439.английский язык практика ведения дискуссий

1

Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации

Ярославский государственный университет им. П. Г. Демидова

Кафедра иностранных языков естественно-научных факультетов

И. К. Бугрова

Английский язык:

практика ведения дискуссий

Практикум

Рекомендовано

Научно-методическим советом университета

для студентов, обучающихся по направлению

Прикладная математика и информатика

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ЯРГУ

2012

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Бугрова, И. К. Английский язык: практика ведения дис-

куссий: практикум / И. К. Бугрова; Яросл. гос. ун-т им. П. Г. Де-

мидова. – Ярославль: ЯрГУ, 2012. – 68 с.

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3

UNIT 1

Paul Zak: Trust, morality and oxytocin URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/paul_zak_trust_morality_and_oxytocin.html

Is there anything unique about human beings? There is. We're the on-

ly creatures with fully developed moral sentiments. We're obsessed with

morality as social creatures. We need to know why people are doing what

they're doing. And I personally am obsessed with morality. It was all due

to this woman, Sister Mary Marastela, also known as my mom. As an al-

tar boy, I breathed in a lot of incense, and I learned to say phrases in Lat-

in, but I also had time to think about whether my mother's top-down mo-

rality applied to everybody. I saw that people who were religious and

non-religious were equally obsessed with morality. I thought, maybe

there's some earthly basis for moral decisions. But I wanted to go further

than to say our brains make us moral. I want to know if there's a chemi-

stry of morality. I want to know if there was a moral molecule.

Люди; чувства; постоянно думать; благодаря; вдыхать; ладан;

решения.

After 10 years of experiments, I found it. Would you like to see it? I

brought some with me. This little syringe contains the moral molecule.

It's called oxytocin. So oxytocin is a simple and ancient molecule found

only in mammals. In rodents, it was known to make mothers care for

their offspring, and in some creatures, allowed for toleration of burrow-

mates. But in humans, it was only known to facilitate birth and breast-

feeding in women, and is released by both sexes during sex.

Шприц; грызуны; забота; потомство; облегчение; роды;

кормление; выделять.

So I had this idea that oxytocin might be the moral molecule. I did

what most of us do – I tried it on some colleagues. One of them told me,

«Paul, that is the world's stupidest idea. It is,» he said, «only a female

molecule. It can't be that important.» But I countered, «Well men's

brains make this too. There must be a reason why.» But he was right, it

was a stupid idea. But it was testably stupid. In other words, I thought I

could design an experiment to see if oxytocin made people moral.

Идиотский; ответить.


4

Turns out it wasn't so easy. First of all, oxytocin is a shy mole-

cule. Baseline levels are near zero, without some stimulus to cause its

release. And when it's produced, it has a three-minute half-life, and

degrades rapidly at room temperature. So this experiment would have

to cause a surge of oxytocin, have to grab it fast and keep it cold. I

think I can do that. Now luckily, oxytocin is produced both in the

brain and in the blood, so I could do this experiment without learning

neurosurgery. Then I had to measure morality.

Оказывается; застенчивый; базовый; полжизни; быстро;

всплеск; собрать.

So taking on Morality with a capital M is a huge project. So I started

smaller. I studied one single virtue: trustworthiness. Why? I had shown in

the early 2000s that countries with a higher proportion of trustworthy

people are more prosperous. So in these countries, more economic trans-

actions occur and more wealth is created, alleviating poverty. So poor

countries are by and large low trust countries. So if I understood the che-

mistry of trustworthiness, I might help alleviate poverty.

Качество; надежность; процент; процветающий; происхо-

дить; богатство; снижать; бедность; бедные.

But I'm also a skeptic. I don't want to just ask people, «Are you

trustworthy?» So instead I use the Jerry Maguire approach to research.

If you're so virtuous, show me the money. So what we do in my lab is

we tempt people with virtue and vice by using money. Let me show

you how we do that. So we recruit some people for an experiment.

They all get $10 if they agree to show up. We give them lots of in-

struction, and we never ever deceive them. Then we match them in

pairs by computer. And in that pair, one person gets a message saying,

«Do you want to give up some of your $10 you earned for being here

and ship it to someone else in the lab?» The trick is you can't see

them, you can't talk to them. You only do it one time. Now whatever

you give up gets tripled in the other person's account. You're going to

make them a lot wealthier. And they get a message by computer say-

ing person one sent you this amount of money. Do you want to keep it

all, or do you want to send some amount back?

Подход; исследование; добродетельный; искушать, склонять;

грех; набирать; обманывать; хитрость.


5

So think about this experiment for a minute. You're going to sit

on these hard chairs for an hour and a half. Some mad scientist is

going to jab your arm with a needle and take four tubes of blood. And

now you want me to give up this money and ship it to a stranger? So

this was the birth of vampire economics. Make a decision and give me

some blood.

Сумасшедший; игла; втыкать; пробирка.

So in fact, experimental economists had run this test around the

world, and for much higher stakes, and the consensus view was that

the measure from the first person to the second was a measure of trust,

and the transfer from the second person back to the first measured

trustworthiness. But in fact, economists were flummoxed on why the

second person would ever return any money. They assumed money is

good, why not keep it all?

Ставки; в замешательстве; думать.

That's not what we found. We found 90 percent of the first deci-

sion-makers sent money, and of those who received money, 95 per-

cent returned some of it. But why? Well, by measuring oxytocin we

found that the more money the second person received, the more their

brain produced oxytocin, and the more oxytocin on board, the more

money they returned. So we have a biology of trustworthiness.

Получать.

But wait. What's wrong with this experiment? Two things. One

is that nothing in the body happens in isolation. So we measured

nine other molecules that interact with oxytocin, but they didn't

have any effect. But the second is that I still only had this indirect

relationship between oxytocin and trustworthiness. I didn't know for

sure oxytocin caused trustworthiness. So to make the experiment, I

knew I'd have to go into the brain and manipulate oxytocin directly.

I used everything short of a drill to get oxytocin into my own brain.

And I found I could do it with a nasal inhaler. So along with col-

leagues in Zurich, we put 200 men on oxytocin or placebo, had that

same trust test with money, and we found that those on oxytocin not

only showed more trust, we can more than double the number of

people who sent all their money to a stranger – all without altering

mood or cognition.


6

Само по себе, в изоляции, отдельно; косвенный; связь; вызы-

вать; дрель, тренировка, упражнение, сверлить; носовой; на-

строение; понимание.

So oxytocin is the trust molecule, but is it the moral molecule?

Using the oxytocin inhaler, we ran more studies. We showed that oxy-

tocin infusion increases generosity in unilateral monetary transfers by

80 percent. We showed it increases donations to charity by 50 percent.

We've also investigated non-pharmacologic ways to raise oxytocin.

These include massage, dancing and praying. Yes, my mom was hap-

py about that last one. And whenever we raise oxytocin, people wil-

lingly open up their wallets and share money with strangers.

Исследования; повышать; щедрость; односторонний; по-

жертвование; благотворительность; повысить; изучать.

But why do they do this? What does it feel like when your brain is

flooded with oxytocin? To investigate this question, we ran an expe-

riment where we had people watch a video of a father and his four

year-old son, and his son has terminal brain cancer. After they watch-

ed the video, we had them rate their feelings and took blood before

and after to measure oxytocin. The change in oxytocin predicted their

feelings of empathy. So it's empathy that makes us connect to other

people. It's empathy that makes us help other people. It's empathy that

makes us moral.

От (поток, потоп); изучать; смотреть; рак; последняя стадия;

оценить; предсказывать; сочувствие.

Now this idea is not new. A then unknown philosopher named

Adam Smith wrote a book in 1759 called «The Theory of Moral Sen-

timents.» In this book, Smith argued that we are moral creatures, not

because of a top-down reason, but for a bottom-up reason. He said

we're social creatures, so we share the emotions of others. So if I do

something that hurts you, I feel that pain. So I tend to avoid that. If I

do something that makes you happy, I get to share your joy. So I tend

to do those things. Now this is the same Adam Smith who, 17 years

later, would write a little book called «The Wealth of Nations» – the

founding document of economics. But he was, in fact, a moral philo-

sopher, and he was right on why we're moral. I just found the mole-


7

cule behind it. But knowing that molecule is valuable, because it tells

us how to turn up this behavior and what turns it off. In particular, it

tells us why we see immorality.

Утверждать; не потому, что это дано свыше, а потому, что

это исходит изнутри; делиться, разделять; причинять боль; осно-

вополагающий; обоснование; ценный; поведение; безнравствен-

ность.

So to investigate immorality, let me bring you back now to 1980.

I'm working at a gas station on the outskirts of Santa Barbara, Califor-

nia. You sit in a gas station all day, you see lots of morality and im-

morality, let me tell you. So one Sunday afternoon, a man walks into

my cashier's booth with this beautiful jewelry box. Opens it up and

there's a pearl necklace inside. And he said, «Hey, I was in the men's

room. I just found this. What do you think we should do with it?» «I

don't know, put it in the lost and found.» «Well this is very valuable.

We have to find the owner for this.» I said, «Yea.»

Окраина; вернуть; кассир; кабина; жемчужное; ожерелье.

So we're trying to decide what to do with this, and the phone

rings. And a man says very excitedly, «I was in your gas station a

while ago, and I bought this jewelry for my wife, and I can't find it.» I

said, «Pearl necklace?» «Yeah.» «Hey, a guy just found it.» «Oh,

you're saving my life. Here's my phone number. Tell that guy to wait

half an hour. I'll be there and I'll give him a $200 reward.» Great, so I

tell the guy, «Look, relax. Get yourself a fat reward. Life's good.» He

said, «I can't do it. I have this job interview in Galena in 15 minutes,

and I need this job, I've got to go.» Again he asked me, «What do you

think we should do?» I'm in high school. I have no idea. So I said, «I'll

hold it for you.» He said, «You know, you've been so nice, let's split

the reward.» I'll give you the jewelry, you give me a hundred dollars,

and when the guy comes ...

Взволнованно; вознаграждение.

You see it. I was conned. So this is a classic con called the pigeon

drop, and I was the pigeon. So the way many cons work is not that the

conman gets the victim to trust him, it's that he shows he trusts the vic-


8

tim. Now we know what happens. The victim's brain releases oxytocin,

and you're opening up your wallet or purse, giving away the money.

Обмануть; мошенник; жертва; кошелек.

So who are these people who manipulate our oxytocin systems?

We found, testing thousands of individuals, that five percent of the

population don't release oxytocin on stimulus. So if you trust them,

their brains don't release oxytocin. If there's money on the table, they

keep it all. So there's a technical word for these people in my lab. We

call them bastards. These are not people you want to have a beer with.

They have many of the attributes of psychopaths.

Вырабатывать, высвобождать.

Now there are other ways the system can be inhibited. One is

through improper nurturing. So we've studied sexually abused women,

and about half those don't release oxytocin on stimulus. You need

enough nurturing for this system to develop properly. Also, high stress

inhibits oxytocin. So we all know this, when we're really stressed out,

we're not acting our best.

Подавлять; неправильный; воспитание, отношения; насилие.

There's another way oxytocin is inhibited, which is interesting –

through the action of testosterone. So we, in experiments, have admi-

nistered testosterone to men. And instead of sharing money, they be-

come selfish. But interestingly, high testosterone males are also more

likely to use their own money to punish others for being selfish. Now

think about this. It means, within our own biology, we have the yin

and yang of morality. We have oxytocin that connects us to others,

makes us feel what they feel. And we have testosterone. And men

have 10 times the testosterone as women, so men do this more than

women – we have testosterone that makes us want to punish people

who behave immorally. We don't need God or government telling us

what to do. It's all inside of us.

Прописывать; эгоистичный; наказание.

So you may be wondering: these are beautiful laboratory experi-

ments, do they really apply to real life? Yeah, I've been worrying

about that too. So I've gone out of the lab to see if this really holds in


9

our daily lives. So last summer, I attended a wedding in Southern Eng-

land. 200 people in this beautiful Victorian mansion. I didn't know a

single person. And I drove up in my rented Vauxhall. And I took out a

centrifuge and dry ice and needles and tubes. And I took blood from

the bride and the groom and the wedding party and the family and the

friends before and immediately after the vows.

Повседневный; присутствовать; свадьба; особняк; арендо-

ванный; клятвы.

And guess what? Weddings cause a release of oxytocin, but they

do so in a very particular way. Who is the center of the wedding solar

system? The bride. She had the biggest increase in oxytocin. Who

loves the wedding almost as much as the bride? Her mother, that's

right. Her mother was number two. Then the groom's father, then the

groom, then the family, then the friends – arrayed around the bride

like planets around the Sun. So I think it tells us that we've designed

this ritual to connect us to this new couple, connect us emotionally.

