AJSI Vol. 2, Issue 1 May 2017 Waan Garaa fi Waan Karaa

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AJSI Vol. 2, Issue 1 May 2017

Waan Garaa fi Waan Karaa: Xiinxala Gahee1 Shaakalaa Makmaaksi Barnoota Afoola

Oromoo Keessatti Qabuu: Barannoo2 Sadarkaa Yuunivarsiitiirratti Kan Xiyyeeffate

Indaaluu Fufaa (PhD), Yuunivarsiitii Arsii, Kolleejjii Barumsaafi

Qorannoo Toora Yaadqalbii, Muummee Sirna Barnootaafi Gabbina

Ogummaa Barsiisummaa,

Email: [email protected] ; [email protected]

Qaasim Kimoo (PhD), Yuunivarsiitii Arsii, Kolleejjii Barumsaafi

Toora Yaadqalbii, Muummee Saayikolojii

Axereeraa3

Hawaasi Oromoo afoola bifa sheekkoo, makmaaksa, durii-durii fi tapha bifa garaa-garaa qaba.

Adeemsa baruu-barsiisuu keessatillee, afoolli bakka fi gahee akka qabu hubatamaa dha. Adeemsi

wayyabni guutummaa kan calaqqisiisu yoo ta‟ellee, ce‟umsi fi waliin deemsi dubbiirraa gara

barreeffamaa, akkasumas dagaaginni gargaaramni Afoola Oromoo barnoota keessatti qabu,

hanga eegame deemeera jechuun hin danda‟amu. Bu‟uura kanaan, qorannoon kun, barannoo og-

afoolaa sadarkaa yunivarsitiitti kennamu keessatti, gahee makmaaksi qabu xiinxaluudhaan

bal‟ina, gad-fageenyaafi cimina isaa ifatti baasuudhaaf hojjetame. Qubsumni isaas, haala

dhi‟eenyaan ka‟ee, Yuunivarsiitii Arsiitti, Muummee Afaanifi Ogbarruu Oromoo ta‟e. Ijoon

qorannichaa adeemsafi gahee shaakala Makmaaksa Oromoo yeroo ta‟u, saxaxi qorannichaa,

sakkatta‟a bifa addeessaa ture. Ragaaleen qorannoo kanaaf oolan, bifa calaqqee muuxannoo

dalagaarraatiin kanneen dhiyaatan turan. Maddeenis, barattootaa fi barsiisota yeroo ta‟an,

meeshaaleen rag-guurtuun bargaaffii (Questionnaire) fi afgaaffi gamtokkee (semi-structured

interview) turan. Ka‟umsa kanaan, xiinxalli muuxannoo barsiisotaafi barattootaa; akkasumas,

calaqqee argannoolee duree qabatee geggeeffame. Argannooleen akka mul‟isanittis, gaheen

makmaaksi barannoo keessatti ittiin shaakalamu murtaawaa fi irra-caalaa maalummaatiin malee,

ergaa qabuun akka gad-fagaateefi duraa-duuba yaadaatiin hin dhiyaatin mul‟atee jira. Shaakalli

irra-caalaan, hojii dareerratti kan bu‟urawe ta‟ee, dhiibbaa makmaaksi hubee aadaafi xiinxala

taatee jiruurratti qabu baay‟ee gad-aanaa ture. Barattooti, makmaaksa barachuurraan,

makmaaksarraa barachuu; achirraas, makmaaksaan barachuuf haalli itti yaadamee qindaa‟e akka

bal‟inaan hin jirres hubatameera. Kunis, gahee walii-galaa makmaaksi akka koobaa dubbiitti

qabu, daangessee jira.

Tuqata Ijoo: Gahee, Afoola, Makmaaksa, Barumsa, Afaan Oromoo

mailto:[email protected]


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*1: Gahee kan jedhu bakka yookaan qooda kan jedhuuf akka gitaatti haa hubatamu;

*2: Barannoo kan jedhu, Afaan Ingiliziitiin “Lesson” ka jedhamuuf gita ta‟ee haa hubatamu

*3: Axereeraa jechuurra, kun walxaxaa jechuun gitaa, dhamdhama utuu jedhamee naaf sifa qaba.

Analysis on Composition and Practices of Proverbs in Teaching Oral Literature: Reflection

on Experiences in Afan Oromo at Higher Education*1

Endalew Fufa Kufi (Ph.D.)

Mobile Phone: +251942622834

Email: [email protected]

College of Education and Behavioral Science

Arsi University

Abstract

Oromo Language (Afaan Oromoo) holds different forms of folk literature that have mostly been

used in the oral exchanges. With the advent of the language as a medium of instruction,

remarkable development has been observed in providing lessons on Oromo oral literature which

includes tales, riddles, proverbs, plays and idioms. Further progresses have also been in place in

making the language a specialty area across universities. Accordingly, Afan Oromo is provided

as an area of study in selected universities. However, the extent to which different Oromo oral

literary styles, more specifically proverbs, are taught with due attention to learning proverbs,

learning from and with proverbs remains to be a pivotal issue worth studying. Hence, this

research dealt with the style of teaching Oromo proverbs with due emphasis on identity, meaning

and purpose of proverbs. For the materialization of the study, Afan Oromo Department of Arsi

University was taken as a target. A total of 25 students and four teachers were data-providers.

Binary-mode questionnaire and semi-structured interview were instruments of data collection.

The study indicated that, the teaching of Oromo proverbs was largely conceptual wherein

modular presentations and practices took dominant part. Experiences of students at practices also

denoted very limited options in learning from and with proverbs. As far as students learn Oromo

proverbs to work later as project designers and researchers, shortage of practices signifies lack of

depth in attaining the practical standard. The researcher suggests Reference-Inference-

Application (RIA) Model of learning-teaching proverbs to be essential.


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Key terms: Composition; Practices; Proverbs; Afan Oromo; Higher Education

“Waan Garaa fi Waan Karaa” is derived from the proverb in Oromo, “ Akka garaaf taatu,

marqaan galaa hin taatu,” literally meaning, “ Delicious though at home, porridge cannot be

any good sort for the way.”So, the research questioned whether the proverb lessons tilted more

to the temporary meal at home or a provision for the way ahead. *1

BOQONNAA TOKKO

DUGDA-DUUBA FI BARBAACHISUMMAA QORANNICHAA

1.1 Dugda-Duuba4 Qorannichaa

Adeemsa baruu-barsiisuu keessatti, barattooti maal akka baratan beekuun dhimma dursaa dha

(Metzlerfi Woessmann, 2010; Akiri & Ugborugbo, 2017). Maal akka baratan beekuuf, barattooti

kaayyoo jijjiirama beekumsaa qajeelchu qabaachuun dirqama ta‟a (Jones, 2005). Kaayyoon

barnootaammoo, qabiyyeetiin mirkanaa‟a. Qabiyyeen barnootaa, kaayyoo akka mirkaneessuuf

oolutti, faayidaafi amanamummaan isaa akkasumas baratamuun isaa haala jiruu faana

walqabatee qindaa‟uun barbaachisaadha. Erga kaayyoo fi qabiyyeen baratamu wal-argateen

booda, akkaataa barumsi itti geggeeffamutu qindaa‟a. Kunis, gahee barattootaa, gahee barsiisaa,

yeroo barnootaa, mala baruu-barsiisuufi meeshaalee baruu-barsiisuu tumsuuf qixaa‟an hammata.

