e r o b e r u n g , e s p . 4 2 - 4 8 .

1 4

H a r t m u t B r e n n e r , P r o t e s t a n t i s c h e O r t h o d o x i e u n d I s l a m . D i e H e r a u s f o r d e r u n g d e r t r k i s c h e n

R e l i g i o n i m S p i e g e l e v a n g e l i s c h e r T h e o l o g e n d e s a u s g e h e n d e n 1 6 . u n d d e s 1 7 . J a h r h u n d e r t s ( T h e o l .

D i s s . , H e i d e l b e r g , 1 9 6 8 ) i i i .

1 5

R . W . S o u t h e r n , W e s t e r n V i e w s o f I s l a m i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s ( C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y ,

1 9 6 2 ) 3 - 4 .

1 6

R o b e r t C a s p a r , P o u r u n r e g a r d c h r t i e n s u r l I s l a m ( P a r i s : C e n t u r i o n , 1 9 9 0 ) 1 8 0 .

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When we search for the reasons why this has been the case for such a long

time for Christians in the west, another major factor comes to mind in addition to

the aforementioned element of fearand not entirely unrelated to it. From thevery beginning Islam was for these Christians not just another religion, but a theo-

logical mystery: How could God allow this community to come into being and to

spread in regions in which the church up to that time had occupied such an impor-

tant place? In Houranis words: What role, if any, did the victory of Islam over

Christianity play in the providential order of the world? 1 7

Toward the end of the crusades, faced with repeated Muslim victories, Ric-

coldo da Monte di Croce (1243-1320) and others wrestled with the same agonizing

question, Ubi est Deus, Deus Christianorum? (Where is God, the God of the

Christians?).1 8 Although perhaps less intenselybecause the success of the Turk-

ish armies was often seen as only a temporary setbacksimilar questions occu-

pied also the authors of the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Trkenbchlein

who interpreted the Turkish peril as a scourge of God. 1 9 Their anguished an-swers, theologically unacceptable as they now may be deemed to be, have a much

greater human appeal than the acrimonious statements about Islam made by some

nineteenth- and twentieth-century authors who, writing from within a position of

supposed strength, have also sought to determine the place of Islam in Gods plan

for history.

Although obviously much more could be said about theological problems

that face Christians and Muslims on their way to a deeper understanding of each

others faith-commitments, we rather stress here once again the crucial importance

also of non-theological factors. In his remarks about obstacles Christians have to

overcome in order to bring about a meaningful dialogue with Muslims, the Egyp-

tian Fuad Kandil dealt in a 1994 article with the religious-theological blockades

last, after having discussed emotional, cognitive, cultural, and social hindrances. 2 0

Since this Muslim author reflected primarily on obstacles for Christians, it seems

appropriate that we highlight some of the major barriers for Muslims.

We touched upon this point earlier when we mentioned the western military

and political intrusions in the Muslim world in the nineteenth and the first half of

the twentieth century. Numerous Muslims see Christians in the light of what they

1 2 3


1 7

A l b e r t H o u r a n i , E u r o p e a n d t h e M i d d l e E a s t ( B e r k e l e y a n d L o s A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ,

1 9 8 0 ) 2 1 .

1 8

R i c c o l d o r e p o r t s i n h i s l e t t e r T o t h e T r u e , L i v i n g G o d t h a t M u s l i m s a n d o t h e r s m o c k i n g l y s a y

t h a t C h r i s t i a n s , o n c e c o n f i d e n t t h a t G o d w o u l d h e l p t h e m , n o w c r y o u t i n d e s p a i r W h e r e i s G o d ? T h e r e

i s n o d o u b t t h a t t h i s r e f l e c t s i n d e e d t h e r e a c t i o n s o f m a n y C h r i s t i a n s , a s i s m o v i n g l y e v i d e n t a l s o f r o m

R i c c o l d o s o t h e r l e t t e r s T o t h e H e a v e n l y C o u r t , o n e o f w h i c h w a s t r a n s l a t e d b y J e a n - M a r i e M r i g o u x ,

L e t t r e s d u F r r e R i c c o l d o . . . a d r e s s e s l g l i s e d u C i e l , S o u r c e s 1 2 ( 1 9 8 6 ) 2 0 6 - 2 1 2 . S e e a l s o N o r m a n

D a n i e l , I s l a m a n d t h e W e s t ( E d i n b u r g h : E d i n b u r g h U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 0 ) 1 2 7 - 3 3 .