Why? Because we need them to be successful at reproducing to perpe-

tuate the species.

Вызывать; невеста; выброс; жених; придумать; пара; увеко-

вечить; вид.

I also worried that my trust experiments with small amounts of

money didn't really capture how often we actually trust our lives to

strangers. So even though I have a fear of heights, I recently strapped

myself to another human being and stepped out of an airplane at

12,000 ft. I took my blood before and after, and I had a huge spike of

oxytocin. And there are so many ways we can connect to people. For

example, through social media. Many people are Tweeting right now.

So we investigated the role of social media and found the using social

media produced a solid double-digit increase in oxytocin.

Захватить; недавно; пристегнуть; выпрыгнуть; скачок; изу-

чать.

So I ran this experiment recently for the Korean Broadcasting

System. And they had the reporters and their producers participate.

And one of these guys, he must have been 22, he had 150 percent

spike in oxytocin. I mean, astounding; no one has this. So he was us-


10

ing social media in private. When I wrote my report to the Koreans, I

said, «Look, I don't know what this guy was doing,» but my guess was

interacting with his mother or his girlfriend. They checked. He was in-

teracting on his girlfriend's Facebook page. There you go. That's con-

nection. So there's tons of ways that we can connect to other people,

and it seems to be universal.

Вещание; миллионы способов; потрясающе.

Two weeks ago, I just got back from Papua New Guinea where I

went up to the highlands – very isolated tribes of subsistence farmers

living as they have lived for millenia. There are 800 different languag-

es in the highlands. These are the most primitive people in the world.

And they indeed also release oxytocin.

Горы; племена; действительно.

So oxytocin connects us to other people. Oxytocin makes us feel

what other people feel. And it's so easy to cause people's brains to re-

lease oxytocin. I know how to do it, and my favorite way to do it is, in

fact, the easiest. Let me show it to you. Come here. Give me a hug.

(Laughter) There you go.

Заставить; обнять.

So my penchant for hugging other people has earned me the nick-

name Dr. Love. I'm happy to share a little more love in the world, it's

great, but here's your prescription from Dr. Love: eight hugs a day.

We have found that people who release more oxytocin are happier.

And they're happier because they have better relationships of all types.

Dr. Love says eight hugs a day. Eight hugs a day – you'll be happier

and the world will be a better place. Of course, if you don't like to

touch people, I can always shove this up your nose.

Склонность; объятиям; заработать; рецепт; отношения.


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Glossary of the Unit

human

being

человек trustwor-

thiness

надежность, креди-

тоспособность

sentiment чувство proportion пропорция, доля

to be

obsessed

быть одержи-

мым чем-либо

prosperous процветающий, ус-

пешный

to breathe

in

вдыхать occur происходить,

попадаться

incense ладан, фимиам wealth богатство

decision решение alleviate смягчать, облегчать

syringe шприц, опры-

скиватель

poverty бедность, нищета

rodent грызун tempt искушать, склонять

to care заботиться approach подход,

приближение

offspring потомок,

продукт

research исследование

to facili-

tate

облегчать, спо-

собствовать

virtuous добродетельный

breast-

feeding

грудное вскарм-

ливание

vice порок

to release освобождать,

выпускать

recruit набирать

nasal носовой to deceive обманывать

to counter парировать trick трюк, уловка

tribe племя penchant склонность, распо-

ложение, любовь

turn out оказаться mad сумасшедший

shy застенчивый,

пугливый

needle игла

baseline базовый уровень jab толкать, втыкать,

колоть

half-life полжизни tube пробирка, трубка

rapidly быстро stake ставка

surge всплеск to be

flummoxed

быть в замешатель-

стве


12

grab хватать to assume предполагать;

допускать

virtue добродетель,

качество,

достоинство

to receive получать

in isolation в изоляции donation пожертвование

indirect косвенный charity благотворитель-

ность

relation-

ship

отношения to raise поднимать

to cause вызывать, быть

причиной

to investi-

gate

исследовать

drill дрель, трениров-

ка, упражнение;

сверлить

flood поток, потоп

mood настроение cancer рак

cognition познание terminal конечный

to increase увеличивать to predict предсказывать

generosity великодушие,

благородство,

щедрость

empathy эмпатия

unilateral односторонний to argue спорить,

аргументировать

share делить; доля excitedly возбужденно

hurt обижать, болеть reward награда;

награждать

founding основополагаю-

щий

indeed в самом деле

immorali-

ty

безнравствен-

ность

con мошенничать

victim жертва rent арендовать

outskirts окраина purse кошелек

bride невеста release выпускать,

вырабатывать

earn зарабатывать vow клятва, обет

cashier кассир administer отправлять,

прописывать


13

booth будка, палатка,

кабина

selfish эгоистичный

pearl жемчуг punish наказывать

necklace ожерелье attend посещать

inhibit подавлять,

задерживать,

препятствовать,

сдерживать

wedding свадьба

improper неправильный,

неподходящий

mansion особняк

nurture питание,

воспитание

capture хватать; захват

abuse злоупотреблять recently недавно

hug обнимать strap ремень;

пристегнуться

groom жених prescrip-

tion

предписание,

рецепт

perpetuate увековечивать spike скачок, выброс

species вид broadcast вещать (в СМИ)

Ex. 1. Answer the questions:

1. What makes human beings different from other species?

2. What are people obsessed with? Why?

3. What task does the author set for himself?

4. What kind of function does oxytocin possess?

5. What is the life period of oxytocin?

6. What does trustworthiness correlate with?

7. Is it a fact that poor countries have low morality?

8. What is the author‟s idea about alleviating poverty?

9. What kind of approach does the author apply in his project?

10. What does experiment consist in

11. What does the author mean by vampire economics

12. What were the results of the experiment? Do you agree with

their interpretation

13. What are the other ways of increasing the level of oxytocin?

14. Which of them do you practice? Does it help?

15. What is the biology of trustworthiness


14

16. Is empathy inherent in the human nature? Give examples of

empathy in action.

17. What is your prescription for feeling fine?

Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:

1. Я заметил, что люди как религиозные, так и атеисты в рав-

ной мере объединены пристальным вниманием к вопросам морали.

2. Я решил разобраться с химической стороной вопроса, най-

ти молекулу, которая могла бы отвечать за вопросы морали.

3. В нашей лаборатории мы пытаемся проверить (спровоци-

ровать, искусить) людей как добродетелью, так и пороком.

4. Согласно нашей гипотезе, количество денег, передаваемое в

ответ на благотворительность, служило мерилом доверия человека.

5. По нашей гипотезе, чем больше окситоцина вырабатывает

мозг человека, тем большей суммой денег он готов поделиться.

6. Поскольку молекула окситоцина достаточно эфемерна,

эксперимент по измерению ее процентного содержания предпо-

лагал вызвать резкий всплеск окситоцина и извлечение ее для

дальнейших манипуляций.

7. Мы исследовали нефармакологические способы повыше-

ния уровня окситоцина.

8. Согласно гипотезе и многочисленным примерам, страны с

большим уровнем доверия являются гораздо более экономически

благополучными и даже процветающими.

9. Для того чтобы провести дальнейшие обобщения, мы про-

вели эксперимент с просмотром фильма об отце и сыне, у кото-

рого был рак.

10. Мошенники специально поднимают у жертв уровень дове-

рия, чтобы спровоцировать на нужный им эффект.

11. Как известно, именно эмпатия отличает людей от других

живых существ.

12. Эксперимент ценен тем, что мы смогли выяснить, что под-

нимает уровень доверия, а что может его отключить.

13. На свадьбе присутствующие испытывают положительные

эмоции, так как подсознательно желают преумножения человече-

ского рода (а значит, и себя).

14. Моя привычка выражать эмоции через дружеские объятия

закрепила за мной имя Доктор Любовь.


15

Ex. 3. Describe the mechanism oxytocin functions on in our or-

ganism Make use of reporting verbs.

1. The author claims (contends,

maintains, asserts, declares) that

chemical substances play a crucial

role in our social life.

Утверждать (отстаивать

свое мнение, утверждать,

заявлять

(высказывается однозначно и

твердо)

2. Lee states that problems arose

earlier than was previously

thought.

Утверждать

3. Levack observe, (notes, com-

ments, points out) that there are

contradictions in Novack‟s vision

of the issue.

Замечать, отмечать, ком-

ментировать, указывать,

обращать внимание

(отмечать, но не останавли-

ваться подробно)

4. Greenberg highlights (stresses,

emphasizes)

the importance of a liberal ap-

proach.

Подчеркивать, выдвигать на

первый план;

подчеркивать; акцентиро-

вать (придавать особое зна-

чение чему-либо)

5. Patel argues that government

should continue to fund research.

Аргументировать, вести по-

лемику, доказывать, спорить

6. Davidson casts doubt on pre-

vious research into the issue.

Ставить под сомнение

7. Furgeson pinpoints the key fea-

tures in question.

Заострять внимание, ак-

центировать

8. Kon suggests that all poets are

strongly influenced by their

childhood.

Наводить на мысль о том,

что…; предлагать (в каче-

стве гипотезы)

Have your say


16

Ex. 4. Try to analyze the line of reasoning of the lecturer. Does

it sound viable? Do you have any doubts? Share your vision of the

issue. Go step by step using the expressions below.

Let us take a close look at I know for a fact that

Let us go point by point We can hardly ignore the fact

that

At first glance Most strikingly

This is really a blot on the land-

scape (ложка дегтя в бочке

меда)

It does not quite wash

(не выдерживает критики;

не срабатывает0

Could I just pick up on that

point

There seems to be some confu-

sion over…

In a nutshell… Before we move on to particu-

lars…

Shall I go over that point again? To be concise but to the point…

All things considered… My wild guess is that…

Ex. 5. Render the article in English. Make use of all clichés you

have learnt.

Окситоцин ученые называют еще и гормоном-нейропере-

датчиком в головном мозге. Он играет одну из ведущих ролей в со-

циальном поведении человека. Одно из его «магических» воздейст-

вий – увеличение доверия. Но бельгийские ученые просят обра-

тить внимание, что он лишь усиливает уже имеющееся доверие.

Он не зарождает это чувство к тому партнеру, который изначально

не вызывает у нас доверительного чувства. Мужчин окситоцин де-

лает более благожелательными, позитивными.

Окситоцин также называют «гормоном объятий«. Стимуляция

синтеза окситоцина происходит и через нервные рецепторы кожи.

Его уровень значительно повышается при романтических отноше-

ниях. Интересно и то, что наибольшую активность он имеет у

представителей моногамных пар. Верные возлюбленные, по ре-

зультатам исследования, показали уровень окситоцина на треть

выше, чем те, кто позволял себе измену, свободные отношения.

Мифические свойства наркотиков как любовного эликсира

объясняются очень просто – они повышают уровень гормона ок-


http://www.roditeli.ua/semya/holidays_traditions/hugs

17

ситоцина. Так создается иллюзия сексуального удовольствия. Но

ведь реальное удовольствие достижимо абсолютно здоровым спо-

собом – при естественном любовном влечении. Интересно и то,

что окситоцин способен вырабатываться даже при взгляде на фото

любимого человека. Звук любимого голоса также способен стиму-

лировать выработку окситоцина. Проведение времени вместе с

любимым человеком: путешествие, обсуждение прошедшего дня

за совместным ужином, совместный просмотр фильма – еще

больше повышает уровень окситоцина. Он повышается также и

когда нас что-то волнует, трогает, восхищает. Окситоцин еще на-

зывают гормоном привязанности. Он помогает наслаждению пе-

рейти в чувство общности, которое со временем может переро-

диться в глубокое чувство любви.

UNIT 2

On our place in the cosmos. David Deutsch URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/david_deutsch_on_our_place_in_the_cosmos.html

Nowadays the idea of Spaceship Earth has a dramatic ring. And

the idea there is that outside the spaceship, the universe is implacably

hostile, and inside is all we have, all we depend on. And we only get

the one chance: if we mess up our spaceship, we've got nowhere else

to go. Now, the second thing that everyone already knows is that con-

trary to what was believed for most of human history, human beings

are not, in fact, the hub of existence. As Stephen Hawking famously

said, we're just a chemical scum on the surface of a typical planet

that's in orbit around a typical star, which is on the outskirts of a typi-

cal galaxy, and so on.

Неумолимо; враждебный; испортить; центр; пена; существо-

вание; окраина.

Now the first of those two things that everyone knows is kind of

saying that we're at a very un-typical place, uniquely suited and so on,

and the second one is saying that we're at a typical place. And espe-

cially if you regard these two as deep truths to live by and to inform

your life decisions, then they seem a little bit to conflict with each

other. But that doesn't prevent them from both being completely false.