Sirni madaalliis, ka‟umsuma irraa jalqabee bifa afuriin akka geggeeffamu hubatamaadha

(Duferesene, Gerase fi Leonard, 1996). Innis, madaalliifi sakatta‟a seensaa, madaalliifi sakatta‟a

adeemsaa, adda-baafannoo hir‟ina keessa-keessaa fi kan xumuraa ta‟uun ifaadha.

Barnooti afaaniis, ijoo walii-galaa kana qabatee, dandeettiiwwan barattooti akka gabbifataniif

barbaadamu bira geessisuudhaaf geggeeffama. Dandeettiiwwan afran (dhaggeeffachuu,

dubbachuu, dubbisuufi barreessuu) gabbisuun gamatti, afaan kamiyyuu haala itti og-barruu

babaasuufi gabbisu qaba. Kunis, og-barruun mi‟aa taateefi jiruu, bifa kalaqaa (imagiantion)fi

bareedinaatiin (beauty) muudee dhiheessuu isaarraa madda (Finnegan, 2012). Adeemsa kana

keessatti, tarkaanfiin jalqabaa, wanta baratan beekanii itti adeemuu akkuma ta‟e, og-barruu bifa

walaloos ta‟e hololoo; kalaqa dhuunfaas ta‟e hawaasaa, addaan baasanii beekuutiin irraa

barachuun akkasumas ittiin barachuun duraa-duubaan kan ijaaramaa, salphaarraa gara cimaatti

adeemudha.

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Afaan Oromoo, afaanota Afriikaa keessatti saba guddaatiin dubbatamanifi amala addaa mataa

isaanii qaban gidduutii isa tokko ta‟ee, sirni dimookrasii Oromoofi qaruuxumni sabichaa kan

ittiin ibsamu dha. Afaan Oromoo, bifa dubbiitiin erga bara heddiseefi hangaan-ol dhiibbaan

irratti walfureen booda, afaan barnootaa ta‟ee faara as bahe, kurni lamaafi shanee darban asitti,

dagaagina afaanota Afriikaa bara heddisan biratti ciminaan eeramuu danda‟u mul‟isaa deemeera

(Tadesse, 2013).

Kanneen keessaa, dagaaginni Afoola Oromoo kan akka addaatti eeramu qofa osoo hin taane,

qabsaa‟ee kan of-baase ta‟uun isaa yaadannoo guyyuuti. Kunis, galma aadaafi seenaa amala

addaa qabu, mallattoo Oromoo Odaatiin ibsamu dha (Dereje, 2012). Isa alagaan dhokse,

buruqsee kan baase, afooladha. Isa sobni marse, seenaa dhalootaa, kan ifatti baases afooluma.

Seenaan Oromoo har‟a daangaa-daangaatti faarfamu, gaafa dhokates, afoola isaati; yeroo

boba‟es isumaan qayyootee, finiine (Asafa, 1996). Kanaaf, Oromoodhaaf Afoolli, meeshaa

seenaafi xombora xurree qabsoo bilisummaa ibsu dha. Fakkeenyaafis, geerarsa, sheekkoo, durii-

durii, makmaaksa, jechama, weelluun jilaafi ayyaanaa akkasumas eebba bifa garaa-garaa eeruun

ni danda‟ama (Jeylan, 2006).

*4: Dugdaduuba kan jedhu osoo Labata jedhamee, silaa waan ergaa sirrii geessisu fakkaata.

Gama baruufi barsiisuu Afaan Oromootiinis yeroo ilaalamu, Afoolli Oromoo akka mi‟eessaatti

galee gudunfaa beekumsaa dhalootaaf akka dabarsaa jiru mamiin hin jiru (Mebratu,2016). Kana

faanas, akka wiirtuu qorannootti taa‟ee xiinxalli irratti geggeeffamuudhaan, katabbiitiinis ta‟e

tamsaasa sabaa-himaa (miidiyaalee) adda-addaatiin akka beekamtiifi tajaajila argatu ta‟aa

jiraachuun, tarkaanfii qajeeltoodha. Haa ta‟u malee, akkaataan Afoolli Oromoo, keessumaa

makmaaksi, itti hojii barannootiif oolaa jiru, haala silaa duraa-duubaan irratti hojjetamuuf male

hordofee gara ce‟umsa jabaatti deemaa jiraafi hin jiruun gaaffii walaallammii ta‟ee argama

(Jeylan, 2005:294).

Kanumaan wal-qabatees, ijoowwan sadii tuttuquudhaan, gara barbaachisummaa qorannoo

kanaatti seenuun dirqama ta‟a. Tokkoffaa, Afoolli Oromoo, hangam isaatu dhaloota biratti

beekamee akka jiru ifa taasisuurratti gaaffii jiru ilaalchisee, yaad-rimee qayyabsiisuun gamatti,

adeemsi bal‟inaafi gad-fageenyaan makmaaksa qayyabsiisu; addummaa (distinctiveness) isaas

hubachiisu hangam akka jiru xiinxaluu dha. Inni lammataa, dhalooti adeemsa barumsaa keessa

darbee dhamdhama afoolaa argatu, carraan inni afoolarraa waa itti xiinxalee barachuu danda‟u

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hangam bal‟aafi gad-fagaataa akka ta‟e ifsuudha. Inni sadaffaafi xumuraa, Afoolli Oromoo,

ijoollen barumsa keessa darban, afoolaan barachuu akka danda‟an haalli mul‟ataan maaltu akka

jiru ibsuudha.

