A Description of the Methods of the Natural Sciences Steve Badger, PhD Professor of Chemistry Evangel University

A Description of the A Description of the Methods of the Natural SciencesMethods of the Natural Sciences

Steve Badger, PhDSteve Badger, PhD

Professor of ChemistryProfessor of Chemistry

Evangel UniversityEvangel University

What is Science?What is Science?

• This description is limited to “the This description is limited to “the natural sciences” natural sciences”

• E.g., physics, chemistry, biology, E.g., physics, chemistry, biology, etc.etc.

• Not the “social sciences” or the Not the “social sciences” or the “behavioral sciences”“behavioral sciences”

How can we define How can we define science?science?

• Dictionary?Dictionary?• Textbook?Textbook?• A scientist?A scientist?• A survey?A survey?

Who defines “science”?Who defines “science”?

• Scientists?Scientists?• Linguists?Linguists?• Philosophers?Philosophers?• Judges and lawyers?Judges and lawyers?• Man on the street?Man on the street?

A legal definitionA legal definition

The essential characteristics of science:The essential characteristics of science:

1. Guided by natural law1. Guided by natural law

2. Explanatory by reference to natural 2. Explanatory by reference to natural lawlaw

3. Testable against the empirical world3. Testable against the empirical world

4. Conclusions are tentative4. Conclusions are tentative

5. Falsifiable 5. Falsifiable (Judge William Overton, Dec 1981, Little Rock, AR)(Judge William Overton, Dec 1981, Little Rock, AR)

Dr. J. P. Moreland Dr. J. P. Moreland counters:counters:

None of these None of these is a necessary is a necessary and sufficient and sufficient condition for condition for “science” “science” Christianity and the Christianity and the

Nature of Science, Nature of Science, pp23-35pp23-35

J. P. Moreland

Dr. J. P. Moreland Dr. J. P. Moreland counters:counters:

• Moreland examines these Moreland examines these one-by-one and cites an one-by-one and cites an example of “science” that example of “science” that does not meet each criteriondoes not meet each criterion

• He then cites an example of He then cites an example of “non-science” that does meet “non-science” that does meet each criterioneach criterion

Moreland concludes:Moreland concludes:

• ““We have seen that a We have seen that a generally agreed on set of generally agreed on set of necessary and sufficient necessary and sufficient conditions for something to conditions for something to count as science has not been count as science has not been found” (p.42)found” (p.42)

What follows is…What follows is…

• A natural scientist’s attempt to A natural scientist’s attempt to describe a generalized “scientific describe a generalized “scientific method” (for the natural sciences)method” (for the natural sciences)

• Most natural scientists would Most natural scientists would probably accept this schema—or probably accept this schema—or one very much like it.one very much like it.

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

A Way of KnowingA Way of Knowing

Characteristics of Characteristics of The Scientific Method The Scientific Method

EmpiricalEmpirical Objective v. subjectiveObjective v. subjective ExperimentalExperimental ReproducibleReproducible Independent verificationIndependent verification Self-correctingSelf-correcting

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method: : An OutlineAn Outline

1. 1. On the basis of having observed On the basis of having observed everything related to the everything related to the problem/question, state the problem/question, state the problem to be solved/the problem to be solved/the question to be answered. question to be answered.

2. Find out what is already known 2. Find out what is already known about the problem/question. about the problem/question. Typically this involves a literature Typically this involves a literature search.search.


3. Using what data are available, 3. Using what data are available, form a form a hypothesishypothesis, a tentative , a tentative explanation that seems to fit explanation that seems to fit everything knowneverything known about the about the problem/question to this point. problem/question to this point.

4. Construct univariate, controlled 4. Construct univariate, controlled experiments to try to test the experiments to try to test the hypothesis.hypothesis.


5. The observed5. The observed results of the results of the experiment will provoke the experiment will provoke the researcher to...researcher to...

A. Continue testing the hypothesis as A. Continue testing the hypothesis as it is...it is... OR...OR...

B. Modify the hypothesis and B. Modify the hypothesis and continue testing it...continue testing it... OR...OR...

C. Discard the hypothesis and form a C. Discard the hypothesis and form a new one to be tested.new one to be tested.


In each case, the researcher using the In each case, the researcher using the SM cycles between #4 and SM cycles between #4 and #5...until...#5...until...

6. At some point the body of evidence 6. At some point the body of evidence supporting the hypothesis may supporting the hypothesis may become so great that we re-label it become so great that we re-label it theorytheory..

7. Construct univariate, controlled 7. Construct univariate, controlled experiments to try to test the theory.experiments to try to test the theory.

8. The observed8. The observed results of the experiment results of the experiment will provoke the researcher to...will provoke the researcher to...

A. Continue testing the theory as it is...A. Continue testing the theory as it is... OR...OR...

B. Modify the theory and continue B. Modify the theory and continue testing it...testing it... OR...OR...

C. Discard the theory and form a new C. Discard the theory and form a new theorytheory to be tested. to be tested.



In each case, the researcher using the In each case, the researcher using the SM cycles between #7 and SM cycles between #7 and #8#8 ...until......until...

9. At some point the body of evidence 9. At some point the body of evidence supporting the theory may become supporting the theory may become so great that it is acknowledged to be so great that it is acknowledged to be universally true. At this point, we universally true. At this point, we re-label it re-label it scientific lawscientific law or or principleprinciple..

What makes a discipline What makes a discipline “science”?“science”?

It uses a form of the scientific methodIt uses a form of the scientific method• Name some disciplines that are Name some disciplines that are

“science”“science”• Name some disciplines that are not Name some disciplines that are not

“science”“science”• Name some disciplines that are part Name some disciplines that are part

“science” and part “non-science”“science” and part “non-science”

What makes a question or a What makes a question or a statement “scientific”?statement “scientific”?

A statement or question is scientific if A statement or question is scientific if it can be tested using the scientific it can be tested using the scientific methodmethod

Try these:Try these:

1. “Matter is made up of particles so 1. “Matter is made up of particles so tiny that they never will be tiny that they never will be discovered.”discovered.”

2. “Mars is composed of cottage 2. “Mars is composed of cottage cheese.”cheese.”

Not everything that claims Not everything that claims to be science is science.to be science is science.

Consider some examples Consider some examples of pseudoscience.of pseudoscience.

The Un-open-able Green The Un-open-able Green BoxBox

Use any of your five Use any of your five senses to help you senses to help you

draw representations draw representations of what is in the of what is in the Un-Open-Able Un-Open-Able

Green BoxGreen Box

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A Description of the Methods of the Natural Sciences Steve Badger, PhD Professor of Chemistry Evangel University