Рассматривать; предотвращать; мешать.


http://www.ted.com/talks/44000































18

So let's go out further, till we're outside the galaxy, and look back,

and yeah, there's the huge galaxy with spiral arms laid out in front of

us. And at this point we've come 100,000 light years from here. But

we're still nowhere near a typical place in the universe.

And yet from intergalactic space, it's so far away you wouldn't

even see it. It's also very cold out there – less than three degrees

above absolute zero. And it's very empty. The vacuum there is one

million times less dense than the highest vacuum that our best tech-

nology on Earth can currently create. So that's how different a typical

place is from this place. And that is how un-typical this place is.

Густой; плотный.

Now how do we know about an environment that's so far away,

and so different, and so alien, from anything we're used to? Well, the

Earth – our environment, in the form of us – is creating knowledge.

Well, what does that mean? Well, look out even further than we've

just been – I mean from here, with a telescope – and you'll see things

that look like stars. They're called «quasars.» Quasars originally meant

quasi-stellar object. Which means things that look a bit like stars. But

they're not stars. And we know what they are. Billions of years ago,

and billions of light years away, the material at the center of a galaxy

collapsed towards a super-massive black hole. And then intense mag-

netic fields directed some of the energy of that gravitational collapse.

And some of the matter, back out in the form of tremendous jets

which illuminated lobes with the brilliance of – I think of trillion suns.

Чужой, чуждый; привыкнуть; рухнуть; огромный; доля;

струя.

Now, the physics of the human brain could hardly be more unlike

the physics of such a jet. We couldn't survive for an instant in it. Lan-

guage breaks down when trying to describe what it would be like in

one of those jets. It would be a bit like experiencing a supernova ex-

plosion, but at point-blank range and for millions of years at a time.

And yet, that jet happened in precisely such a way that billions of

years later, on the other side of the universe, some bit of chemical

scum could accurately describe, and model, and predict, and explain,

above all – there's your reference – what was happening there, in re-

ality. The one physical system, the brain, contains an accurate work-



















































19

ing model of the other – the quasar. Not just a superficial image of it,

though it contains that as well, but an explanatory model, embodying

the same mathematical relationships and the same causal structure.

Едва, почти не; диапазон, размах; предсказывать; воплощать.

So we are a chemical scum that is different. This chemical scum

has universality. Its structure contains, with ever-increasing precision,

the structure of everything. This place, and not other places in the un-

iverse, is a hub which contains within itself the structural and causal

essence of the whole of the rest of physical reality. And so, far from

being insignificant, the fact that the laws of physics allow this, or even

mandate that this can happen, is one of the most important things

about the physical world.

Точность; поручать, передавать.

Now how does the solar system – and our environment, in the

form of us – acquire this special relationship with the rest of the un-

iverse? Well, one thing that's true about Stephen Hawking's remark – I

mean, it is true, but it's the wrong emphasis. One thing that's true

about it is that it doesn't do it with any special physics. There's no spe-

cial dispensation, no miracles involved. It does it simply with three

things that we have here in abundance. One of them is matter, because

the growth of knowledge is a form of information processing. Infor-

mation processing is computation, computation requires a computer –

there's no known way of making a computer without matter. We also

need energy to make the computer, and most important, to make the

media in effect onto which we record the knowledge that we discover.

Приобретать; распределение.

Our location is saturated with evidence, and also with matter and

energy. Out in intergalactic space, those three prerequisites for the

open-ended creation of knowledge are at their lowest possible supply.

As I said, it's empty; it's cold; and it's dark out there. Or is it? Now ac-

tually, that's just another parochial misconception. Because imagine a

cube out there in intergalactic space, the same size as our home, the

solar system. Now that cube is very empty by human standards, but

that still means that it contains over a million tons of matter. And a

million tons is enough to make, say, a self-contained space station, on


















































20

which there's a colony of scientists that are devoted to creating an

open-ended stream of knowledge, and so on.

Насыщать; предпосылка; узкий, ограниченный; преданный.

Now, it's way beyond present technology to even gather the hy-

drogen from intergalactic space and form it into other elements and so

on. But the thing is, in a comprehensible universe, if something isn't

forbidden by the laws of physics, then what could possibly prevent us

from doing it, other than knowing how? In other words, it's a matter of

knowledge, not resources. And the same – well, if we could do that

we'd automatically have an energy supply, because the transmutation

would be a fusion reactor – and evidence?

Превращение; слияние, сращивание, сплав.

So in fact, intergalactic space does contain all the prerequisites for

the open-ended creation of knowledge. Any such cube, anywhere in

the universe, could become the same kind of hub that we are, if the

knowledge of how to do so were present there. So we're not in a uni-

quely hospitable place. If intergalactic space is capable of creating an

open-ended stream of explanations, then so is almost every other envi-

ronment. So is the Earth. So is a polluted Earth. And the limiting fac-

tor, there and here, is not resources, because they're plentiful, but

knowledge, which is scarce.

Гостеприимный; способный; изобильный; редкий.

Now this cosmic knowledge-based view may – and I think ought

to – make us feel very special. But it should also make us feel vulner-

able, because it means that without the specific knowledge that's

needed to survive the ongoing challenges of the universe, we won't

survive them. All it takes is for a supernova to go off a few light years

away, and we'll all be dead!

Уязвимый.

But it depends not on chance, but on whether we create the rele-

vant knowledge in time. The danger is not at all unprecedented. Spe-

cies go extinct all the time. Civilizations end. The overwhelming ma-

jority of all species and all civilizations that have ever existed are now

history. And if we want to be the exception to that, then logically our





































21

only hope is to make use of the one feature that distinguishes our spe-

cies, and our civilization, from all the others – namely, our special re-

lationship with the laws of physics, our ability to create new explana-

tions, new knowledge – to be a hub of existence.

Вымирающий; подавляющий.

So let me now apply this to a current controversy, not because I

want to advocate any particular solution, but just to illustrate the kind

of thing I mean. And the controversy is global warming. Now, I'm a

physicist, but I'm not the right kind of physicist. In regard to global

warming, I'm just a layman. And the rational thing for a layman to do

is to take seriously the prevailing scientific theory. And according to

that theory, it's already too late to avoid a disaster. Because if it's true

that our best option at the moment is to prevent CO2 emissions with

something like the Kyoto Protocol, with its constraints on economic

activity and its enormous cost of hundreds of billions of dollars or

whatever it is, then that is already a disaster by any reasonable meas-

ure. And the actions that are advocated are not even purported to solve

the problem, merely to postpone it by a little. So it's already too late to

avoid it, and it probably has been too late to avoid it ever since before

anyone realized the danger.

Преобладающий; ограничения; катастрофа; предназначать;

откладывать.

Now the lesson of that seems clear to me, and I don't know why it

isn't informing public debate. It is that we can't always know. When

we know of an impending disaster, and how to solve it at a cost less

than the cost of the disaster itself, then there's not going to be much

argument, really. But no precautions, and no precautionary principle,

can avoid problems that we do not yet foresee. Hence, we need a

stance of problem-fixing, not just problem-avoidance.

Надвигающийся; меры предосторожности; позиция; (от глаг.)

избегать.

If medical science stopped seeking cures and concentrated on

prevention only, then it would achieve very little of either. The world

is buzzing at the moment with plans to force reductions in gas emis-

sions at all costs. It ought to be buzzing with plans to reduce the tem-

















































22

perature, and with plans to live at the higher temperature – and not at

all costs, but efficiently and cheaply. And some such plans exist,

things like swarms of mirrors in space to deflect the sunlight away,

and encouraging aquatic organisms to eat more carbon dioxide. At the

moment, these things are fringe research. They're not central to the

human effort to face this problem, or problems in general. And with

problems that we are not aware of yet, the ability to put right – not the

sheer good luck of avoiding indefinitely – is our only hope, not just of

solving problems, but of survival. So take two stone tablets, and carve

on them. On one of them, carve: «Problems are soluble.» And on the

other one carve: «Problems are inevitable.»

Сокращение; множество; заставить, менять направление;

подталкивать, способствовать; вырезать; периферийный; неиз-

бежный.


sustain поддерживать scum пена

survival спасение,

выживание

outskirts окраина

implacably неумолимо regard рассматривать

mess up испортить dense густой,

плотный

hostile враждебный hospitable гостеприим-

ный

hub центр to be capable

of

способный

existence существование plentiful изобильный

prevent предотвращать,

мешать

extinct вымирающий

scarce редкий overwhelming подавляющий

vulnerable уязвимый constraints ограничения

alien чужой, чуждый disaster катастрофа

to be used to привыкнуть purport предназначать

collapsе рухнуть impending надвигаю-

щийся

tremendous огромный precautions меры предос-

торожности


















23

fusion слияние,

сращивание

stance позиция

hardly едва avoidance от глаг. избе-

гать

range диапазон,

размах

cure лекарство

predict предсказывать reduction сокращение

embody воплощать swarms множество

precision точность deflect заставить,

менять на-

правление

mandate поручать,

передавать

fringe периферий-

ный

acquire приобретать encourageе подталкивать,

способство-

вать

dispensation распределение carve вырезать

in abundance в изобилии inevitable неизбежный

saturated насыщать devoted преданный

prerequisites предпосылка postpone откладывать

parochial узкий,

ограниченный

transmutation превращение


1. What does the author mean by saying that our planet is uni-

quely suited for our evolution and survival?

2. How does the author describe the space outside spaceship

Earth and inside it?

3. What or who is called by the lecturer the hub of existence?

4. Do you agree that inside our spaceship we have all we need?

5. What does David mean by „messing up‟ our spaceship?

6. Why is the term ‟hub of existence‟ voiced by the lecturer?

7. How do you understand Hawking‟s metaphor of „chemical

scum‟?

8. Are we in a typical or untypical place in the Universe? What

are your personal sensations?


24

9.What is meant by Spaseship Earth?

10. Do you agree that mankind is the hub of existence?

11. Would you agree to the term – “chemical scum” for naming

mankind?

12. So is Earth a typical or untypical place in the universe?

13. Docs light or darkness prevail in the universe?

14. What kind of vacuum is out there?

15. What kind of objects are quasars?

16. What kind of similarity is there between the brain and the

quasar?

17. How do we acquire a special relationship with the rest of the

universe?

18. In that way is our location in space favourable for develop-

ing a specific relationship with the rest of the universe?

19. What kind of metaphor docs the lecturer give to specify our

reality?

20. What can prevent us from building a model of our planet en-

vironment?

21. What is the role of knowledge for exploring space a improv-

ing better conditions for people in the lecturer is opinion?

22. What docs survival of mankind depend on?

23. Do all species survive?

24. What kind of phenomenon is global warning? Positive or

negative (in D. Deutsch‟s opinion)

25. What is D. Deutsch‟s view on the measure being taken at the

moment for minimizing global warning?

26. What kind of stance does the lecturer insist on?

27. Is the lecturer optimistic or pessimistic on the issue of the fu-

ture of our planet?


1. Удивительно, но наша солнечная система и окружающая

среда очень точно настроены так, чтобы сохранить жизнь на на-

шей планете и дать ей эволюционировать.

2. Космический корабль под названием Земля парит в про-

странстве, которое само по себе неумолимо враждебно ко всему

живому.


25

3. Если верить Стивену Хокингу, люди – всего лишь химиче-

ская пена на поверхности типичной планеты, вращающейся во-

круг обычной звезды на окраине Вселенной.

4. Вполне может быть так, что обе точки зрения правильные.

(It may well happen so that …)

5. Язык не в состоянии описать то, что происходило в момент

взрыва.

6. Однако все это произошло так, что миллионы лет спустя на

другом конце Вселенной появился орган (человеческий мозг), кото-

рый сумел смоделировать этот взрыв и восстановить ход событий.

7. По сути дела, наше пространство насыщено веществом и

энергией. Создание системы, в которой может проживать чело-

век, – вопрос времени и уровня развития научной мысли.

8. Наша планета является центром Вселенной в том смысле,

что в ней отразились возможности, теоретически присутствую-

щие в космосе для создания жизни.

9. В природе виды животных вымирают постоянно.

10. Я не сведущ в проблеме глобального потепления

11. Если какая-то идея не противоречит законам физики, то

помешать ее воплощению может только низкий уровень развития

научной мысли и больше ничего.

12. Следует признать тот факт, что, для того чтобы противо-

стоять постоянно возникающим угрозам со стороны космоса, нам

необходимо совершенствовать систему знаний, а без этого ни

планете, ни нам выжить не удастся.