Kanarraan egaa, qorannoon kun , miila lamaaniin dhaabbatee, gama baruu-barsiisuutiin Afoola

barachuu, irraa barachuufi ittiin barachuun maal akka fakkaatu galumsa Oromootiin yeroo

xiinxalu, barbaachisummaan isaas, guutummaa dagaagina afoolaa mirkaneessuudhaaf itti

gargaaramuu qofa hin taane, kanneen afaaniffaan irra-caalaa taa‟anii jiran goleewwan

Orombiyyaa maraa babasuutiin dhalooti akka baratee ittiin of-jijjiiru gochuun madda laf-jala

dhokate burqisiisuutiin wal kipha. Ijoo ka‟umsaa kanaan, maa‟iin qoranoof taa‟e, makmaaksi

hangam baratamee ittiin barsiifamaa akka jiru xiinxaluudha. Galumsi qorannoo, yuniivarsiitii

Naannoo Oromiyaatti argaman keessaa Yuunivarsiitii keessatti, haala makmaaksi Oromoo itti

barsiifamu kan xiinxale yeroo ta‟u, ka‟umsi, gaaffiileen, kaayyooleen, barbaachisummaafi

daangaan qoraannoo, itti-hirkatni yaad-dureefi haxa qorannoo uddeellatee akka armaan-gadiitti

itti deemame.

1.2 Ka’umsa Qorannichaa

Bu‟uurri afaaniifi muuxannoo afaanii dubbiidha. Dubbiin immoo, hiika qaba. Hiiki dubbii

keessaa argamu qolaafi ija; lafeefi dhuka qaba. Afoolli, dhoksaa dubbii qolaa baasee, icciitii

hubachiisa. Namni qola hin hubanne ijatti hin darbu; kan lafee hin beeknes, dhuka hin baafatu.

Afoollis akkasuma. Namni aannan dhuguu beeku, mucha horiifi akka itti horii elemfatan yoo hin

beekne, hawwaan du‟a. Namni Afoolarraa baratullee, dursee kamtu eessa akka jirufi maal akka

qeeqsisu yoo hin beekne, rakkataadha. Qorannoon kun, dagaagina barnoota Afaan Oromoo

Yunivarsiitota keessatti geggeeffamuufi akka addaatti faarfamuu keessatti, Afoolli Oromoo

carraan inni itti baratamee dhaloota bira gahuuf qabu hangam akka ta‟e xiinxaluudhaaf

geggeeffame.

Qorannoowwan hanga har‟aa jiran, akki-taateefi maal-baattee Afoolaa kan walii-galaa kan

xiinxalan ta‟uun kan boona dabalu ta‟ee, afoolli hammam beekamee afaaniffarraa gara xiinxala

saayinsaawaatti qaruuxuma qabuun as bahe dhalooti irraa barachaafi ittiin barachaa akka

deemuuf oolee akka jiru, qorannoon as baase hin jiru. Keessumaa maalummaa, hiika guutuufi

gargaarama bifa addaa-addaa kan gudunfate as bayaa hin jiru jechuun ni danda‟ama.

Yoos, qabatamtooti qorannoo kanaa, gama taasisaatiin, muuxa barsiisotaa yeroo keewwatu,

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gama ta‟aatiin jijjiirama barachuu barataarratti fiduuf yaalame fuuleffatee shaakalli jiru maal

akka fakkaatu xiinxaluudhaaf geggeeffame. Ijoon qorannoo kanaallee, Afoola Oromoo bifa

makmaaksaa ta‟ee, xiyyoon xiinxalaa afoola barachuu, afolarraa barachuufi afoolaan barachuu

akka walii-galaatti qabatee, makmaaksa akka korma jilaatti as baase. Gaaffiileen ijoon

qorannichaallee, kanneen armaan gadii ta‟an:

1.3 Gaaffiilee Qorannoo

Qorannoon kun, gaaffiilee armaan-gadii bu‟uura godhatee geggeeffama:

1.3.1 Gaaffii Bu’uuraa

Afoolli bifa makmaaksaatiin barumsa Afaan Oromoo keessatti dhiyaatu, hangam barsiisee, irraa

barsiisee, ittiin barsiisa?

1.3.2 Gaaffiilee Murtaa’oo

Adeemsi barnoota Afoola Oromoo sadarkaa yuunivarsiitiitti kennamu, makmaaksa

shaakalsiisuurratti maal fakkaata?

Barattooti makmaaksarraa akka barataniif carraan jiru hoo maalfaa‟iin mul‟ata?

Makmaaksaan barachuuf faarri mijaawaafi dalagmaan hangam tokko mijaa‟ee jira?

1.4 Kaayyolee Qorannichaa

Qorannoon kun, kaayyoolee gooroo fi gooree qaba ture.

1.4.1 Kaayyoo Gooroo: Adeemsi barnoota afoola Oromoo sadarkaa Yuunivarsiitiitti kennamuu,

makmaaksaa hammam akka hammatu ifoomsuu

1.4.2 Kaayyolee Gooree

Gahee shaakalaa makmaaksi barannoo Afoola Oromoo keessatti qabu addaan ibsuu;

Barattooti makmaaksa sadarkaa hiika-qabeessaan hangam akka baratan argisiisuu;

Haalli baruu-barsiisuu hangam-tokko akka makmaaksa barachuuf aanja‟u argisiisuu dha.

1.5 Barbaachisummaa Qorannichaa

Qorannoon kun, akkaataa Afoolli itti barsiifamu bu‟uura godhatee, keessumaa makmaaksi

Oromoo haala itti barsiifamu kan xiinxale ture. Argannooleen qorannichaas, barsiisota Afoola

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Oromootiif bu‟aa akkaataa filannoo malleen barsiisa ogafoolaarratti bu‟aa ni qabaata. Kanuma

faanas, barsiisoti adeemsa barumsaa xiqqaarraa gara guddaatti; akkasumas, ibsa salphaarraa gara

cimaatti haala ittiin deemuu danda‟an qajeelcha. Dabalataanis, ogeeyyiin qorannoo gad-fageenya

qabu bu‟uura kanaan geggeessuu fedhan ka‟umsa matlamee haalmalaafi og-afaanii

walsimsiisuutiin akka xiinxalan ulaa akka saaqu ni eegama.

1.6 Daangaa Qorannichaa

Qorannoon kun, Afoola Oromoo maqaa haa dhayatu malee, xiyyeeffannoon isaa makmaaksa

ta‟ee, ijoon addaas akkaataa dhiyeessa makmaaksaa ture. Sababi daangeffama knaas, ka‟umsi

qorannichaa, makmaaksa qorachuu utuu hin ta‟in, akkaataa makmaaksi itti barsiifamu xiinxaluu

waan ta‟eef dha. Gama biraatiin, daangaan bakka qorannoof kennamee, Yuniivarsiitiin Arsii

xiinxala kanaaf filatamee kan irratti hojjetame yoo ta‟u, maddeen odeeffannoo xiinxalaaf oolanis

kanneen bara 2009/2010 turan. Sababi daangeffama odeeffannoo kunis, ragaa as-aantii fi

qixaawaa argachuudhaaf ture. Maddeen odeeffannoos barattoota Afaan Oromoo waggaa 2ffaa

fi

barsiisota turan. Meeshaalee barnootaa xiinxaluun barbaachisaa ta‟ee utuu jiruu, guutummaatti

waan hin argaminiif akka madda ragaatti hin fudhatamne.

