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A Contrastive Grammar of English and Dutch
Contrastieve grammatica EngelslN ederlands
To Professor R. W. Zandvoort
E G.A.M. Aarts H.Chr. Wekker
A Contrastive Grafl101ar of English and Dutch
Contrastieve gra0101atica
Engels I Nederlands
1987 SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
CIP-GEGEVENS KONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG
Aarts, F.G.A.M.
Contrastieve grammatica Engels/Nederiands I F.G .A.M. Aarts, H. Chr. Wekker. ISBN 978-90-6890-049-1 ISBN 978-94-017-4984-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-4984-8 SISO enge 837.1 UDC 802.0-5+803.931-5 NUGI 101 Trefw.: Engelse taal ; grammatica I Nederlandse taal ; grammatica.
Eerste druk, derde oplage 1991
ISBN 978-90-6890-049-1 DI1986/2524/40
© 1987 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden/Antwerpen in 1987
AIle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd, opgeslagen in een geautomatiseerd gegevensbestand, of openbaar gemaakt, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, hetzij elektronisch, mechanisch, door fotokopieen, opnamen, of enige andere manier, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toe stemming van de uitgever.
Voor zover het maken van kopieen uit deze uitgave is toegestaan op grond van artikel 16B Auteurswet 1912 t het Besluit van 20 juni 1974, St.b. 351, zoals gewijzigd bij het Besluit van 23 augustus 1985, St.b. 471 en artikel17 Auteurswet 1912, dient men de daarvoor wettelijk verschuldigde vergoedingen te voldoen aan de Stichting Reprorecht (Postbus 882,1180 AW Amstelveen). Voor het overnemen van gedeelte(n) uit deze uitgave in bloemlezingen, readers en andere compilatiewerken (artikel 16 Auteurswet 1912) dient men zich tot de uitgever te wenden.
Contents Preface XIII
PART ONE: A CONCISE ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Chapter 1: Grammar and Contrastive Grammar
1.1 What is Grammar? 1
1.2 What is Contrastive Grammar? 5
Chapter 2: The Units of Grammatical Description
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 The Morpheme 13
2.3 The Word 15 2.3.1 Nouns 18 2.3.2 Verbs 24 2.3.3 Adjectives 38 2.3.4 Adverbs 39 2.3.5 Prepositions 40 2.3.6 Conjunctions 41 2.3.7 Articles 42 2.3.8 Numerals 43 2.3.9 Pronouns 44 2.3.10 Quantifiers 52 2.3.11 Interjections 54
2.4 The Phrase 54 2.4.1 Introduction 54 2.4.2 The Structure of Phrases 55 2.4.2.1 The Noun Phrase 55 2.4.2.2 The Verb Phrase 61 2.4.2.3 The Adjective Phrase 63 2.4.2.4 The Adverb Phrase 64 2.4.2.5 The Prepositional Phrase 65 2.4.3 The Functions of Phrases 66
VI Contents
2.4.3.1 The Noun Phrase 67 2.4.3.2 The Verb Phrase 68 2.4.3.3 The Adjective Phrase 68 2.4.3.4 The Adverb Phrase 69 2.4.3.5 The Prepositional Phrase 70 2.4.3.6 Summary 71
2.5 The Sentence 71 2.5.1 Introduction 71 2.5.2 Linear Structure and Hierarchical Structure 72 2.5.3 Functions and Categories 76 2.5.3.1 Introduction 76 2.5.3.2 Subject 82 2.5.3.3 Predicate and Predicator 83 2.5.3.4 Direct Object 84 2.5.3.5 Indirect Object 87 2.5.3.6 Benefactive Object 89 2.5.3.7 Subject Attribute 90 2.5.3.8 Object Attribute 91 2.5.3.9 Adverbial 93 2.5.4 The Classification of Sentences 94 2.5.4.1 Introduction 94 2.5.4.2 Syntactic Complexity: Simple, Complex and Compound
Sentences 95 2.5.4.3 Grammatical Form: Declarative, Interrogative,
Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences 96 2.5.4.4 Negative Sentences 99 2.5.5 Substitution and Ellipsis 100 2.5.5.1 Introduction 100 2.5.5.2 Substitution 100 2.5.5.3 Ellipsis 101 2.5.6 Some Special Sentence Types 102 2.5.6.1 Introduction 102 2.5.6.2 Existential Sentences 102 2.5.6.3 Passive Sentences 103 2.5.6.4 Cleft Sentences 105 2.5.6.5 Extraposed Sentences 107
Contents
PART TWO: THE STRUCTURES OF ENGLISH AND DUTCH COMPARED
Chapter 3: Nouns, Noun Phrases and Pronouns
3.1
3.2 3.2) 3.2.2 3.2.3
3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.2.1 3.3.2.2 3.3.2.3 3.3.3 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.2 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.5.1 3.3.5.2 3.3.5.3