13. Поскольку на сегодня мы можем приостановить процесс

потепления только сокращая выброс СО2 (подписав Киотское со-

глашение со всеми вытекающими из него ограничениями), то

фактически мы живем в условиях надвигающейся катастрофы.

14. Проблема в знаниях, а не в ресурсах. Ресурсы огромны.

15. В данный момент эти исследования не являются основными.

16. По земным стандартам полый куб в безвоздушном про-

странстве пуст, но на самом деле в нем присутствует несколько

сотен тонн вещества (материи), которое можно использовать,

чтобы создать самодостаточную научную станцию для прожива-

ния группы ученых, занимающихся разработкой системы знаний.


26

Composition and essay writing

In a composition, students are expected to set out the facts as they

are, the primary objective being their accurate and impartial presentation.

In an essay the task is to give an individual interpretation of facts

Thus the interpretation of a subject will differ depending on whether

you are required to write a composition or an essay.

The reflective and argumentative essays

In text-books on written English, a distinction is often drawn be-

tween the reflective and the argumentative essay. The first is primarily

an exercise in contemplation upon any given subject, the second – an

exercise testing your ability to discuss a problem, to argue for or against

a proposition. In the first you rely more on your imagination and power

of observation, in the second – on general knowledge.

The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic

essay. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics,

and each main point is underlined. When you write your own essay, of

course, you will not need to mark these parts of the essay unless your

teacher has asked you to do so. They are marked here just so that you

can more easily identify them.

«A dog is man’s best friend». That common saying may con-

tain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose com-

panionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend.

Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets

as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the

household, and they are easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many

cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or

scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they’re not

feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to

chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a

string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are

participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be

Essay writing

Use This Sample Basic Essay as a Model


27

trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat

can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats

will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household.

Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats

don’t even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence.

Cats also don’t often have «accidents». Mother cats train their kittens

to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that

time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown

the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners

mus: make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat

area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture

alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is

their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of

exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the

litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats

also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never

necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean them-

selves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than

people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours

without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the

furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their usual

activities until their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who

have small living quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate

these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty

of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat per-

sonality. In many ways, cats are the ideal housepet.

Ex. 3. Speak on the following:

1. How do you visualize Spaceship Earth?

….. is not new. Basically,… appeared

Have your say


28

2. Which aspects of keeping up our planet in a proper condition

do you personally emphasize?

My stance on…… is …..

I make it a point to …….. I never fail to……. It’s a matter of

discipline…….

I make sure that … It should be standard practice to ……….

3. Which other aspects of universal value does the lecturer raise?

There’s nothing wrong in saying ……………..

However,………… It’s an open question whether

……………………..

Ex. 4. Use the clichés to express your stance on the theme of the

unit:

It can be confidently said that … … The time is not far off when

… …I have every ground for assuming that … I am afraid nobody

has the slightest idea concerning … …One cannot help wondering

what … … It’s too astonishing for words … …I am stuck for the

right word… We might hazard a guess that … …It wouldn’t de too

much of a stretch to say that … …

Read the texts and write either a reflective or argumentative

essay:

1. AN ARTIFICIAL SPUTNIK OF THE EARTH?

The origin of the Moon is one of the most complicated problems

of cosmogony. So far there have been basically three hypotheses un-

der discussion.

HYPOTHESIS I. The Moon was once a part of the Earth and

broke away from it.

This has now been refuted by the evidence.

HYPOTHESIS II. The Moon was formed independently from the

same cloud of dust and gas as the Earth, and immediately became the

Earth's natural satellite.

But then why is there such a big difference between the specific

gravity of the Moon (3.33 grammes per cubic centimetre) and that of

the Earth (5.5 gr.)? Furthermore, according to the latest information

(analysis of samples brought back by the U.S. Apollo astronauts) lunar

rock is not of the same composition as the Earth's.


29

HYPOTHESIS III. The Moon came into being separately, and,

moreover, far from the Earth (perhaps even outside the Solar system).

This would mean that the moon would not have to be fashioned

from the same «clay» as our own planet. Sailing through the Universe,

the Moon came into Earth's proximity, and by a complex interplay of

forces of gravity was brought within a geocentric orbit, very close to

circular. But a catch of this kind is virtually impossible.

Глина; близость; выгода, препятствие, подвох, захват, улов.

In fact, scientists studying the origin of the Universe today have

no acceptable theory to explain how the Earth-Moon system came into

being.

OUR HYPOTHESIS: The Moon is an artificial Earth satellite put

into orbit around the Earth by some intelligent beings unknown to

ourselves.

We refuse to engage in speculation about who exactly staged this

unique experiment, which only a highly developed civilization was

capable of.

2. A NOAH'S ARK?

If you are going to launch an artificial sputnik, then it is advisable

to make it hollow. At the same time it would be naive to imagine that

anyone capable of such a tremendous space project would be satisfied

simply with some kind of giant empty trunk hurled into a near-Earth

trajectory.

It is more likely that what we have here is a very ancient space-

ship, the interior of which was filled with fuel for the engines, mate-

rials and appliances for repair work, navigation, instruments, observa-

tion equipment and all manner of machinery... in other words, every-

thing necessary to enable this «caravelle of the Universe» to serve as a

kind of Noah's Ark of intelligence, perhaps even as the home of a

whole civilization envisaging a prolonged (thousands of millions of

years) existence and long wanderings through space (thousands of

millions of miles).

Каравелла; предвидеть; бродить.

Naturally, the hull of such a spaceship must be super-tough in or-

der to stand up to the blows of meteorites and sharp fluctuations be-

tween extreme heat and extreme cold. Probably the shell is a double-


30

layered affair – the basis a dense armouring of about 20 miles in

thickness, and outside it some kind of more loosely packed covering

(a thinner layer – averaging about three miles). In certain areas –

where the lunar «seas» and «craters» are, the upper layer is quite thin,

in some cases, non-existent.

Since the Moon's diameter is 2,162 miles, then looked at from our

point of view it is a thin-walled sphere. And, understandably, not an

empty one. There could be all kinds of materials and equipment on its

inner surface. But the greatest proportion of the lunar mass is concen-

trated in the central part of the sphere, in its core, which has a diame-

ter of 2,062 miles.

Thus the distance between the kernel and the shell of this nut is in

the region of 30 miles. This space was doubtless filled with gases re-

quired for breathing, and for technological and other purposes.

Корпус, скорлупа, оболочка; жесткий; ядро; арматура, броня,

каркас.

With such an internal structure the Moon could have an average

specific gravity if 3.3 grammes per cubic centimetre, which differs

considerably from that of Earth (5.5 grammes per cubic centimetre).

3. A BATTLESHIP THEY COULDN'T TORPEDO?

The most numerous and interesting of the formations on the lunar

surface are the craters. In diameter they vary considerably. Some are less

that a yard across, while others are more than 120 miles (the biggest has a

diameter of 148 miles). How does the Moon come to be so pockmarked?

There are two hypothesis – volcanic and meteoric. Most scientists

vote for the latter.

Kirill Stanyukovich, a Soviet physicist, has written a whole series

of works since 1937 in which he expounds the idea that the craters are

the result of bombardment of the Moon for millions of years. And he

really means bombardment, for even the smallest celestial body, when

it is involved in one of those fastest head-on collisions so common in

the cosmos behaves itself like a warhead charged with dynamite, or

even an atomic warhead at times. Instant combustion takes place on

impact, turning it into a dense cloud of incandescent gas, into plasma,

and there is a very definite explosion.

Объяснять; раскаленный.


31

The surprising thing is that however big the meteorites may have

been which have fallen on the Moon (some have been more than 60

miles in diameter), and however fast they must have been travelling (in

some cases the combined speed was as much as 38 miles per second),

the craters they have left behind are for some odd reason all about the

same depth, 1.2–2 miles, although they vary tremendously in diameter.

For such a big hole, it is too shallow. Furthermore, the bottom of

the crater is convex, following the curve of the lunar surface. If you

were to stand in the middle of the crater you would not even be able to

see the soaring edge – it would be beyond the horizon. A hollow that

is more like a hill is a rather strange affair, perhaps.

Выпуклый; вздымающийся, взлетающий.

Not really, if one assumes that when the meteorite strikes the out-

er covering of the moon, this plays the role of a buffer and the foreign

body finds itself up against an impenetrable spherical barrier. Only

slightly denting the 20-mile layer of armour plating, the explosion

flings bits of its «coating» far and wide.

Непроницаемый.

Ex. 5. Use the clichés to express your stance:

I am inclined to think that … … I pin my hopes on … …

Though the author tends to … I tend to … The author’s assumption

seems a bit dodgy … though …

Ex. 6. Read the text. Be ready to speak on the issues. Give your

comments.

A SPACESHIP COME TO GRIEF?

Now let us consider the chemical peculiarities of the lunar rock.

Upon analysis, American scientists have found chromium, titanium and

zirconium in it. These are all metals with refractory, mechanically strong

and anti-corrosive properties. A combination of them all would have in-

evitable resistance to heat and the ability to stand up to means of aggres-

sion, and could be used on Earth for linings for electrical furnaces.

Неизбежный.

Have your say

Have your say


32

If a material had to be devised to protect a giant artificial satellite

from the unfavorable effects of temperature, from cosmic radiation

and meteorite bombardment, the experts would probably have hit on

precisely these metals. In that case it is not clear why lunar rock is

such an extraordinarily poor heat conductor – a factor which so

amazed the astronauts? Wasn't that what the designers of the super-

sputnik of the Earth were after?

From the engineers point of view, this spaceship of ages long past

which we call the Moon is superbly constructed. There may be a good

reason for its extreme longevity. It is even possible that it predates our

own planet. At any rate, some pieces of lunar rock have proved older

than the oldest on Earth, although it is true, this applies to the age of the

materials and not of the structure for which they were used. And from

the number of craters on its surface, the Moon itself is no chicken.

Долголетие; более раннего происхождения.

It is, of course, difficult to say when it began to shine in the sky

above the Earth, but on the basis of some preliminary estimates one

might hazard a guess that it was around two thousand million years ago.

We do not, of course, imagine that the moon is still inhabited, and

probably many of its automatic devices have stopped working, too.

The stabilisers have ceased functioning and the poles have shifted.

Even though the moon keeps that same side turned towards us, for

some time it has been unsteady on its own axis, on occasion showing

us part of its reverse side which were once invisible to observers on

the Earth – for example, the Selenites themselves if they made expedi-

tions here.

Обитаема; перестать.

What is the Moon today? Is it a colossal necropolis, a «city of the

dead,» where some form of life became extinct? Is it a kind cosmic

Flying Dutchman? A craft abandoned by its crew and controlled au-

tomatically? We do not know and we shall probably not.

Вымерший.


33

UNIT 3 Sebastian Seung: I am my connectome URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/sebastian_seung.html

We live in a remarkable time, the age of genomics. Your genome

is the entire sequence of your DNA. Your sequence and mine are

slightly different. That's why we look different. I've got brown eyes;

you might have blue or gray. But it's not just skin-deep. The headlines

tell us that genes can give us scary diseases, maybe even shape our

personality, or give us mental disorders. Our genes seem to have awe-

some power over our destinies. And yet, I would like to think that I

am more than my genes. What do you, guys, think? Are you more

than your genes? Sebastian Seung: What am I? I am my connectome.

Удивительный; вся; последовательность; немного; заголовки;

страшные; болезни; формировать; умственные расстройства; по-

хоже; колоссальное; судьбы.

Well, so far only one connectome is known, that of this tiny

worm. Its modest nervous system consists of just 300 neurons. And in

the 1970s and '80s, a team of scientists mapped all 7,000 connections

between the neurons. In this diagram, every node is a neuron, and

every line is a connection. This is the connectome of the worm C. ele-

gans. Your connectome is far more complex than this because your

brain contains 100 billion neurons and 10,000 times as many connec-

tions. Your connectome contains one million times more connections

than your genome has letters. That's a lot of information.

Червячок; скромный; нанести на карту; нематода (червь); по-

меститься; содержать.

What's in that information? We don't know for sure, but there are

theories. Since the 19th century, neuroscientists have speculated that

maybe your memories – the information that makes you, you – maybe

your memories are stored in the connections between your brain's neu-

rons. And perhaps other aspects of your personal identity – maybe

your personality and your intellect – maybe they're also encoded in the

connections between your neurons. And so now you can see why I

proposed this hypothesis: I am my connectome. I didn't ask you to


34

chant it because it's true; I just want you to remember it. And in fact,

we don't know if this hypothesis is correct, because we have never had

technologies powerful enough to test it. Finding that worm connec-

tome took over a dozen years of tedious labor. And to find the connec-

tomes of brains more like our own, we need more sophisticated tech-

nologies, that are automated, that will speed up the process of finding

connectomes. And in the next few minutes, I'll tell you about some of

these technologies, which are currently under development in my lab

and the labs of my collaborators.