1.7 Ibsa Xiyyoo: Mata-dureen qorannoo kanaa, makmaaksa Oromoo “Akka garaaf taatu,

marqaan galaa hin taatu,” jedhurraa madde. Itti-galaan isaas, waan yeroof qayyabataniifi kan

bal‟inaan dhugeeffatan walii-lama ta‟uu agarsiisa. “Waan garaa fi Waan Karaa,” kan

jedhameefis kanuma.

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BOQONNAA LAMAFFAA

XIINXALA BARRUU (BAR-AANTII)5

Seensa

Afoolli, bifaafi amaloota adda-addaa akkasumas bu‟aa adda-addaa qabaata. Shaakalli barnoota

afoolaas, akkaatuma bifa isaatti garaa-gara ta‟uu danda‟a. Makmaaksis, afaaniffaan daddarbuu,

bifa gumaa‟aatiin taa‟uu akkasumas yaada taatee jireenyaa bifa calaqqee walii-galaa qabaatuun

dhiyeessuun kanneen muraasa yeroo ta‟an, yaaddenfi yaad-hiddampotni akkasumas,

argannooleen qu‟annoofi qorannoo garaa-garaa dhiyaatanii, akkeetuun qorannoo itti jiramuu bira

qabamtee dhiyaattee jirti.

Makmaaksi, akka birkii afoolaatti hiika, madda, amalootaafi bu‟aa akkasumas akkaataa itti

fayyadamaa qaba. “Aakkifatan, ni tufu; makmaakan waa himu,” kan jedhamus dhugaa kana

hordofeeti. Dhugaa himuutiin dura, jechi dhuga-baattuun ifummaafi madaqina qabaachuun

qophii angafa ta‟ati. Kutaa kana jalattis, ijoowwan armaan-olitti eeramantu bifa qu‟annoofi

qorannoo itti jiramuu wajjiin wal-qabateen xiinxalaman.

2.1 Yaad-Rimee Makmaaksaafi Madda Isaa

Makmaaksi jecha “Proverb” jedhu qixxee akka qabaachuu danda‟u kan hubatamu, ibsa dhamii

qabu kan taatee hordofee nama tokkoon dubbatamee, yeroo fudhatama bal‟aa argatus ijoo ergaa

walii-galaa ta‟uu danda‟udha (Mieder, 2014). Yaada bar-duree armaan-olii kanarraa kan

hubatamu, makmaaksi taatee bal‟ina qabu keessaa gabaabbatee, bifa nam-tokeetiin hubatameen

erga dhiyaateen booda, yeroo deddeebi‟ee dubbatamee hojiif oolu, kan hawaasaa ta‟a ijoo

jedhutu calaqqisa.

Dabalataanis, taateen makmaaksaan ibsamu, kan dhamii qabu ta‟uu akka qabutu iftooma.

Dhamiin kunis, ibsa qaruuxumaa, kan abbaan dubbatu itti yaadee karaa gamlamee kalaqudha.

Karaa tokko, ergaa taatee bareedaan qabanii ibsuu yeroo ta‟u, karaa biraa akka hawaasa bira

ga‟ee ijoo bal‟aa sensu, ibsufi goolabutti taa‟uun isaa adda isa taasisa. Kanas yeroo dhugoomsu,

Oromoon, “Aak, jedhan, waa tufan; maymaakan, waa himan,” jedha. Dabalees, “Makmaaksi,

takka ka dubbii fidu; ka biro, ka dubbii fixu,” jedha. Maddi makmaaksa nam-tokko,

gargaaramtooti garuu danuu akka ta‟anifi abbumman isaas, galee-galee, kan hawaasaa akka ta‟e

ni beekama (Cervero, 2016). Fakkeenyaaf, “Korma dhabu, morma hin dhabu!”6 makmaaksi

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jedhu, taatee nama tokko mudate, kan Diggaa Saaqoo akka jedhetti himamudha. Innis, waan

isatti waamamuudhaaf male, gatii korma-qalmaa dhabe akka dhabu yeroo itti murteessuudhaaf

ka‟anitti, jecha kana dubbatee, morma ofii muree, maqaa abbummaa isaa oolfate jedhama. Kan

dubbate, Diggaa Saaqooti; kan itti waamamufi gargaaramu Oromoo.

*5: Barruu jedhamee qooda dhiyaatu, Baraantii yoo jedhame anaaf sirrii dha

*6: Taatee dhugoomaarraa makmaaksatti kan makame dha.

Walii-galatti, akkaataan uumamaafi gargaarama makmaaksaa, akka armaan-gadiitti cuunfamee

taa‟uu danda‟a:

Proverbs are not created by the folk but rather by an individual. Someone at

some time and somewhere couches a general observation, behavior, or

experience into a short, complete sentence that subsequently is picked up by

others who might well change the wording slightly, resulting in a number of

variants until a standard formulation results (Mieder, 2014:29).

Makmaaksi, buleeyyiitiin akka dubbatamu beekamaadha. Haa ta‟u malee, bu‟uurri isaa

hubataadha. Nama waa hubatee qeeqqetu, maddisiisa. Wanti madde kunimmoo, gurra

dhaggeeffattotaa seenee erga hiika argateen maa‟essa qabeenya hawaasaa ta‟a. Qabeenya

hawaasaa ta‟uu faanas, bifti inni ittiin dhiyaatu, wanta daaw‟atame hammatee, yaad-qalbii

yookaan muuxannoo bu‟uura godhatee, bifa himaatiin ta‟uu akka qabu yaada armaan-oliirraa ni

hubatama. Wanti guddaan hawaasi makmaaksatti fayyadamu gumaachu, jecha isaa dhidhiibee,

hiikas gudunfaa taateewwanii faana wal-qabsiisee naalchuudhaan dhiyeessuudha.

Makmaaksi nam-tokkoon haa maddisiifamu malee, yaadaafi fedhii uummataa (the feeling of the

community) kan ibsu yeroo ta‟u, adeemsi uumamaafi daddarbiinsa isaa bifa sadii akka qabaatu

beektonni ni eeru (Mieder, 2014:32). Bifti inni duraa, haala qabatamaa naannoo waliin wal

qabatee maddisiifamuu (concrete formulation) ta‟ee kan haala mudate tokkoof akka deebisaatti

dhiyaatu ta‟uu; inni lammaffaan, simannaa fi adeemsa cululuqsaa hiika walii-galaa bifa inni

kennuu danda‟uun makmaaksaaf kennu (acceptance and twist of phrases to fit expression);

sadaffaa, hiikaafi ergaa miidhagaa, mi‟aa hawataas qabatee, yaad-rimee ba‟eef utuu hin gad-

dhiisin, kuulamaa adeemuudha (being meaning-consonant with public sentiment). Kunis,

makmaaksi amaloota adda-baatee akka qabu faana dhoofsisa.