3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.4.7 3.4.8 3.4.9
Introduction
Nouns Number Case Gender
Noun Phrases Introduction Determiners Predeterminers Central Determiners Post determiners Premodificational Structures Premodificational Structures in Dutch Premodificational Structures in English The Noun Phrase Head Postmodificational Structures Finite Clauses in Postmodification Non-finite Clauses in Postmodification Adjectives in Postmodification
Pronouns Personal Pronouns -self Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Relative Pronouns Interrogative Pronouns Reciprocal Pronouns So and One Dutch er and its English Equivalents
Chapter 4: Verbs and Verb Phrases
4.1 Introduction
VII
111
111 111 116 118
120 120 120 120 123 135 137 137 139 142 143 143 145 147
147 147 149 150 154 155 158 161 161 162
165
VIn Contents
4.2 Verbs 165 4.2.1 English and Dutch Verbs 165 4.2.2 The Primary Auxiliaries 166 4.2.2.1 Have 166 4.2.2.2 Be 166 4.2.2.3 Do 167 4.2.3 The Modals 169 4.2.3.1 Can 171 4.2.3.2 Could 174 4.2.3.3 May 176 4.2.3.4 Might 178 4.2.3.5 Must 179 4.2.3.6 Shall 181 4.2.3.7 Should 182 4.2.3.8 Will 186 4.2.3.9 Would 188 4.2.3.10 Dare 190 4.2.3.11 Need 191 4.2.3.12 Ought to 192 4.2.3.13 Used to 194 4.2.4 The Semi-auxiliaries 195
4.3 Verb Phrases 195 4.3.1 Simple and Complex Verb Phrases 196 4.3.2 Finite and Non-finite Verb Phrases 196
4.4 The Tenses and their Uses 197 4.4.1 Present Tense 200 4.4.2 Past Tense 205 4.4.3 Present Perfect Tense 210 4.4.4 Past Perfect Tense 215 4.4.5 Present Future Tense 220 4.4.6 Past Future Tense 221 4.4.7 Present Future Perfect Tense 223 4.4.8 Past Future Perfect Tense 225
4.5 Aspect 227 4.5.1 Uses of the Progressive 230 4.5.2 Dynamic and Stative 230
4.6 Mood 235
Contents IX
4.6.1 The Subjunctive Mood 236 4.6.2 The Imperative Mood 238
Chapter 5: Adjectives and Adjective Phrases Adverbs and Adverb Phrases Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
5.1 Introduction 239
5.2 Adjectives and Adjective Phrases 239 5.2.1 Adjectives 239 5.2.1.1 Attributive and Predicative Adjectives 239 5.2.1.2 Adjectives in Postmodification 242 5.2.1.3 Stative and Dynamic Adjectives 242 5.2.2 The Structure of the Adjective Phrase 243 5.2.2.1 Premodificational Structures 243 5.2.2.2 The Adjective Phrase Head 245 5.2.2.3 Postmodificational Structures 245 5.2.3 The Comparison of Adjectives 246 5.2.3.1 The Degrees of Comparison 246 5.2.3.2 Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives 247 5.2.3.3 The Basis of Comparison 247 5.2.3.4 The Forms of the Comparative and the Superlative 248 5.2.3.5 The Use of the Comparative 250 5.2.3.6 The Use of the Superlative 251 5.2.3.7 Other Structures of Comparison 253
5.3 Adverbs and Adverb Phrases 254 5.3.1 Adverbs 254 5.3.1.1 The Morphology of Adverbs 254 5.3.1.2 The Syntactic Functions of Adverbs 256 5.3.2 The Structure of the Adverb Phrase 259 5.3.2.1 Premodificational Structures 259 5.3.2.2 The Adverb Phrase Head 260 5.3.2.3 Postmodificational Structures 260 5.3.3 The Comparison of Adverbs 260
5.4 Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases 261 5.4.1 Prepositions 261 5.4.2 The Structure of the Prepositional Phrase 261 5.4.3 Prepositional Usage in English and Dutch 263
X Contents
Chapter 6: The Sentence
6.1 Introduction 267
6.2 Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences 267 6.2.1 Interrogative Sentences 267 6.2.1.1 Yes-no questions 267 6.2.1.2 WH-questions 268 6.2.1.3 Tag-questions 269 6.2.2 Imperative Sentences 270 6.2.3 Exclamatory Sentences 270
6.3 Negative Sentences 271
6.4 Passive Sentences 272 6.4.1 The Form ofthe Passive Verb Phrase 273 6.4.2 The get-passive 276 6.4.3 The Syntax of Passive Sentences 278 6.4.4 Object Restrictions 281 6.4.5 Passive Existential Sentences 283 6.4.6 Multi-word Verbs 284 6.4.7 Verb Restrictions 287 6.4.8 The Use ofthe Passive Voice 288