Размышлять, обдумывать; хранить; закодированы; заявить,

дюжина, масса; утомительный; продвинутый; в настоящее время;

разработка, развитие; коллеги, единомышленники.

Now you've probably seen pictures of neurons before. You can

recognize them instantly by their fantastic shapes. They extend long

and delicate branches, and in short, they look like trees. But this is

just a single neuron. In order to find connectomes, we have to see all

the neurons at the same time. So let's meet Bobby Kasthuri, who

works in the laboratory of Jeff Lichtman at Harvard University.

Bobby is holding fantastically thin slices of a mouse brain. And

we're zooming in by a factor of 100,000 times to obtain the resolu-

tion, so that we can see the branches of neurons all at the same time.

Except, you still may not really recognize them, and that's because

we have to work in three dimensions.

Возможно; узнать; тотчас; формы; тянуть; ажурный, хруп-

кий; ветви; держать; срезы; получить, достать, раздобыть; разре-

шение; кроме.

If we take many images of many slices of the brain and stack them

up, we get a three-dimensional image. And still, you may not see the

branches. So we start at the top, and we color in the cross-section of one

branch in red, and we do that for the next slice and for the next slice.

And we keep on doing that, slice after slice. If we continue through the

entire stack, we can reconstruct the three-dimensional shape of a small

fragment of a branch of a neuron. And we can do that for another neuron

in green. And you can see that the green neuron touches the red neuron

at two locations, and these are what are called synapses.

Сложить вместе; все же; сверху; поперечный срез; восста-

новить.


35

Let's zoom in on one synapse, and keep your eyes on the inte-

rior of the green neuron. You should see small circles – these are

called vesicles. They contain a molecule know as a neurotransmit-

ter. And so when the green neuron wants to communicate, it wants

to send a message to the red neuron, it spits out neurotransmitter. At

the synapse, the two neurons are said to be connected like two

friends talking on the telephone.

Внутренняя часть; везикулы; содержать; нейромедиаторы;

передать информацию; выплюнуть.

So you see how to find a synapse. How can we find an entire

connectome? Well, we take this three-dimensional stack of images

and treat it as a gigantic three-dimensional coloring book. We color

every neuron in a different color, and then we look through all of the

images, find the synapses and note the colors of the two neurons in-

volved in each synapse. If we can do that throughout all the images,

we could find a connectome.

Весь; запоминать, отмечать.

Now, at this point, you've learned the basics of neurons and

synapses. And so I think we're ready to tackle one of the most im-

portant questions in neuroscience: how are the brains of men and

women different? According to this self-help book, guys brains are

like waffles; they keep their lives compartmentalized in boxes.

Girls' brains are like spaghetti; everything in their life is connected

to everything else. It doesn't matter whether you're a guy or girl,

everyone's brains are like spaghetti. Just as one strand of spaghetti

contacts many other strands on your plate, one neuron touches many

other neurons through their entangled branches. One neuron can be

connected to so many other neurons, because there can be synapses

at these points of contact. By now, you might have sort of lost pers-

pective on how large this cube of brain tissue actually is.

Браться за решение; согласно; офисный шкаф; очень тонкие

спагетти; соединяться; тарелка; спутанный; ткань.

And so let's do a series of comparisons to show you. I assure you,

this is very tiny. It's just six microns on a side. So, here's how it stacks

up against an entire neuron. And you can tell that, really, only the


36

smallest fragments of branches are contained inside this cube. And a

neuron, well, that's smaller than brain.

Сравнения; уверять; маленький.

In the 17th century, the mathematician and philosopher, Blaise

Pascal, wrote of his dread of the infinite, his feeling of insignificance

at contemplating the vast reaches of outer space.

Страх; малозначительность; задумываться о чем-то; огром-

ный; внешний.

And yet, I persist in this quixotic endeavor. And indeed, these

days I harbor new hopes. Someday, a fleet of microscopes will capture

every neuron and every synapse in a vast database of images. And

some day, artificially intelligent supercomputers will analyze the im-

ages without human assistance to summarize them in a connectome. It

will take the work of generations to succeed. At the present time, my

collaborators and I, what we're aiming for is much more modest – just

to find partial connectomes of tiny chunks brain. For now, let me try

to convince you of the plausibility of this hypothesis, that it's actually

worth taking seriously.

Все же; настаивать, донкихотское; попытка, дело, предпри-

ятие; в самом деле; затаить, вынашивать; захватить; база данных;

участие; объединить; увенчать успехом; ставить цель; скромный;

частичный; убедить; правдоподобие.

As you grow during childhood and age during adulthood, your

personal identity changes slowly. Likewise, every connectome

changes over time. What kinds of changes happen? Well, neurons,

like trees, can grow new branches, and they can lose old ones. Syn-

apses can be created, and they can be eliminated. And synapses can

grow larger, and they can grow smaller. Second question: what causes

these changes? To some extent, they are programmed by your genes.

But that's not the whole story, because there are signals, electrical sig-

nals, that travel along the branches of neurons and chemical signals

that jump across from branch to branch. These signals are called neur-

al activity. And there's a lot of evidence that neural activity is encod-

ing our thoughts, feelings and perceptions, our mental experiences.

And there's a lot of evidence that neural activity can cause your con-


37

nections to change. And if you put those two facts together, it means

that your experiences can change your connectome. And that's why

every connectome is unique, even those of genetically identical twins.

The connectome is where nature meets nurture.

Взрослость; уничтожать; степень; свидетельство; мысли.

What's in this picture? A cool and refreshing stream of water, you

say. What else is in this picture? Do not forget that groove in the Earth

called the stream bed. Without it, the water would not know in which

direction to flow. And with the stream, I would like to propose a meta-

phor for the relationship between neural activity and connectivity.

Neural activity is constantly changing. It's like the water of the stream;

it never sits still. The connections of the brain's neural network deter-

mines the pathways along which neural activity flows. And so the con-

nectome is like bed of the stream; but the metaphor is richer than that,

because it's true that the stream bed guides the flow of the water, but

over long timescales, the water also reshapes the bed of the stream.

Освежающий; поток; канавка; направление; течь; предло-

жить; постоянно; проводящие пути; направлять; течение (долго)

периода времени; изменять форму.

So let's return from the heights of metaphor and return to science.

Suppose our technologies for finding connectomes actually work.

How will we go about testing the hypothesis «I am my connectome?»

Well, I propose a direct test. Let us attempt to read out memories from

connectomes. Consider the memory of long temporal sequences of

movements, like a pianist playing a Beethoven sonata. According to a

theory that dates back to the 19th century, such memories are stored as

chains of synaptic connections inside your brain. Because, if the first

neurons in the chain are activated, through their synapses they send

messages to the second neurons, which are activated, and so on down

the line, like a chain of falling dominoes.

Предположим; предлагать; прямой; предпринять попытку;

считать; рассматривать; последовательность; хранить; цепочки.

So one way of trying to test the theory is to look for such chains

inside connectomes. But it won't be easy, because they're not going to

look like this. They're going to be scrambled up. So we'll have to use


38

our computers to try to unscramble the chain. And if we can do that,

the sequence of the neurons we recover from that unscrambling will

be a prediction of the pattern of neural activity that is replayed in the

brain during memory recall.

Перемешаны; восстанавливать; прогноз; образец; переигры-

вать.

What a mess – have you ever tried to wire up a system as com-

plex as this? I hope not. But if you have, you know it's very easy to

make a mistake. The branches of neurons are like the wires of the

brain. It's a big number. I estimate, millions of miles, all packed in

your skull. And if you appreciate that number, you can easily see there

is huge potential for mis-wiring of the brain. And indeed, the popular

press loves headlines like, «Anorexic brains are wired differently,» or

«Autistic brains are wired differently.» These are plausible claims, but

in truth, we can't see the brain's wiring clearly enough to tell if these

are really true.

Возиться, беспорядок, путаница; провода, подключать; дога-

дываться; длина; намек; оценка; череп; ценить, оценить; действи-

тельно; заголовки; правдоподобный; утверждения.

Sometimes the best way to test a hypothesis is to consider its most

extreme implication. Philosophers know this game very well. If you

believe that I am my connectome, I think you must also accept the

idea that death is the destruction of your connectome. I mention this

because there are prophets today who claim that technology will fun-

damentally alter the human condition and perhaps even transform the

human species. One of their most cherished dreams is to cheat death

by that practice known as cryonics. If you pay 100,000 dollars, you

can arrange to have your body frozen after death and stored in liquid

nitrogen in one of these tanks in an Arizona warehouse, awaiting a fu-

ture civilization that is advanced to resurrect you.

Следствие; разрушение; провидцы; утверждать; лелеемая;

деятельность; крионика; организовать; развитая; оживить.

Should we ridicule the modern seekers of immortality, calling

them fools? I propose that we attempt to find a connectome of a fro-

zen brain. We know that damage to the brain occurs after death and


39

during freezing. The question is: has that damage erased the connec-

tome? If it has, there is no way that any future civilization will be able

to recover the memories of these frozen brains. Resurrection might

succeed for the body, but not for the mind.

Высмеивать; бессмертие; глупцы; хихикать; могилы; предла-

гаю; попытаться; происходить, случаться заморозка; стереть; вос-

становить; воскрешение; произойти удачно.


remarkable удивительный mental

disorders

умственные

расстройства

entire весь seem похоже

sequence последователь-

ность

awesome колоссальное

slightly немного; слегка destinies судьбы

headlinе заголовок statement заявление;

утверждение

scary страшный cheering возгласы

одобрения

diseases болезни to be willing готовы

shape формировать;

форма

tiny worm червячок

modest скромный elegans нематода

(червь)

to map нанести

на карту

fit поместиться

contain содержать speculate размышлять,

обдумывать

stored хранить tedious утомительный

encoded закодирован-

ный

sophisticated продвинутый

propose заявить; пред-

ложить

currently в настоящее

время

dozen дюжина, масса development разработка,

развитие

collaborators коллеги, еди-

номышленники

probably возможно


40

recognize узнать; при-

знать

branches ветви

instantly тотчас hold держать

shape форма slices срезы

extend тянуть, расши-

рять

obtain получить, дос-

тать, раздо-

быть

delicate ажурный,

хрупкий

resolution разрешение

except кроме stack сложить вме-

сте

still все же; еще cross-section поперечный

срез

top сверху reconstruct восстановить

Interior внутренняя

часть

neurotrans-

mitter

нейромедиа-

торы

vesicles везикулы communicate передать ин-

формацию

contain содержать spit выплюнуть

entire весь note запоминать,

отмечать

tackle браться

за решение

contact соединяться

according to согласно plate тарелка

compartmen-

talized

офисный

(шкаф)

entangled спутанный

capellini очень тонкие

спагетти

tissue ткань

comparisons сравнения hopeless безнадежно

assure уверять naked невооружен-

ный

tiny маленький;

крошечный

hidden скрытый

give up оставить, бро-

сить

reveal открыть,

поведать


41

dread страх, ужас,

трепет, стра-

шиться, испы-

тывать благо-

говейный страх

(трепет)

curiosity любопытство

insignific-

ance

малозначитель-

ность

despair печаль,

отчаяние

contemplate задумываться о

чем-то

awesome восхититель-

ный в своей

сложности

vast огромный dare посметь

outer внешний summarize объединить

yet все же; еще не succeed увенчать ус-

пехом

quixotic донкихотский aim ставить цель

endeavor попытка, дело,

предприятие

modest скромный

indeed в самом де-

ле

partial частичный

harbor затаить, вына-

шивать

convince убедить

capture захватить plausibility правдоподо-

бие

database база данных adulthood взрослость

eliminate уничтожать mere простой

extent степень empowering вдохновляю-

щий

evidence свидетельство guide направлять

refreshing освежающий timescals шкала време-

ни; масштаб

времени

stream поток reshape изменять

форму

groove канавка ascend подняться

direction направление heights высоты

flow течь; поток remind напомнить


42

propose предложить perceptions ощущения,

восприятие

constantly постоянно suppose предположим;

полагать;

предлагать

pathways проводящие

пути; дороги;

тропинки

consider считать,

рассматривать

propose предлагать sequencе последова-

тельность

direct прямой store хранить

attempt предпринять

попытку

chain цепь

scramblе взболтать pattern образец; схема

recover восстанавли-

вать

replay переигрывать

prediction прогноз appreciate ценить,

оценить

mess возиться, бес-

порядок, пута-

ница

indeed действительно

wires провода,

подключать

headlines заголовки

guess догадываться;

полагать

plausible правдоподоб-

ный

length длина claims утверждения

hint намек disorders заболевания

estimate оценка practice деятельность

skull череп cryonics крионика

Implication следствие arrange организовать

destruction разрушение advanced развитая

prophets провидцы resurrect оживить

claim утверждать;

требовать

immortality бессмертие

cherish лелеять chuckle хихикать

ridicule высмеивать propose предлагать

fools глупцы damage повреждение


43

graves могилы freezing заморозка

attempt попытаться recover восстановить

occur происходить,

случаться

succeed произойти

удачно;

преуспеть

erase стереть quest искать; поиск

resurrection воскрешение evolve эволюциони-

ровать

describe описывать ancestor предок

propel побуждать amazing удивительный

ape-like обезьянопо-

добный

opportunity возможность

distinguish отличать; раз-

личать

deconstruct разбирать


1. What is a gene?

2. How mighty are genes?

3. Do you agree that our genes have awesome power over our

destiny?