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2.2 Amaloota Makmaaksaa

Makmaaksi amaloota ittiin afoollan biroorraa adda bahu qaba. Kanneenis akka armaan-gadiitti

tarreeffamanii jiran. Cevero (2016: 2) amaloota makmaaksaa yeroo tarreessu, odeeffannoo

guutuu bifa himaatiin dhiyaatu akka inni qabu tuqa. Amala kana, makmaaksa Oromoo

fakkeenya fudhannee ibsuunillee ni danda‟ama. Fakkeenyaaf makmaaksi “Harmatu lama malee

aannan tokkuma,” jedhu hima guutuudha. Amalli lammaffaan, himamni makmaaksi ittiiin

dhiyaatu, haala/taatee (condition) fi bu‟aa (consequence) yookaan gorsa (advice) akka qabaatu

ibsa. Amala makmaaksaa kana, kan Oromoo faana wal-qabsiisanii ilaaluun akka danda‟amu

ifaadha. Fakkenyaaf, Oromoon yeroo makmaaku, “ Ba‟aa namni ol siif fuudhe, hin baatin!”

jedha. Ba‟aa namni ol siif fuudhe inni jedhu, haala yeroo ta‟u, hin baatin inni jedhu ammoo,

gorsa dha. Makmaaksawwan biroollee, fakkeenyaaf bu‟aarratti xiyyeeffachuutiin ka‟anii, amala

kana dhugoomsuun ni danda‟ama jechuudha. Fakkeenyaaf, “ Horii abbaan gaanfa cabse, ormi ija

buruqsa,” makmaaksa jedhu fudhatanii haalaafi bu‟aatiin dhiyeessuun dhugooma amala

eerameef wabii gama afoola Oromoo ta‟uu danda‟a.

Ammalli sadaffaan makmaasi qabu, ijoo tokkoon taatee adda-addaa ibsuu danda‟uu isaati.

Fakkeenyyaf, makmaaksa “ Quphansuun al tokkoo, baqa waggaa tokkoo fida,” jedhu, waa

lamatti hiikamuu ni danda‟a. Tokkoffaan, warra-duuti itti gale gaaffii dhabuun, qaanii ija namaa

nama baqqachiisu fida isa jedhu bakka bu‟a. Inni biraan, akka hin taane gad taa‟anii, dugdi yoo

nama dubbate, qaaniitu jira jechuullee ta‟a. Hiikti makmaaksaa kun, waan wal-faallessullee

fakkaata. Inni duraa, barbaachisummaa quphansuu yeroo himu, inni lammataa akka of-eeggatan

waan akkekkachiisu qaba. Kanaafis, galumsa hawaasi dursee fayyadameef xiinxaluun dirqama

ta‟a.

Afraffaan, makmmaksi ergaa gumaa‟aa akka dabarsu dha (concise message). Yaada gumaayaa

Yeroo jedhamu, waan silaa utuu dubbaatmee yeroo dheeraa fudhatu, mi‟eessanii jechoota

muraasaan kaa‟uutu jira.

Yaada wal-mormu yookaan wal ijaaru wal-bira qabee dhiyeessuu qabaachuunillee amala biraafi

isa shanaffaa akka ta‟e dha (Cervero, 2016:2). Fakkeenyaaf, makmaaksa Oromoo keessatti,

“Ariiftaan, horii gata,” kan jedhu, ariitiin gaarii akka hin taane kan ibsu ta‟ee, “Hiriyyaa ceekuu

saamu,” kan jedhu garuu, ariitiin bakka yaadan dorgommatanii gahuuf fala qajeelaa tahuu ibsa.

Ergaan kun, wal-morma; wal guutalleedha. Ariifataan, horii gata inni jedhu, akka-malee yoo

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saffisan, dagannaan akka dhufu ibsa. Hiriyyaa ceekuu saamu inni jedhu ammoo waan yeroo

tokko keessatti raawwachuu qaban, utuu yeroo hin gubin yoo hojjetan, ni milkaa‟u;

dorgomaanillee nama hin dursu jechuuf ba‟e.

Amalli ja‟affaan, ergaa dhokataa, bifa mi‟aawaafi xiinxala barbaaduun dhiyeessuu danda‟uudha.

Oromoon yeroo waa dubbatu safuu eegeeti. Taatee ibsuu qofa miti. Akka ta‟utti ibsas malee.

Fakkeenyaaf makmaaksi “ Yoo garaa keessaa ka‟e, garaa jalaa ka‟a!” jedhu jecha safuu yookaan

qaanii garaa jalaa jedhu qaba. Kunis, makmaaksi tokko, akkaataa barbaachisummaa isaatti, ergaa

dhokataa qabaachuu akka danda‟u hubachiisa. Fufees, muuxaafi kalaqa dhuunfaarraa madduu

isaarraa dhufa (personal anecdotes).

Amala filannoo fi gargaarama jechaa Oromoon qabuu ka‟umsa godhatees, amalli kun ibsamuu

danda‟a. Fakkeenyaaf, “Hudduu abbaan kenne, ormi fottoqsa mura,” kan jedhu keessatti, jechi

„hudduu‟ jedhu, hundee yookaan qaama ittiin taa‟an ta‟uu danda‟a. Gama birootiin,

micciiramuun hiikaa, xiinxala yaadaatiif kan karaa saaqu, garuu ammoo, golollisa hiikaa

(semantic darkness) fiduu akka danda‟u ni hubatama. Sana ta‟ee garuu, makmaaksi walii-galtee

nicimsa malee hindabsu.

Amala torbaffaa ta‟uu kan danda‟u, makmmaksi safuu hawaasaa kan barsiisuufi dhiyeessa isaa

keessattillee kan dhugoomsu ta‟uu isaati. Fakkeenyaaf, makmaaksa Oromoo kan “ Yeroo ilma

gudeedi diimatu, haadha ijatu diimata,” jedhu keessatti, jechi gudeeda jedhu safuudhaaf taa‟e

malee, kan silaa ta‟uu qabu, cidhaan dha.

Amalli saddeettaffaan makmaaksi qabu, ergaa dubbii sensisuu, bal‟isuufi xumuruu akka ta‟e,

xiinxaltooti ni eeru (Kim fi kbh. , 2017:1-16). Kanaaf fakkeenya ta‟uu kan danda‟u, makmaaksi

Oromoo, dubbii ittiin saaquudhaaf kan fayyadu ta‟uu dha. “ Daboon kan baateef aramti!” kan

jedhu seensaaf; akkasumas, “ Dubbiin ija bareeddii, qawween muka bareeddi,” kan jedhu

fufiinsaaf, darbees, “ Dubbiin galchaa qabdi; galchituunis abbaa qabdi,” kan jedhu goolabuuf

akka oolu ni hubatama. Amaloota kanneen faanas, bu‟aaleen makmmaksi qabu bifa-bifaan

taa‟anii jiru.