6.5 Some Special Sentence Types 290 6.5.1 Introduction 290 6.5.2 Existential Sentences 290 6.5.3 Cleft Sentences 292 6.5.4 Extraposed Sentences 294
6.6 Substitution and Ellipsis 294 6.6.1 Introduction 294 6.6.2 Substitution 295 6.6.3 Ellipsis 300
6.7 Sentences with Adverbial Non-tinite Clauses 301 6.7.1 Introduction 301 6.7.2 Adverbial to-infinitive Clauses 302 6.7.3 Adverbial Participle Clauses 302
6.8 Verb Complementation 304
Contents
6.8.1 6.8.2 6.8.3 6.8.3.1 6.8.3.2 6.8.4 6.8.5
6.9
6.10 6.10.1 6.10.2 6.10.3 6.10.3.1 6.10.3.2
Appendix
Introduction Copular Complementation Monotransitive Complementation The Complement is a Finite Clause The Complement is a Non-finite Clause Ditransitive Complementation Complex Transitive Complementation
Word Order
Concord Introduction Concord in the noun phrase Concord in the sentence Subject-verb concord Other types of concord
I List of Irregular Verbs in English II Inventory of Spelling Rules III The Pronunciation of the -s, -ed and -ing Suffixes
Select Bibliography
Index
XI
304 305 309 309 310 319 321
322
325 325 326 327 327 329
331 337 345
349
351
Preface
This book is an attempt to contribute to the contrastive study of the syntax of English and Dutch. Although it is not the first contrastive grammar of the two languages to be published in Holland, it is undoubtedly the most comprehensive. In writing A Contrastive Grammar of English and Dutch (henceforth CGED), we have been fortunate in having at our disposal the two most exhaustive descriptions of English and Dutch published to date: A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (CGEL), by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, which appeared in 1985, and the Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst (ANS), by G. Geerts, W. Haeseryn, J. de Rooij and M.e. van den Toorn, published in 1984. Both grammars are based on a traditional descriptive framework; this also holds true for CGED.
CGED consists of two parts. Part One ('A Concise English Grammar') provides an overview of the main points of English syntax. It introduces students to the concepts and terminology they require in order to be able to compare the syntactic structures of English and Dutch. Part One consists of two chapters. In Chapter 1 the questions 'What is grammar?' and 'What is contrastive grammar?' are dealt with briefly. This chapter gives the student an idea of what is understood by the grammatical description of a language and also of what the contrastive grammarian has in mind when he sets out to make a comparison of the grammars of two languages. Chapter 2 deals with the units of grammatical description: the morpheme, the word, the phrase and the sentence.
Part Two ('The Structures of English and Dutch Compared') is a contrastive grammar, which presents a systematic study of the major differences in the syntax of English and Dutch at the word, phrase and sentence level.
CGED is intended as a course and reference book for Dutch-speaking students of English at universities, teacher training colleges and schools for translators. Our aim has been primarily pedagogical. In contrasting the syntax of English and Dutch we seek to enhance students' awareness of the differences and similarities between the two languages. Our principal goal has been to draw their attention to those areas where English and Dutch differ in interesting ways. In many cases it is these points that are known to constitute obstac-
XIV Preface
les from the learner's point of view. In writing this book we have greatly benefited from the critical acumen of
our colleagues Phil Hyams, Eric Kellerman, Alasdair MacDonald and Paul Waterval, who read parts of the manuscript and provided many useful comments. We are also very grateful to Chris Wouters for the meticulous care with which she typed the successive versions of the text.
Department of English University of Nijmegen Erasmusplein 1 6525 HT Nijmegen Holland
January 1987
Flar Aarts Herman Wekker