1 9

J o h n W . B o h n s t e d t , T h e I n f i d e l S c o u r g e o f G o d : T h e T u r k i s h M e n a c e a s S e e n b y G e r m a n P a m p h l e t e e r s

o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n E r a , T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , N . S . 5 7 / 9 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : T h e

A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 6 8 ) 2 5 - 3 1 . S e e a l s o B r e n n e r , P r o t e s t a n t i s c h e O r t h o d o x i e , 1 9 1 - 2 0 0 ,

a n d o n L u t h e r , E g i l G r i s l i s , L u t h e r a n d t h e T u r k s , T h e M u s l i m W o r l d 6 4 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 1 8 4 .

2 0

F u a d K a n d i l , D i a l o g , 1 7 7 - 8 0 .

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perceive as a centuries-old and still ongoing war waged against the house of Is-

lam. The middle link in this chain of events, the period of colonization and evan-

gelization, is seen, on the one side, as a continuation of the crusades and, on theother, as finding its contemporary expression in various forms of neo-colonialism.

In the discussion of this third stage, the topics of Orientalism and of the formation

of the state of Israel come up with great frequency. Since many surveys and excel-

lent analyses of Muslim reactions on this issue already exist, just one quotation,

from one of the most insightful Muslim observers of Muslim-Christian relations,

seems sufficient. In his 1989 article about Roots of Muslim-Christian Conflict,

Mahmoud Ayoub observed: Muslims see a sinister alliance between modern

western colonialism, or the new world crusadism as they call it, and world-

-Zionism.2 1

Any memory may be selective, but a collective memory most certainly is.

Clearly, justice is not done to the complex phenomenon of the crusades by focus-

ing exclusively on the atrocities committed in the name of Christ. Yet it seems un-avoidable that precisely these stories determine Muslims perceptions of the

crusades. Records and reports with which for a long time only a relatively small

number of people in the west were acquainted have in recent years come to the at-

tention of Muslims worldwide. The recapturing of Jerusalem in July 1099 is the cli-

max of all the shocking events recorded. In a chapter with the deliberately

agonizing title The Triumph of the Cross, 2 2 Steven Runciman summarizes in so-

ber words what happened in the final stage of this battle. He writes about the cru-

saders rushing through the streets and into the houses and mosques killing all

that they met, men, women and children alike, continuing their massacre that

whole afternoon and all through the night. The author mentions the killing of the

Muslims who had sought refuge in the al-Aqsa mosque, such a carnage that the

person to whom we owe an eye-witness account of this scene reports that later that

morning, when he visited the Temple area, he had to pick his way through

corpses and blood that reached up to his knees. The massacre emptied Jerusa-

lem of its Moslem and Jewish inhabitants, the latter having been burnt to death

when the chief synagogue to which they had fled was set on fire by the crusaders.2 3

From Runcimans own comments on these events I quote two sentences:

I t w a s t h i s b l o o d t h i r s t y p r o o f o f C h r i s t i a n f a n a t i c i s m t h a t r e c r e a t e d t h e f a n a t i -

c i s m o f I s l a m . W h e n , l a t e r , w i s e r L a t i n s i n t h e E a s t s o u g h t t o f i n d s o m e b a s i s o n

w h i c h C h r i s t i a n a n d M o s l e m c o u l d w o r k t o g e t h e r , t h e m e m o r y o f t h e m a s s a c r e

s t o o d a l w a y s i n t h e i r w a y .

2 4

Almost 900 years later this memory still stands in our way. Will it ever fade? Mo-

hammed Arkoun recently proposed an initiative from the side of the CatholicChurchthat couldmake allthe tragicconfrontationswith Islam since theCrusades

1 2 4

B i j l e f e l d

2 1

M a h m o u d M . A y o u b , R o o t s o f M u s l i m - C h r i s t i a n C o n f l i c t , T h e M u s l i m W o r l d 7 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) 3 3 .

2 2

S t e v e n R u n c i m a n , A H i s t o r y o f t h e C r u s a d e s , 3 v o l s . ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n , 1 9 6 5 ) 1 : 2 7 9 - 8 8 .

2 3

I b i d . , 2 8 7 .

2 4

I b i d .