2.3 Bu’aa Makmaaksaa

Makmaaksi, namni tokko naannoo isaa wajjin hariiroo addan hin cinnee yeroo taasisu kan

uumamuufi cimaa adeemu ta‟uu beektoti ni eeru (Stewart, 2010). Kanumarraa ka‟uutiin, bu‟aa

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makmaaksaa akka armaan-gadiitti dhiheessuun nidanda‟ama.

2.3.1 Bu’aa Barumsaa (Educational Values)

Makmaaksi bu‟aa barumsaa akka qabu warri eeran, hariiroo namaafi uumama gidduu jiru

akkasumas, akkaataa namni uumeerraa barachuu danda‟ullee ni eeru (Kim, 2017; Stewart, 2010).

Kanaa wajjiin wal-qabatee, makmaaksi qarooma hubee naannoo uumamaa akka cimsu

(ecological literacy) akkaataa dhiyeessa isaarraa kan hubatamu ta‟uun kennamee jira.

Hubannoodhaaf kan ta‟u, barumsi maddaa (source education) miiltayaa (informal) yeroo ta‟u,

kana keessattis makmaaksi iddoo guddaa inni qabutu mul‟ata. Fakkenyaaf, makmaaksi Oromoo

“Waaqaafi lafti wal beeka!” jedhu kana dhugoomsa. Hiikti birqabaas, yeroo roobni dhiyaatu,

coqorsatu latuu eegala.

Dhiyeenya roobaa, isarraa raagu. Kunis, safuu (ethics) fi bu‟aa (values) bifa walitti hiddeen

dhiyaata. Fayyadamni bu‟aalee uumamaa, safuu mataa isaa qaba. Kun hawaasa uumama waliin

tuttuqaa malee jiraatu gidduutti safuudhaan raawwatama. Maddi, margi, mukti, fi baallillee safuu

qaba. Safeeffannaan kunis, bu‟aa gargaaramaa wajjiin wal-qabatee, makmaaksaan kuulamee

dhiyaataa adeema.

Makmaaksi qaruuxuma akka barsiisu, darbees nama dogongorellee akka ceepha‟ee karaatti

deebisuufi sirreessu madden barruu qorannoo addaa-addaa ni mul‟isu (Stewart, 2010). Gama

birootiin, makmaaksaan qabanii nama doofe qaruunfi si‟eessuun akka danda‟amullee ragaaleen

barruu ni ibsu (Finnegan, 2012). Gama makmaaksa Oromootiinillee yoo ilaalame, makmaaksi

gorsaa kan qophii, qusannoo, akeekkatanii dubachuu, gita ofii beekuufi wal-fakkaatoon ni

dubbatamu. Fakkeenyaafis, “Bakka hin waraannetti, hin luqqifatin!” makmaaksi jedhu, bakka

hin qophaa‟initti waa akka raawwattu daftee hin dhaammatin waan jedhuun wal-kipha. Kana

faanas, fedhii qajeelaafi si‟essuudhaaf makmaaksi iddoo ol-aanaa akka qabu ifatti taa‟ee jira.

Gama biraatiin, makmaaksi, haala dareetiin alatti barattooti bifa itti naannoo ibsanii irraa

barachuu danda‟an ibsa (Syzdykov, 2014:15). Haala manni barumsaa hawaasa xiqqee ta‟ee

eeramu keessatti, makmaaksi dhaloota darbee fi kan ammaa qaruuxumaan walitti hidhee egereef

dhaamsa jiruu qajeelchu akka kaa‟ullee, qorannoon Syzdykov (2014:17) ni ibsa.

Afoolli bifa makmaaksaa, kaka‟umsa xiinxala jireenyaafi dandeetti rakkoo furuutiif akka oolus,

qorannooleen biyya Nigeria ka‟umsa godhatan mul‟isanii jiru (Amali, Yusuf fi Jekayinfa, 2012).

Bifuma wal-fakkaatuun, Mac Coinnigh, (2015) bu‟aa makmaaksi barumsa keessatti qabu bifa

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hirmaannaa barataa cimsuu, afaan ofii qaxalummaatiin darbees qaruuxuma yaadaatiin barachuu,

akkasumas hubannaa addunyoominaa gonfachuudhaaf barattoota dadammaqsuudhaaf bu‟aa qabu

jala kutanii jiru. Argannoon Brosh (2013) bu‟aa afoolli makmaaksaa barattoota biyya Arabaatiif

qabu irratti hundaa‟es, warri daangaa tokko waliin qabu kan qubannootiin walitti kalaa‟ullee,

hariiroo isaa makmaaksaan akka bal‟ifatullee eeree jira.

2.3.2 Bu’aa Hawaasummaa (Social Values)

Akka gumee dhalootarraa dhalootatti darbuutti, afoolli eenyummaafi ergaa safuu hawaasi tokko

waliin hirmaatu akkasumas dhalootaa-dhalootatti dabarsuutiin ittiin wal-qaru of keessatti qabatee

jira. Waliif dabarsi hubee seenaallee kanumaan wal qabata. Kunis, makmaaksa akka dabalatu hin

haalamu. Gama biraatiin, makmmaksi bu‟aa hawaasummaa gama aadaa barsiisuu (culture

education) akka qabaatu, kunis dagalaeefi olii-gadii qabaata. jechuutiin Finnegan (2012) eertee

jirti.

2.3.3 Bu’aa Dagaagina Safuufi Amlee (Moral and Ethical Values)

Qorannoo haala jajjabina hojii uummachuu shaakala fi bu‟aa afoola Ubuntuu (Naayjeeriyaa) kan

biyya Niiwuziilandi keessaarratti geggeeffameen, afoolli taateewwan jiruu ibsuutin gamatti,

heera waliin hojiifi waljijjiirraa yaadaa akka cimsu ni beekama (Tuwe, 2016).