4.What is the composition of a tiny worm‟s nervous system?

5. What is actually stored in the connections between neurons?

6. What are entangled branches of neurons for?

7. Do you think that your personal identity is stored in the con-

nections between neurons?

8. Do connectomes change with time? What kind of changes take

place?

9. What do connectomes look like? In what way do they differ

from neurons?

10. What is the nature of signals that go through connectomes?

11. What kind of metaphor does the lecturer use to describe the

processes taking place in the connectome?

12. How do empowering ideas affect neurons and connections be-

tween them?

13. What do female and male brains look like

14. Are memories stored as chains of synaptic connections?

Speak on the examples that the lecturer gives.


44

15. What does the lecturer call the most striking technological

challenge of our time?

16. What is stored in the form of a chain of synaptic connections?

17. Can we read memories through dissecting connectomes?

18. What is meant by miswiring of the brain?

19. What was the purpose of cryonics?

20. How can the stream of consciousness function in terms of

neurons and signals?

21. Is the connectome intact in case of freezing the body?

Ex. 2. Does the lecturer sound convincing? Make up a number

of statements using the following expressions

to argue logically – приводить логичные аргументы во время

спора

to argue soundly – обоснованно аргументировать

to argue against smth. – приводить доводы против (чего-л.)

to argue for / in favour of smth. – приводить доводы в пользу

(чего-л.)

to argue for the new law – приводить доводы в пользу нового

закона

Ex. 3. Write an essay on the possible ways of improving the sys-

tem of connection between your neurons.

UNIT 4

Brian Greene on String Theory URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/brian_greene_on_string_theory.html

In the year 1919, a virtually unknown German mathematician

named Theodor Kaluza suggested a very bold and, in some ways, a

very bizarre idea. He proposed that our universe might actually have

more than the three dimensions than we are all aware of. That is in

addition to left, right, back, forth and up, down, Kaluza proposed that

there might be additional dimensions of space that for some reason we

don't yet see. Now, when someone makes a bold and bizarre

Have your say






















45

idea, sometimes that's all it is – bold and bizarre, but it has nothing to

do with the world around us. This particular idea, however –

although we don't yet know whether it's right or wrong, and at the end

I'll discuss experiments which, in the next few years, may tell us

whether it's right or wrong – this idea has had a major impact on

physics in the last century and continues to inform a lot of cutting-

edge research.

Предположить, предложить; смелы; осознавать, отдавать се-

бе отчет в чем-то; странный; предлагать; значительный, основ-

ной, главный; толчок, влияние; иметь отношение к / не иметь от-

ношения к чему-либо; современный.

Einstein realized that Newton had left something out of the

story, because even Newton had written that although he understood

how to calculate the effect of gravity, he'd been unable to figure out

how it really works. How is it that the Sun, 93 million miles

away, somehow it affects the motion of the earth? How does the Sun

reach out across empty inert space and exert influence? And that is a

task to which Einstein set himself – to figure out how gravity works.

Понимать; неспособный; описать (понять), выяснить; среда;

передавать.

Einstein said space is nice and flat, if there's no matter

present. But if there is matter in the environment, such as the Sun, it

causes the fabric of space to warp, to curve. And that communicates

the force of gravity. Even the earth warps space around it. Now look

at the moon. The moon is kept in orbit, according to these

ideas, because it rolls along a valley in the curved environment that

the sun and the moon and the earth can all create by virtue of their

presence. We go to a full-frame view of this. The earth itself is kept in

orbit because it rolls along a valley in the environment that's curved

because of the sun's presence.

Причина; жѐлоб, долина; благодаря; согласно; материя; ис-

кривлять; деформировать.

Now, this idea was tested in 1919 through astronomical observa-

tions. It really works. It describes the data. And this gained Einstein

prominence around the world. And that is what got Kaluza think-




































































46

ing. He, like Einstein, was in search of what we call a «unified

theory». That's one theory that might be able to describe all of nature's

forces from one set of ideas, one set of principles, one master equa-

tion, if you will. So Kaluza said to himself, Einstein has been able to

describe gravity in terms of warps and curves in space – in fact,

space and time, to be more precise.

Обрести; точно.

So Kaluza says, maybe I can play the same game and describe

electromagnetic force in terms of warps and curves. That raised a ques-

tion: warps and curves in what? Einstein had already used up space and

time, warps and curves, to describe gravity. There didn't seem to be an-

ything else to warp or curve. So Kaluza said, well, maybe there are

more dimensions of space. He said, if I want to describe one more

force, maybe I need one more dimension. So he imagined that the

world had four dimensions of space, not three, and imagined that elec-

tromagnetism was warps and curves in that fourth dimension. Now

here's the thing: when he wrote down the equations describing warps

and curves in a universe with four space dimensions, not three, he

found the old equations that Einstein had already derived in three di-

mensions – those were for gravity – but he found one more equation

because of the one more dimension. And when he looked at that equa-

tion. it was none other than the equation that scientists had long known

to describe the electromagnetic force. Amazing – it just popped out. He

was so excited by this realization that he ran around his house scream-

ing, «Victory!» – that he had found the unified theory.

Поднять; получать, выводить; ученые; взволнованный.

Now the first question was answered in 1926 by a fellow named

Oskar Klein. He suggested that dimensions might come in two varie-

ties – there might be big, easy-to-see dimensions, but there might al-

so be tiny, curled up dimensions, curled up so small, even though

they're all around us, that we don't see them.

Трактат; сразу; возникать; наблюдение; разновидности; ма-

ленький; скрученный.

Let me show you that one visually. So imagine you're looking at

something like a cable supporting a traffic light. It's in Manhattan.






















































































47

You're in Central Park – it's kind of irrelevant – but the cable looks

one dimensional from a distant viewpoint, but you and I all know that

it does have some thickness. It's very hard to see it, though, from far

away. But if we zoom in and take the perspective of, say, a little ant

walking around – little ants are so small that they can access all of

the dimensions – the long dimension, but also this clockwise, coun-

ter-clockwise direction.

Светофор; не относящийся к делу; толщина; по часовой

стрелке; надеяться; оценить.

But this illustrates the fact that dimensions can be of two

sorts: big and small. And the idea that maybe the big dimensions

around us are the ones that we can easily see, but there might be addi-

tional dimensions curled up, sort of like the circular part of that

cable, so small that they have so far remained invisible. Let me show

you what that would look like.

Оставаться.

Here is a little shape of a circle – so small that we don't see

them. But if you were a little ultra microscopic ant walking

around, you could walk in the big dimensions that we all know

about – that's like the grid part – but you could also access the tiny

curled-up dimension that's so small that we can't see it with the naked

eye or even with any of our most refined equipment.

Усовершенствованный; оборудование; запрятанные.

Well, it turns out that Einstein and Kaluza and many oth-

ers worked on trying to refine this frame work and apply it to the

physics of the universe as was understood at the time, and in detail it

didn't work. In detail, for instance, they couldn't get the mass of the

electron to work out correctly in this theory. So many people worked

on it, but by the 40s, certainly by the 50s, this strange but very com-

pelling idea of how to unify the laws of physics had gone away. Until

something wonderful happened in our age. In our era, a new approach

to unify the laws of physics is being pursued by physicists such as

myself, many others around the world, it's called Superstring Theory..

Пример; подход; следовать; захватывающая; объединить.









































































48

So let me just tell you how that goes. Superstring theory – what is

it? The idea is like this. So imagine we look at a familiar object, just a

candle in a holder, and imagine that we want to figure out what it is

made of. So we go on a journey deep inside the object and examine

the constituents. So deep inside – we all know you go sufficiently far

down, you have atoms. We also all know that atoms are not the end of

the story. They have little electrons that swarm around a central nuc-

leus with neutrons and protons. Even the neutrons and protons have

smaller particles inside of them known as quarks. That is where con-

ventional ideas stop.

Знакомый; подсвечник; путешествие; изучать; составляю-

щие; достаточно; вертеться; ядро; частицы; обычный.

Here is the new idea of string theory. Deep inside any of these

particles, there is something else. This something else is this dancing

filament of energy. It looks like a vibrating string – that's where the

idea string theory comes from. And just like the vibrating strings that

you just saw in a cello can vibrate in different patterns, these can also

vibrate in different patterns. They don't produce different musical

notes. Rather, they produce the different particles making up the world

around us. So if these ideas are correct, this is what the ultra-

microscopic landscape of the universe looks like. It's built up of a

huge number of these little tiny filaments of vibrating ener-

gy, vibrating in different frequencies. The different frequencies pro-

duce the different particles. The different particles are responsible for

all the richness in the world around us.

Нить; виолончель; скорее, довольно-таки; пейзаж; большой,

огромный; ответственный; богатство.

And there you see unification, because matter particles, electrons

and quarks, radiation particles, photons, gravitons, are all built up

from one entity. So matter and the forces of nature all are put together

under the rubric of vibrating strings. And that's what we mean by a

unified theory. Now here is the catch. When you study the mathemat-

ics of string theory, you find that it doesn't work in a universe that just

has three dimensions of space. It doesn't work in a universe with four

dimensions of space, nor five, nor six. It leads us right back to this





















































































49

idea of Kaluza and Klein – that our world, when appropriately de-

scribed, has more dimensions than the ones that we see.

Сущность; вместе; название; иметь в виду; подвох; надлежаще.

But it raises the question: are we just trying to hide away these

extra dimensions, or do they tell us something about the world? In the

remaining time, I'd like to tell you two features of them. First is, many

of us believe that these extra dimensions hold the answer to what per-

haps is the deepest question in theoretical physics, theoretical science.

And that question is this: when we look around the world, as scientists

have done for the last hundred years, there appear to be about 20

numbers that really describe our universe. These are numbers like the

mass of the particles, like electrons and quarks, the strength of

gravity, the strength of the electromagnetic force – a list of about 20

numbers that have been measured with incredible precision, but no-

body has an explanation for why the numbers have the particular val-

ues that they do.

Особенности; содержать; измерять; потрясающий, невероят-

ный; точность.

Now, does string theory offer an answer? Not yet. But we believe

the answer for why those numbers have the values they do may rely

on the form of the extra dimensions. And the wonderful thing is, if

those numbers had any other values than the known ones, the un-

iverse, as we know it, wouldn't exist. This is a deep question. Why are

those numbers so finely tuned to allow stars to shine and planets to

form, when we recognize that if you fiddle with those numbers – if I

had 20 dials up here and I let you come up and fiddle with those num-

bers, almost any fiddling makes the universe disappear. So can we ex-

plain those 20 numbers? And string theory suggests that those 20

numbers have to do with the extra dimensions. as in the older ideas of

Kaluza and Klein.

Полагаться на; светиться; существовать; возиться, изменять;

тонко; настроенный; исчезнуть.

This is an example of something known as a Calabi-Yau shape –

name isn't all that important. But as you can see, the extra dimensions

fold in on themselves and intertwine in a very interesting shape, inter-


















































































50

esting structure. And the idea is that if this is what the extra dimen-

sions look like, then the microscopic landscape of our universe all

around us would look like this on the tiniest of scales.

Заворачиваться; переплетаться.

Consider this. If you look at the instrument, a French horn, notice

that the vibrations of the airstreams are affected by the shape of the in-

strument. Now in string theory, all the numbers are reflections of the

way strings can vibrate. So just as those airstreams are affected by the

twists and turns in the instrument, strings themselves will be

affected by the vibrational patterns in the geometry within which they

are moving.

Рассматривать, считать; валторна; заметить, отметить; воз-

душный поток; изгибы.