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a thing of the past.2 5 The dream may someday be fulfilled, perhaps not so much

through a singlebe it complexinitiative, but through a long process of gradual

and fundamental changes in attitudes towards the Muslim world amongChristiansworld-wide.

In the meantime, those of us who are Christians should act and react to the

Muslim memory of the crusades with the humility, to say the least, that behooves

us. Occasionally we may have an opportunity to point out that numerous Chris-

tians did not shout to God with the voice of triumph while Muslims and Jews

were massacred in Jerusalem. Christians criticism of the crusades even in the pe-

riod from the eleventh to the fourteenth century has been well documented. 2 6

Since Luthers extremely sharp utterances regarding the Turks are often quoted

without due reference to this other dimension of his vision, it seems appropriate to

mention the radical criticism of the crusades in his writings and in those of many

who followed in his footsteps in the next century and a half. The literature con-

tains strong protests against the shedding of blood for the purpose of recoveringthe tomb of Christ, and Hottinger expresses a keen awareness of the harm done to

the eastern churches by these western undertakings. In the case of Praetorius, the

criticism extends interestingly to the Reconquista of Spain, an event, the author

maintained, that ultimately led to a great impoverishment of western Europe. 2 7

We observed earlier that many Muslims see the stage of western colonialism

and imperialism as a direct continuation of the pattern of the crusades and often

emphasize the interrelatedness of colonization and missions. It is widely acknowl-

edged that the period of territorial expansion, political dominance, and eco-

nomic/commercial exploitation was concurrently, as Grnder formulated it, a

time of cultural expansionism and spiritual conquest. 2 8 On this point, too, we

need to take deeply engraved conceptions seriously without ignoring other his-

torical facts. In a 1993 article, Mission and Colonialism, Hans-Werner Gensichen

discussed the complexity of this relationship throughout the centuries. For one of

the periods, that of modern colonial imperialism, he distinguished three stages:

mission as forerunner of colonialism, mission in its dependency on colonial pow-

ers, and mission in opposition to colonialism. 2 9 It is undeniable that many current

images of the alliance between colonialism and mission are one-sided, but it is also

clear that they have their origin in equally undeniable historical facts.

IV. A NE W

PE R I O D I N

CH R I S T I A N

-MU S L I M

RE L A T I O N S

Because we dealt with the past as background to the present, we have already

touched more than once upon the contemporary situation, a subject to which we

1 2 5


2 5

A r k o u n , I s I s l a m T h r e a t e n e d ? 5 3 - 5 7 .

2 6

T h e m o s t h e l p f u l s t u d y o n t h i s t o p i c i s s t i l l P a l m e r A . T h r o o p , C r i t i c i s m o f t h e C r u s a d e : A S t u d y o f

P u b l i c O p i n i o n a n d C r u s a d e P r o p a g a n d a ( A m s t e r d a m : S w e t s & Z e i t l i n g e r , 1 9 4 0 ) .

2 7

B r e n n e r , P r o t e s t a n t i s c h e O r t h o d o x i e , 2 0 4 - 2 0 7 .

2 8

G r n d e r , W e l t e r o b e r u n g , 1 4 .

2 9

H a n s - W e r n e r G e n s i c h e n , M i s s i o n u n d K o l o n i a l i s m u s , Z e i t s c h r i f t f r M i s s i o n s w i s s e n s c h a f t u n d

R e l i g i o n s w i s s e n s c h a f t 7 7 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 2 9 - 3 4 .

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now turn more explicitly. There is general agreement that from the middle of this

century onward we have entered a new stage in the study of Islam by Christians

and, partly as a result thereof, a new period in Christian-Muslim relations. Opin-ions differ as to how radical the changes are, but because of the trailblazing work

of Louis Massignon and Kenneth Cragg (may these two names stand for many),

and since the Second Vatican Council and the establishment of the dialogue unit of

the World Council of Churches, we have turned a corner and new horizons are

opening up. In western Europe the radical rethinking of the whole issue of Chris-

tians and people of other faiths did not begin with reflections on the relationship

with Muslims, but rather in a soul-searching re-examination of Christian-Jewish

relations immediately after World War II. Already in the 1950s, however, the

world of Islam also began to receive the attention it deserves in these delibera-

tions. A delineation of the shifts that took place in Christian theological thinking in

this realm falls outside the scope of this article. The point to be made here is merely

that important developments in Christian as well as in Muslim views of our rela-tionship warrant a guarded optimism that we are on our way to a more promising

future.