BOQONNAA SADAFFAA

MALA QORANNICHAA

Seensa

Qorannoon kun, gaaddisa falaasama qorannoo pragmatism kan dalagaatiin barachuu kan bu‟uura

godhate yeroo ta‟u, maa‟iin isaas, galumsa barumsa Afaan Oromoo, keesumaayyuu Afoola

Oromoo barsiisuu, keessatti bakka dalagamaa Makmaaksa Oromootiif adeemsi barumsaa kennee

jiru xiinxaluu ture. Ijoowwan kanaaf oolanis, makmaaksa barachuu, makmaaksarraa barachuufi

makmaaksaan barachuu jedhamanii addaan babahan. Makmaaksa barachuun (Learning

proverbs), makmaaksa bifa afoolaa biroorraa maaltu akka adda taasisuufi qabeentaafi

qabeenyummaan isaa kan dhuunfaa yookaan kan hawaasaa ta‟uu addaan baasuu danda‟uu

qorachiise. Makmaaksarraa barachuun (Learning from proverbs) ammoo, hiikaafi ergaa

murtaawaafi walii-galaa makmaaksi qabu addaan baasanii ibsuurratti barattooti adeemsa

barumsa Afaan Oromoo keessa jiran hangam akka baratan xiinxalchiise. Makmaaksaan

barachuun (Learning with proverbs), akka mala yookaan madda beekumsaafi qaruuxumaatti

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makmaaksa hordofanii sadarkaa ol‟aanaa ta‟een barattooti dubbii seensisuu, dhimma beeksisuufi

ceesisuu keessatti hangam akka qooda bahantan kan xiinxale ture.

3.1 Saxaxa Qorannichaa

Maa‟iin qorannoo kanaa, ka‟umsa sirna adeemsa baruu-barsiisuu Afaan Oromoo Yunivarsiitii

keessa jiru bu‟uura godhachuudhaan, Afoolli Oromoo , keessumaas Makmaaksi, bakka inni qabu

ifatti mul‟isuudhaan, qabatamtoota ciminaafi laafinaa beeksissudha. Kanaafis, saxaxi

qoranncihaa, sakatta‟a Adeessa yookaan ifsaa ti. Saxaxi kunis kan inni filatameef, haaltaatee

ifsuudhaaf haxa dhiyaataa ta‟uun isaa, qorannoolee jaarootiin kan mirkanaa‟e ta‟uurranidha.

Malli itti-adeemsa qorannoo kanaa, qabata dagalee (Cross-sectional survey) ta‟ee,

muuxannooleefi ragaaleen waan as baasanirratti kan xiyyeeffatedha.

3.2 Gosootaa fi Maddeen Ragaa

Ragaaleen qorannoo kanaaf oolan, bifa muuxannoo kallattifi ragaaleetiin kan qindaa‟an yeroo

ta‟u, isaanis barsiisota Afaan Oromoo, barattoota Afaan Oromoo akka fuuleffannaa jalqabaatti

sadarkaa Digriitti duraa barchaa jiran akkasumas muuxannoon barsiisota Afaan Oromoo

sakatta‟amee jira.

3.3 Haxa Iddatteessuu

Raga-kennitooti qorannoo kanaa, barsissota Afaan Oromoo Yunivarsiitii Arsii gidduutii,

akkaataa fuuleffannaafi sadarkaa irratti barsiisaa jiraniitiin, kanneen kessumaa warren Afoola

Oromoo barsiisan akkuma jiranitti (availability sampling) filataman yeroo ta‟u, barattoota

keessaammoo kanneen iddatteessa hirtaatiin (stratified sampling) warreen waggaa lammaffaa

hanga sadaffaatti jiran giddudhaa filataman harka-sadii keessaa tokko (% 33) turan. Adeemsa

filannoo raga-baatotaa keessatti, duraan-dursa, lakkoofsa barsiisotaafi barattootaatu addatti

beekame. Ergasiitii, lakkofsa namootaa addaan ba‟e kanarratti hundaa‟ee hanga raga-baatotaa

garee barsiisotaafi barattootaa gidduutii filatamuu qabaniitu murtaa‟e. Achiis, haxa

iddatteessaafi filannoo iddattooleetu ta‟asifame.

Akkanaan, barsiisota shanifi barattooti 25 (l=31) raga-baatota qorannichaa turan. Raawwii

qorannichaatiif gareen kallattii (target population) nama 79 yeroo qabaatu, barattoota 29

waraqaan gaafannoo qaqqabe keessaa 25 deebii guutu kennan. Kanneen hafan 4, utuu deebii hin

kennin hafan waan hafaniif, haqamaniiru.

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3.4 Meeshaaleefi Adeemsa Irraa-Jalaa Guurrannaa Ragaalee Qorannichaa

Ragaaleen qorannoo kanaaf oolan, bifa muuxannoo hojiirraafi sakatta‟a ragaaleetiin erga addaan

bahanii booda, faana gaaffiilee qorannichaatiin addaan babahanii qixaa‟an. Adeemsa kana

keessatti, meeshaaleen guurrannaa ragaa, bargaaffi fi (Questionnaire), afgaaffii (interview)

turan. Meeshaaleen qorannoo kanaaf oolan erga bifa-bifaan gaaffiilee ijoo hordofanii

qophaa‟aniin maa‟essa, yaalii kormoomsaafi cimsaatu (validation) geggeeffame. Isa hordofees,

ragaaleen qorannoo kanaaf oolan, dursa barattootarraa, achirraas barsiisotarraa guuraman. Duraa-

duubni kunis, akkaataa dhimmama ijoo (purpose in view) qorannichi irratti hundaa‟eetiin kan

tottole ture.

3.5 Adeemsa Qindiifi Qaaccessa Ragaalee

Ragaaleen qorannoo kanaaf oolan erga toora lakkoofsa 3.4 jalatti bifa taa‟een guuramanii booda,

fo‟amanii, tooraan kaa‟aman. Sanarraanis, ijoowwan bu‟uuraa qorannichi hordofuun dursamanii

qixaa‟anii, kanneen bifa gabateetiin hangamtaan ba‟uufiin barbaachise, bifa lakkoofsaatiin erga

taa‟aniin booda, qaaccessi irratti geggeeffame. Kanneen bifa akkamtaatiin jiranis, qaaccessi bifa-

bifaan erga irratti geggeeffameen booda, gudunfaan yaadaa fi argannoolee tokkoo-tokkoo

gaaffiileefi walii-galatti taasifame. Ijoo goolaba argannootiinis, gara argannoo xumuraafi

abuurrata (yaboo) qorannichaa fi calaqqeetti deemame. Kunoo, akkasiin, qorannoon kun faara

godhate.

3.6 Heera Qorannichaa

Adeemsa qorannoo kanaa keessatti, heerranifi safuun qorannoo kan icciitii eeguu, ragaa

maddaan faarsuufi sirrummaa adeemsaafi ragaalee eeganii raawwachuu iddootii hin siqne.