And if we could calculate the allowed vibrational patterns, we

should be able to calculate those 20 numbers. And if the answer that we

get from our calculations agrees with the values of those numbers that

have been determined through detailed and precise experimentation, this

in many ways would be the first fundamental explanation for why the

structure of the universe is the way it is. Now, the second issue that I

want to finish up with is: how might we test for these extra dimensions

more directly? Is this just an interesting mathematical structure that

might be able to explain some previously unexplained features of the

world, or can we actually test for these extra dimensions?

Ранее.

Here's how it goes. In CERN, Geneva, Switzerland,a machine is be-

ing built called the Large Hуdron Collider. It's a machine that will send

particles around a tunnel, opposite directions, near the speed of

light. Every so often those particles will be aimed at each other, so

there's a head-on collision. The hope is that if the collision has enough

energy, it may eject some of the debris from the collision from our di-

mensions, forcing it to enter into the other dimensions. How will we

know it? Well, we'll measure the amount of energy after the colli-

sion, compare it to the amount of energy before, and if there's less ener-

gy after the collision than before, this will be evidence that the energy


















































































51

has drifted away. And if it drifts away in the right pattern that we can

calculate, this will be evidence that the extra dimensions are there.

Противоположный; близкой; столкновение; осколки; количе-

ство; доказательство, свидетельство.

Let me show you that idea visually. So imagine we have a certain

kind of particle called a graviton – that's the kind of debris we expect

to be ejected out if the extra dimensions are real. But here's how the

experiment will go. You take these particles. You slam them

together. You slam them together, and if we are right, some of the

energy of that collision will go into debris that flies off into these extra

dimensions. So this is the kind of experiment that we'll be looking at

in the next five, seven to 10 years or so. And if this experiment bears

fruit, if we see that kind of particle ejected by noticing that there's less

energy in our dimensions than when we began, this will show that the

extra dimensions are real.

Некоторый, определенный; сталкивать; вместе; приносить

плоды.



































52


bold смелый

bizarre причудливый, странный, эксцентричный

it has nothing

to do with

это не имеет никакого отношения к ...

impact воздействие, влияние, толчок, импульс

cutting-edge современный, дающий преимущество

to bask наслаждаться, греться

pervasive

проникающий, распространяющийся повсю-

ду

to resolve решать, разрешать, принимать решение

apocryphal неканонический, недостоверный

to affect затрагивать, влиять, воздействовать

inert

инертный, вялый, нейтральный,

маловажный

exert influence оказывать влияние

medium среда

fabric структура, материал, выделка, ткань

warp деформация, искривление

curve кривизна, кривая

vallеy впадина, точка минимума, вмятина

environment окружающая среда

by virtue of в силу, на основании

full-frame полноформатный

to gain приобретать, приносить

prominence известность, выдающееся положение

in search of в поисках

if you will если угодно

in terms of в переводе на, в терминах, с учетом; на языке

to derive выводить, получать

to pop out выскочить

a treatise on трактат, научный труд

dive(dove, dived) нырять

curled-up свернутый, завитой

thickness толщина


53

ant муравей

to appreciate ценить, оценивать

grid решетка

to tuck подворачивать, засовывать, подгибать

refine усовершенствовать, уточнять, улучшать

framework структура, решетка, рамка, каркас, остов

compelling захватывающий, мощный, интригующий

to pursue следовать, рассматривать

to resurrect возрождать

sparkle блестеть

familiar знакомый

to figure out выводить, разгадывать, вычислять

conventional общепринятый

swarm рой

cello виолончель

filaments волокно, нить накала

rubric категория, разряд, рубрика

appropriately соответствующе, подобающим образом

prediction предсказание, прогноз

to raise

a question

поднять вопрос

features черты, характеристики

incredible невероятный

precision точность

rely on полагаться на

to fiddle легкомысленно относиться к...,

intertwine переплетать, закручивать, сплетать

collision столкновение

to eject выталкивать, испускать

evidence свидетельство

to drift away развеяться, уплыть

debris остатки, обломки, осколки

to slam со стуком захлопывать, врезаться

to bear fruit приносить плоды


54


1. What did Th. Kaluza suggest?

2. What idea had a major impact on physics?

3. Why does Brian Greene say that Einstein was basking in the

glow? What kind of discovery did he make at that time?

4. What new project did he plan to launch?

5. What exactly didn‟t Newton understand in the law of gravity?

6. When does the fabric of space warp and curve? Under what in-

fluence?

7. Why is the moon kept in its orbit?

8. What were both Kaluza and Einstein in search of?

9. In what terms did Kaluza want to describe gravity?

10. What made Kaluza cry «Victory!»

11. How did Kaluza treat theory? Did he take it seriously or light-

heartedly?

12. In what varieties might dimensions be described?

13. What does a cable look like from a distance?

14. If you went on a journey into any object, what would you see?

15. What are the 20 numbers that describe the world we live in?

16. What would fiddling with these 20 numbers result in? Why?

17. What does the microscopic landscape of our Universe look

like in terms of geometry?

18. What are the vibrations of strings affected by?

19. What kind of vibrational patterns does Greene speak of?

20. What makes particles in the collider eject some energy into

other dimensions?

21. How can we calculate the existence of other dimensions

through the experiment with Hydron Collider?

22. Sum up the stages in science development which have led to

understanding the multidimensionality of our Universe.


1. Абсолютно неизвестный немецкий ученый предположил,

что наша Вселенная может состоять из большего числа измере-

ний, чем мы привыкли считать.

2. По какой-то причине эти измерения не видны нам пока.

3. Иногда интересные идеи не имеют никакого практического

применения для нашего реального мира.


55

4. Однако эта идея имела решающее влияние на физику в

прошлом столетии.

5. Для начала нам нужно обратиться к истории.

6. Это был год, когда Эйнштейн купался в лучах славы после

открытия теории относительности.

7. Именно в это время он решил попытаться понять всепро-

никающую силу притяжения.

8. Хотя Ньютон знал, как рассчитать силу притяжения, по его

словам, он не был в состоянии понять, как собственно она рабо-

тает.

9. Эйнштейн заявил, что пространство плоское и безмятеж-

ное, когда в нем нет материи.

10. Если же есть материя, то она заставляет пространство ис-

кривляться и деформироваться.

11. Эйнштейн сумел описать гравитацию, используя понятия

кривизны и деформаций.

12. Калуза предпринял попытку описать электромагнитную

силу через понятия кривизны и деформаций.

13. Калуза предположил, что электромагнитная сила пред-

ставляет собой преломления в виде деформаций и кривизны в

четвертом измерении.

14. Калуза принадлежал к типу людей, которые не только

всерьез относятся к теории, но могут жизнь положить за нее.

15. Кляйн предположил, что измерения могут быть двух ви-

дов: большие и маленькие.

16. На расстоянии линия электропередач выглядит одномер-

ной, но мы знаем, что она обладает некоторой толщиной.

17. Всегда могут обнаружиться дополнительные встроенные

изогнутые размерности.

18. Остается вопрос – применима ли эта теория на практике в

той действительности, которую мы знаем хорошо.

19. В наше время подход к решению этих проблем совсем иной:

теория струн предлагает по-новому взглянуть на старые проблемы.

20. На первый взгляд кажется, что о дополнительных измере-

ниях нет речи.

21. Глубоко внутри любого предмета можно обнаружить

вибрирующие энергетические нити.


56

22. Именно они порождают частицы, из которых состоит мир

вокруг нас. Все в нашем мире в своей основе имеет каркас из

вибрирующих с разной частотой энергетических нитей (струн).

23. Различные частицы отвечают за разнообразие и даже бо-

гатство нашего мира.

24. Итак, все силы природы и материя приписываются виб-

рирующим энергетическим нитям, но именно здесь нас ожидает

подвох – математически теория струн не применима без призна-

ния существования дополнительных измерений в пространстве.

25. Существуют 20 чисел, которые описывают математиче-

ски реалии нашего мира.

26. Эти числа известны с невероятной точностью, но никто

не может объяснить, почему величина их такова.

27. Если изменить хотя бы одно из этих чисел, мир в том ви-

де, который привычен нам, исчезнет.

Ex. 3. Render the text in English

Согласно принципу относительности (см. Теория относи-

тельности), энергия и масса эквивалентны, а значит, чем выше

частота гармонической волновой вибрации струны, тем выше его

энергия, и тем выше масса наблюдаемой частицы.

Однако, если стоячую волну в гитарной струне представить

себе наглядно достаточно просто, стоячие волны, предлагаемые

теорией суперструн наглядному представлению поддаются с тру-

дом – дело в том, что колебания суперструн происходят в про-

странстве, имеющем 11 измерений. Мы привыкли к четырехмер-

ному пространству, которое содержит три пространственных и

одно временное измерение (влево-вправо, вверх-вниз, вперед-

назад, прошлое-будущее). В пространстве суперструн всѐ обстоит

гораздо сложнее. Физики-теоретики обходят скользкую проблему

«лишних» пространственных измерений, утверждая, что они

«скрадываются» (или, научным языком выражаясь, «компакти-

фицируются») и потому не наблюдаются при обычных энергиях.

Совсем уже недавно теория струн получила дальнейшее раз-

витие в виде теории многомерных мембран – по сути, это те же

струны, но плоские. Как походя пошутил кто-то из ее авторов,

мембраны отличаются от струн примерно тем же, чем лапша от-

личается от вермишели.


http://elementy.ru/trefil/relativity

http://elementy.ru/trefil/relativity

57

Увы, и эта теория небезгрешна. Прежде всего, она до сих пор

не приведена к строгому математическому виду по причине не-

достаточности математического аппарата для ее приведения в

строгое внутреннее соответствие. Прошло уже 20 лет, как эта тео-

рия появилась на свет, а непротиворечиво согласовать одни ее ас-

пекты и версии с другими так никому и не удалось. Еще неприят-

нее то, что никто из теоретиков, предлагающих теорию струн (и

тем более суперструн), до сих пор не предложил ни одного опыта,

на котором эти теории можно было бы проверить лабораторно.

Unit 5

David Christian: Big history URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/david_christian_big_history.html

First, a video. (Video) Yes, it is a scrambled egg. But as you look

at it, I hope you'll begin to feel just slightly uneasy. Because you may

notice that what's actually happening is that the egg is unscrambling it-

self. And you'll now see the yolk and the white have separated. And

now they're going to be poured back into the egg. And we all know in

our heart of hearts that this is not the way the universe works. A

scrambled egg is mush – tasty mush – but it's mush. An egg is a beauti-

ful, sophisticated thing that can create even more sophisticated things,

such as chickens. And we know in our heart of hearts that the universe

does not travel from mush to complexity. In fact, this gut instinct is re-

flected in one of the most fundamental laws of physics, the second law

of thermodynamics, or the law of entropy. What that says basically is

that the general tendency of the universe is to move from order and

structure to lack of order, lack of structure – in fact, to mush.

Взбалтывать, разбивать; желток; кашица; белок; чутье.

So here's a great puzzle: in a universe ruled by the second law of

thermodynamics, how is it possible to generate the sort of complexity

I've described, the sort of complexity represented by you and me and

the convention center? Well, the answer seems to be, the universe can

create complexity, but with great difficulty. In pockets, there appear

what my colleague, Fred Spier, calls «Goldilocks conditions» – not

too hot, not too cold, just right for the creation of complexity. And

slightly more complex things appear. And where you have slightly
















































































58

more complex things, you can get slightly more complex things. And

in this way, complexity builds stage by stage. Each stage is magical

because it creates the impression of something utterly new appearing

almost out of nowhere in the universe. We refer in big history to these

moments as threshold moments. And at each threshold, the going

gets tougher. The complex things get more fragile, more vulnerable;

the Goldilocks conditions get more stringent, and it's more difficult to

create complexity.

Совершенно; пороговый; уязвимый; строгий, обязательный.

Around us, there's nothing. There's not even time or space. Im-

agine the darkest, emptiest thing you can and cube it a gazillion times

and that's where we are. And then suddenly, bang! A universe appears,

an entire universe. And we've crossed our first threshold. The universe

is tiny; it's smaller than an atom. It's incredibly hot. It contains every-

thing that's in today's universe, so you can imagine, it's busting. And

it's expanding at incredible speed. And at first, it's just a blur, but very

quickly distinct things begin to appear in that blur. Within the first

second, energy itself shatters into distinct forces including electro-

magnetism and gravity. And energy does something else quite magi-

cal: it congeals to form matter – quarks that will create protons and

leptons that include electrons. And all of that happens in the first

second.

Несметное количество; невероятно; разрушаться; пятно; по-

шатнуться, расстроиться; сгущать, замораживать.