There are good reasons for the tentativeness of the statement just made. The

term used in the subtitle of this essay, a challenging future, is intended to give

expression to both the hope and the concern that grow out of the present situation.

One of the sobering developments in recent history, among Christians as well as

Muslims, is the spread of trends that are often designated as fundamentalist, a

convenient but imprecise and therefore somewhat misleading generic term to

characterize a number of comparable yet widely divergent tendencies. The exces-

siveness of the militant fanatics does not need to be commented upon. An ulti-

mately far more important phenomenon is the religious-withdrawal symptom we

witness in many circles, a sort of religious isolationism that is, potentially at least,

as dangerous as any political and ultranationalistic isolationism. The defensive re-

action of some people is to a large extent the result of the same globalization of

communications and contacts that have made many others gratefully aware of the

worlds rich cultural and religious diversity. Those who want to protect and main-

tain the reassuring safety of the familiar understandably look upon the outsider,

the other, not as a source of renewal and enrichment, but as a threat.

Many other factors, considered by most of us to be largely beyond our control,

also impact Christian-Muslim relations in our time. Although we may find it mean-

ingless to continue talking about the Christianwest,at moments of tension and cri-

sis some westernerscouch their appeal for the defense of westerncivilization against

outside forces in terms that are interpreted in the Muslim world as crypto-Christianand blatantly anti-Islamic and that therefore have an immediate impact on our rela-

tionship. However, the atmosphere in which we meet or avoid each other is deter-

mined notonly by religiousand semireligious statements butalso by purely secular

discussions and events.Our future relations will be lessaffected by even the most

impressive theological pronouncements of an international dialogue conference

than by our action and inaction on issues such as the use of the worlds natural

1 2 6

B i j l e f e l d

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resources, questions of poverty, justice, equality, discrimination, and marginaliza-

tion, and the delicate problem of equal treatment of all nations, Islamic or not, in the

foreign policy decisions of western governments.While the complexity of these issues may seem overwhelming, there are also

hopeful signs of a growing mutual understanding between Muslims and Chris-

tians, especially in the field of social ethics. News about the activities of Christians

in Latin America and observations in other parts of the world have made a grow-

ing number of Muslims aware of the fact that there are Christians who see their in-

volvement in social, economic, and political struggles as an integral part of their

faith commitment. To many of these Muslims this comes as a surprise. A wide-

spread image has been and still is that Christianity as a spiritual force, in the

words of Fazlur Rahman, almost never oriented either the polity or the other so-

cial institutions of the Christian people, except for marriage,3 0 and that it has now

lost the opportunity to do so. Concern for the macro-structures of society was held

to be a uniquely Islamic feature, and contrasting views on the issue of separationbetween church/religion and state seemed to point to a distinct division between

us. In our time many begin to realize that these simplistic contrapositions are no

longer valid, if ever they were.

Smail Balic, a prominent European Muslim leader, once warned against the

danger of politicizing Islam by appealing to the slogan dn wa dawla (religion

and state) and maintained that the freedom to make autonomous decisions in

secular matters is anchored in the legitimately Islamic recognition of the twofold

reality of dn wa dunya (religion and world). 3 1 In his discussion of the role of Is-

lamic law in contemporary society, Fazlur Rahman frequently defended the thesis

of the priority of the moral teachings of the Qur an and the need to interpret the

law not only in light of the moral objectives and principles of the Qur an, but also

in terms of the change in the social situation. This cautioning against a legalistic

fixation of Islam in no way means abandoning the notion of Islams relevance for

the issues of society: Islam has had, as its central taskand this in its very gene-

sisto construct a social order on a viable ethical basis.3 2

As noted above, we find also in many Christian circles a renewed interest in

questions of religion and society and a growing awareness of the need to find a

balance between the recognition of civil liberties on the one hand and a concern for

the well-being of society on the other. It is urgent that, wherever feasible, Chris-

tians and Muslims engage in common reflection on what it means to live as people

of faith in the society in which God has placed them and explore possibilities for

joint action.

1 2 7


3 0

F a z l u r R a h m a n , I s l a m : C h a l l e n g e s a n d O p p o r t u n i t i e s , i n I s l a m : P a s t I n f l u e n c e a n d P r e s e n t C h a l -

l e n g e , e d . A l f o r d T . W e l c h a n d P i e r r e C a c h i a ( E d i n b u r g h : E d i n b u r g h U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 9 ) 3 2 9 .

3 1

S m a i l B a l i c , D e r I s l a m v o r d e r H e r a u s f o r d e r u n g d u r c h d i e I n d u s t r i e g e s e l l s c h a f t , I s l a m u n d d e r

W e s t e n 3 / 1 - 2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 4 ; s e e a l s o h i s D a s S c h a r i a - V e r s t n d n i s , i n p l u r a l i s t i s c h e r G e s e e l s c h a f t , I s l a m u n d

d e r W e s t e n 1 / 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) 2 - 3 .

3 2

F a z l u r R a h m a n , I s l a m : C h a l l e n g e s , 3 2 6 , 3 3 0 ; c f . h i s M a j o r T h e m e s o f t h e Q u r \ a n ( M i n n e a p o l i s -

C h i c a g o : B i b l i o t h e c a I s l a m i c a , 1 9 8 0 ) 4 7 - 4 9 .

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Whether we find the term clarifying or hopelessly confusing, most of us have

theillusion that we know what people mean when they speak about our time as the

age of dialogue. An objective of dialogue widely agreed upon is to remove misun-derstandings andto help us to understand,not justintellectually,but with ourhearts,

what faith means to those to whom we open up our lives and with whom we share

our thoughts. But many of us are convinced that even with thebestintentions we will

not move beyond a series of enlightening double monologues 3 3 unless we recog-

nize that dialogue requires also the willingness to rethink and restate our own faith

from within this encounter. Without imposing this as a condition upon those willing

to enter into a dialogue with us, we need to state explicitly that in our view inter-faith

dialogue remains of limited significance without openness to change. In an in-depth

dialogue the initial, fully understandable, and absolutely legitimate concern to safe-

guard what we have and what we have received can and should gradually recede in

the light of the no-longer-threatening experience of being enriched by new insights.

Maurice Wiless thesis that full commitment and openness to change are not incom-patible, that loyalty andself-criticism cancoexist3 4 presupposes thatwe take the ab-

soluteness of our faith commitments as seriously as the openness to change. The

ultimate value of any dialogue is perhaps determined less by the extent to which it

changes the perspectives of others than by the way it affects and changes us. Under-

stood in this way, inter-faith dialogue is an extremely weightymatter.Those who ap-

proach it lightly inflict greater harm on it than even its most outspoken critics and

opponents.

Much of the material discussed above has been selected to underline what

seems to me a crucially important point, not just with regard to the new program

of Islamic Studies at Luther Seminary in St. Paul, but with regard to any such pro-

gram, whether located at a seminary or in a university department of religious

studies. One of the ongoing problems facing several of these programs is their aca-

demic isolation. Unless all possibilities for cross-disciplinary and inter-

departmental contacts at the seminary and within the university are used to the

fullest extent possible, even the most comprehensive programs in Islamic Studies

will continue to suffer from the lack of cross-fertilization with other fields in the

humanities, and their impact will remain limited also as far as Christian-Muslim

relations in a wider setting are concerned.

Earlier we touched upon the reasons why it seems premature to describe the

future of those relationships in unreservedly optimistic terms. But the potentials of

long-established programs in the study of Islam and of the promising new begin-

ning in this academic field in St. Paul, as well as many seemingly unrelated devel-

opments in our relations with each other as Muslims and Christians, should begratefully recognized as belonging to the imprints of Gods mercy that the

Quran admonishes us not to ignore.

1 2 8

B i j l e f e l d

3 3

P e t e r A n t e s , D i a l o g o d e r d o p p e l t e r M o n o l o g ? B e m e r k u n g e n z u m G e s p r c h z w i s c h e n C h r i s t e n

u n d M u s l i m , i n G o t t e s i s t d e r O r i e n t , G o t t e s i s t d e r O k z i d e n t , F e s t s c h r i f t f r A b d o l j a v a d F a l a t u r i , e d . U d o

T w o r u s c h k a ( C o l o g n e - V i e n n a : B h l a u , 1 9 9 1 ) 4 2 5 - 4 3 7 .

3 4

M a u r i c e W i l e s , C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o g y a n d I n t e r - r e l i g i o u s D i a l o g u e ( L o n d o n : S . C . M . , 1 9 9 2 ) 8 1 .

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