Now we move forward 380,000 years. That's twice as long as hu-

mans have been on this planet. And now simple atoms appear of hy-

drogen and helium. Now I want to pause for a moment, 380,000 years

after the origins of the universe, because we actually know quite a lot

about the universe at this stage. We know above all that it was extreme-

ly simple. It consisted of huge clouds of hydrogen and helium atoms,

and they have no structure. They're really a sort of cosmic mush.

And this is how it works. Gravity is more powerful where there's

more stuff. So where you get slightly denser areas, gravity starts com-

pacting clouds of hydrogen and helium atoms. So we can imagine the

early universe breaking up into a billion clouds. And each cloud is

compacted, gravity gets more powerful as density increases, the tem-





































































































59

perature begins to rise at the center of each cloud, and then, at the cen-

ter of each cloud, the temperature crosses the threshold temperature of

10 million degrees, protons start to fuse, there's a huge release of

energy, and, bam!

Плотность.

Stars will create the Goldilocks conditions for crossing two new

thresholds. When very large stars die, they create temperatures so high

that protons begin to fuse in all sorts of exotic combinations, to form all

the elements of the periodic table. If, like me, you're wearing a gold

ring, it was forged in a supernova explosion. So now the universe is

chemically more complex. And in a chemically more complex universe,

it's possible to make more things. And what starts happening is that,

around young suns, young stars, all these elements combine, they swirl

around, the energy of the star stirs them around, they form particles,

they form snowflakes, they form little dust motes, they form rocks, they

form asteroids, and eventually, they form planets and moons. And that is

how our solar system was formed, four and a half billion years ago.

Rocky planets like our Earth are significantly more complex than stars

because they contain a much greater diversity of materials. So we've

crossed a fourth threshold of complexity.

Изобретать, придумывать.

Создавать; кружить; пылинка, соринка.

Now, the going gets tougher. The next stage introduces entities

that are significantly more fragile, significantly more vulnerable, but

they're also much more creative and much more capable of generating

further complexity. I'm talking, of course, about living organisms.

Living organisms are created by chemistry. We are huge packages of

chemicals. So, chemistry is dominated by the electromagnetic force.

That operates over smaller scales than gravity, which explains why

you and I are smaller than stars or planets. Now, what are the ideal

conditions for chemistry? What are the Goldilocks conditions? Well,

first, you need energy, but not too much. In the center of a star, there's

so much energy that any atoms that combine will just get busted apart

again. But not too little. In intergalactic space, there's so little energy

that atoms can't combine. What you want is just the right amount,




























































































60

You also need a great diversity of chemical elements, and you

need liquid such as water. Why? Well, in gasses, atoms move past

each other so fast that they can't hitch up. In solids, atoms are stuck

together, they can't move. In liquids, they can cruise and cuddle and

link up to form molecules. Now, where do you find such Goldilocks

conditions? Well, planets are great, and our early Earth was almost

perfect. It was just the right distance from its star to contain huge

oceans of open water. And deep beneath those oceans, at cracks in

the Earth's crust, you've got heat seeping up from inside the Earth,

and you've got a great diversity of elements. So at those deep oceanic

vents, fantastic chemistry began to happen, and atoms combined in all

sorts of exotic combinations.

Обниматься, клапан.

But of course, life is more than just exotic chemistry. How do you

stabilize those huge molecules that seem to be viable? Well, it's here

that life introduces an entirely new trick. You don't stabilize the indi-

vidual; you stabilize the template, the thing that carries information,

and you allow the template to copy itself. And DNA, of course, is the

beautiful molecule that contains that information. You'll be familiar

with the double helix of DNA. Each rung contains information. So,

DNA contains information about how to make living organisms. And

DNA also copies itself. So, it copies itself and scatters the templates

through the ocean. So the information spreads. Notice that informa-

tion has become part of our story. The real beauty of DNA though is

in its imperfections. As it copies itself, once in every billion rungs,

there tends to be an error. And what that means is that DNA is, in ef-

fect, learning. It's accumulating new ways of making living organisms

because some of those errors work. So DNA's learning and it's build-

ing greater diversity and greater complexity. And we can see this hap-

pening over the last four billion years.

Жизнеспособный; матрица, шаблон; разбрасывать.

For most of that time of life on Earth, living organisms have been

relatively simple – single cells. But they had great diversity, and, in-

side, great complexity. Then from about 600 to 800 million years ago,

multi-celled organisms appear. You get fungi, you get fish, you get

plants, you get amphibia, you get reptiles, and then, of course, you get




















































































































61

the dinosaurs. And occasionally, there are disasters. Sixty-five mil-

lion years ago, an asteroid landed on Earth near the Yucatan Peninsu-

la, creating conditions equivalent to those of a nuclear war, and the

dinosaurs were wiped out. Terrible news for the dinosaurs, but great

news for our mammalian ancestors, who flourished in the niches left

empty by the dinosaurs. And we human beings are part of that crea-

tive evolutionary pulse that began 65 million years ago with the land-

ing of an asteroid.

Грибки; процветать.

Humans appeared about 200,000 years ago. And I believe we

count as a threshold in this great story. Let me explain why. We've

seen that DNA learns in a sense, it accumulates information. But it is

so slow. DNA accumulates information through random errors,

some of which just happen to work. But DNA had actually generated a

faster way of learning: it had produced organisms with brains, and

those organisms can learn in real time. They accumulate information,

they learn. The sad thing is, when they die, the information dies with

them. Now what makes humans different is human language. We are

blessed with a language, a system of communication, so powerful and

so precise that we can share what we've learned with such precision

that it can accumulate in the collective memory. And that means it can

outlast the individuals who learned that information, and it can accu-

mulate from generation to generation.

Пережить.

I call this ability collective learning. It's what makes us different.

We can see it at work in the earliest stages of human history. We

evolved as a species in the savanna lands of Africa, but then you see

humans migrating into new environments, into desert lands, into jun-

gles, into the ice age tundra of Siberia – tough, tough environment –

into the Americas, into Australasia.

Then 10,000 years ago, exploiting a sudden change in global cli-

mate with the end of the last ice age, humans learned to farm.

Farming was an energy bonanza. And exploiting that energy, hu-

man populations multiplied. Human societies got larger, denser, more

interconnected. And then from about 500 years ago, humans began to

link up globally through shipping, through trains, through telegraph,









































































































62

through the Internet, until now we seem to form a single global

brain of almost seven billion individuals. And that brain is learning

at warp speed. And in the last 200 years, something else has hap-

pened. We've stumbled on another energy bonanza in fossil fuels. So

fossil fuels and collective learning together explain the staggering

complexity we see around us.

Деформировать, искривлять; натолкнуться; золотое дно.

Collective learning is a very, very powerful force, and it's not

clear that we humans are in charge of it. I remember very vividly as a

child growing up in England, living through the Cuban Missile Crisis.

For a few days, the entire biosphere seemed to be on the verge of de-

struction. And the same weapons are still here, and they are still

armed. If we avoid that trap, others are waiting for us. We're burning

fossil fuels at such a rate that we seem to be undermining the Goldi-

locks conditions that made it possible for human civilizations to flou-

rish over the last 10,000 years.

Ловушка; подрывать, расшатывать.

Ex. 1. Answer the following questions:

1. What is entropy?

2. What is the general trend of development in the Universe –

from chaos to order or from order to chaos?

3. What is meant by Goldilocks conditions?

4. How does complexity build up?

5. Why does the lecturer call each stage in the development of the

Universe magical?

6. How can we define the so called threshold moments?

7. What do we have to do before studying the process of com-

plexity development?

8. What could we see around us if we went 13 billion years back

in time?

9. What was the „whether‟ like?

10. How fast did things appear?

11. How can you define the blur of the environment?

12. What exactly happened on the first second in the history of

Time?















































63

13. How did matter appear? What was it made of? How did stars

appear?

14. What was the role of energy in forming matter?

15. What did the cosmic mush consist of? What were the first

chemical elements?

16. At what stage did living organisms appear? What kind of con-

ditions are necessary for them to appear?

17. What made our planet so suitable for becoming inhabitable?

18. What kind of template was chosen for preserving information?

19. What is the real beauty of the DNA? Why?

20. What kind of multi-celled organisms appear?

21. How exactly does DNA accumulate information?

22. What kind of gift are people blessed with?

23. What opportunities did migration offer people in terms of de-

velopment?

24. Why was farming so crucial in the evolution of men?

25. What is single global brain?

26. Why do fossil fuels and collective learning explain the stag-

gering complexity around us?

27. How do people undermine Goldilocks conditions?

28. What kind of traps should we avoid?

Ex. 2. Translate the sentences from Russian into English:

1. В глубине души мы знаем, что Вселенная не проходит в

своем развитии путь от простого к сложному.

2. Каждый этап развития Вселенной можно назвать чудом,

так как сложность нового порядка появляется как бы из ниоткуда.

3. Более сложные явления в процесса развития становятся все

более хрупкими и уязвимыми.

4. С каждым новым порогом развития усложняется сам про-

цесс созидания нового.

5. Вселенная расширяется с невероятной скоростью и из бес-

форменного пятна вырисовываются четко различимые предметы.

6. По мере возрастания плотности увеличивается сила грави-

тации.

7. Как можно зафиксировать жизнеспособные молекулы? От-

вет прост – стабилизируются не сами молекулы, а матрица, не-

сущая информацию о них.


64

8. ДНК копирует себя и распространяет подобные себе

структуры повсюду через океан.

9. Что интересно, ДНК учится на своих собственных ошиб-

ках! Именно это делает ее способной к развитию, так как некото-

рые ошибки срабатывают на пользу эволюции.

10. Время от времени происходят катастрофы. Одна из них

унесла навсегда динозавров.

11. Способность обучаться коллективно и извлекать из этого

пользу делает нас принципиально иными существами.

12. Как вид мы эволюционировали на просторах саванны, но

мигрируя в более суровые климатические зоны, мы учились жить

в суровых условиях и решать новые задачи.

Ex. 3. Make up a plan to the text. State your opinion on the as-

pects of the issue. Use the parentheses given below:

1. Broadly

speaking

1. В общих

чертах

11. Oddly 11. Странно;

забавно

2. In essence. 2. По сути 12. Admittedly 12. По общему

признанию;

предположи-

тельно

3. Interesting-

ly

3. Что

интересно

13. Remarkably 13. Удиви-

тельно;

замечательно;

необыкновенно

4. Conceiva-

bly

4. Предпо-

ложительно

14. In a way 14. В каком-то

смысле; от-

части

5. Apparently 5. По-

видимому

15. At a rough

guess

15. По прибли-

зительным

подсчетам;

предположи-

тельно

Have your say


65

6. Presumably 6. Предпо-

ложитель-

но, вероятно

16. Predictably 16. Вполне

предсказуемо

7. Ostensibly 7. Якобы,

как будто

бы,

по видимо-

сти,

для видимо-

сти

17. Seemingly 17. С виду

8. To all in-

tents and pur-

poses

8. Фактиче-

ски; по су-

ществу; во

всех отно-

шениях

18. To my mind 18. По-моему

9. Incredibly 9. Невероят-

но

19. On balance 19. В итоге

10. Unders-

tandably

10. По по-

нятным

причинам

20. Ultimately 20. В конечном

счете;

в конце концов;

в итоге

Список использованной литературы и интернет-ресурсов

1. Мухортов, Д. С. Political English. An advanced mass media

course / Мухортов, Д. С. – M: Р.Валент, 2011.

2. URL:http//:www.TED.com

3. Collocations in Use. Cambridge

4. Дубинина, Г. А. Английский язык: учеб. пособие для сту-

дентов 2-го курса. / Г. А. Дубинина, И. Ф. Драчинская, М. Ф. Ма-

тявина. – М., 2009.

5. URL:http://ru.wikipedia.


66

Оглавление

UNIT 1. Paul Zak: Trust, morality and oxytocin ................................. 3

UNIT 2. On our place in the cosmos. David Deutsch ........................ 17

UNIT 3. Sebastian Seung: I am my connectome ................................ 33

UNIT 4. Brian Greene on String Theory..........................................44

Unit 5. David Christian: Big history ................................................... 57

Список использованной литературы и интернет-ресурсов .......... 65


67

Учебное издание

Бугрова Ирина Константиновна

Английский язык:

практика ведения дискуссий

Практикум

Редактор, корректор М. В. Никулина

Правка, верстка М. В. Никулина

Подписано в печать 20.09.2012. Формат 60 841/16.

Усл. печ. л. 3,95. Уч.-изд. л. 2,93.

Тираж 20 экз. Заказ .

Оригинал-макет подготовлен

в редакционно-издательском отделе ЯрГУ.

Ярославский государственный университет

им. П. Г. Демидова.

150000, Ярославль, ул. Советская, 14.


68


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439.английский язык практика ведения дискуссий