Akkanaan, yaadi madden garaa-garaa irraa argame, sirriitti eeramee (cited), bifa ifaatiin toora

wabiilee keessa kaawwamee jira. Guurrannaa ragaalee keessattis, raga-baatoti itti amananii akka

yaada kennanfi dhugoomni ragaalee akka mirkanaa‟uuf, maa‟iin qorannichaa ibsameefii

fedhiitiin akka hirmaatan, ragaas kennan ta‟ee jira. Ragaaleen guuramanis, utuu hin dabsaminifi

hin maqsamin, gad-diigamanii hiikti isaanii eegame qaacceffaman. Kunis, amanamummaa ragaa

walii-galaafi argannootiif akka tolutti yaadameeti.

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BOQONNAA AFURAFFAA

QAACCESSA RAGAA QORANNOO

4.1 Seensa

Ragaaleen funaanaman muuxannoo barattootaafi barsiisotaa kanneen bu‟uura godhatan turan.

Dursa, ragaalee barattootarraa funaanamantu qindeeffamanii hiikti itti kenname. Achiirraas,

yaada barsiisotaan kennametu toora qabate. Adeemsi barnoota Afoola Oromoo hangam akka

makmaaksa barsiisu dhimma ilaallatuun, gaaffiin calqabaa hangi barannoolee afoolaaf

ramadmanii adda bahuun dirqama ture. Akkanaan, barattooti waggaa tokkoffaafi sadaffaa

kanneen Yuunivarsiitii Arsiitti Afaan Oromoo akka fuuleffannaa duraatti filatan muuxannoo

isaanii bu‟uura godhatanii deebii kennaniin, afoola koorsii sadi‟iin akka fudhatan ibsan.

Tarii, Yuunivarsiitiin Arsii barattoota waggaa lammaffaa Afaan Oromoo waan hin qabneef, gosti

koorsii kun, haal-jireettii sana hordofee kan irratti hojjetame ture. Sanas ta‟ee garuu,

koorsiiwwan waggaa sadi‟iif kennman kanneen cabsata (semester) ja‟aaf murtaawan keessatti,

koorsiileen kennman, utuma murna yeroo barumsaa (credit hours) sadi‟iin qoodamaniillee,

koorsiiwwan soddomii jaha akka fudhtamuu danda‟an ifaadha. Kana keessaa, murni yeroo

eegamu, waliigalatti murtaa‟aa ta‟uuf mala. Murna yeroo barnootaa kana keessaas (L=9) hirtaan

wal-qixa ta‟e yoo gosoota afoola Oromootiif hiramee, tokkoo-tokkoo ijoo afoolaatiif sa‟aatii

sadii qofa akka gahu yeroo tilmaamamu, sadarkaa shaakalli itti kennamuu danda‟uuf yoo hirame

ammo, bakka sadi‟itti haala laafaarraa-cimaatti jiru hordofee sa‟aatii tokko qofa akka qabaachuu

danda‟u dha. Gaaffiin lammaffaan kanarraa fufe, xiyyeeffannoon shaakala afoola Oromoo

maalirra akka ta‟etu yaadi itti kenname. Innis akka armaan-gadiitti kan dhiyaate ture:

4.1 Xiyyeeffannoo Shaakala Afoola Oromoo

Ragaa qindaa‟ee dhiyaaterraa akka hubtametti , irra-caalaan shaakala Afoola Oromoo

xiyyeeffannaa bifa makmaaksaa akka qabu dha. Kunis, hanga deebii kenname keessaa harka

caalaatiin (68%) beeksifame. Sadarkaa lammaffaarratti, kan bakki ol-aanaan shaakala afoolaa

keessatti eerameef, jechama ture (20%). Hanga xiqqaa taatus, durii-duriinille xiyyeeffannoo akka

qabu eerame. Yaadi barsiisotarraa argame garuu, kanarraa hanga-tokko adda dha. Akkanaan,

hirtaan Afoola Oromoo akka jirutti ta‟ee, gaheen barsiifamuurratti jiru akkaataa dheerinaa fi

gabaabinaatti addaa-adda ta‟uun himame.

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Kanas kan mirkaneessu, yaada barsiisaa hirmaataa tureeti; akkasitti dhiyaata: “Afoolli Oromoo

yuuniivarsiitii keessatti kennamu, bifa koorsiitiin kan dhiyaatu ta‟ee, barannoo afoolaa fi folklore

kanneen qareeyyiifi seeneffamtoota jedhamanitti hiraman hammata.” [Hirmaataa 1ffaa, 2016].

Yaada odeeffatame kanarraa , makmaaksi qareeyyii keessatti akka hammatamufi akka manii

qorannoo addaatti akka hin teenyedha. Gahee jiruu ibsuu qabu faana wal-qabatee garuu,

shaakalli waliin-gahuudhaaf irra-caalaa koorsiiwwan barataman faana dhiyaatu qofti makmaaksa

cimsee meeshaa barumsaa mi‟aa yaadaa gargaarama addaa-addaa qabu taasisuudhaaf

xiyyeeffannoon jiru murtaawaa ta‟uutu hubatame. Ijoon barruu-duree dhimma makmaaksaarratti

teessu garuu, makmaaksi qabeenya yaadaa kan taatee jiruu hundaaf furtuu qabu akka ta‟e Yeroo

ibsu, qabiyyeen isaas, kan darbe hubachiisuu qofaa utuu hin taane, kan dhufullee xiinxalchiisuu

akka ta‟e eera (Kim, et al 2017; Finnegan, 2012; Stewart, 2016).

4.2 Hirtaa Shaakala Afoola Oromoo

Hanga deebstootaatiin yeroo ilaalamu, shaakalli Afoola Oromoo yaad-rimee xiinxaluutiin irra-

caalaatti mul‟ifame (72%). Yaad-rimee xiinxaluun ergaa kallattiitiin moojula keessatti kenname

qofaarratti xiyyeeffachuu kan of-keessatti hammate dha. Kanarraa kan hubatamus, irra-caalaan

shaakala afoolaa ibsa maalummaa gosa afoolaa kan xiyyeeffate tahuutu irra-caalaa mul‟ate.

Harka lammaffaarratti xiyyeeffannoon kan itti kenname, gaaffiilee moojulaa turan. Gaaffiilee

moojulaa jechuun akka qorannoo kanaatti, kennamtoota ittiin barachuudhaaf moojula keessa

jiran, garuu ammoo gadfageenyaafi (intensity) fi bal‟inaan (extensity) qabuun, shaakalli

kamiyyuu madaalamee hanga inni barattoota geessisu, xiinxalamuu ni danda‟a. Yoos egaan,

wanti shaakalaaf moojula keessatti kenname qofti barattoota geessisa yoo jedhame, hir‟inni

fagoo hin jiru jechuuda, maddi afoolaa gargaarama hawaasaa waan taheef (Tadesse, 2013).

Yaaduma kana bu‟uura ta‟asifatees, qorannoon kun gaheen Makmaaksaaf kenname bifa armaan

gadiitiin kenname:

4.3 Gaheefi Xiyyeeffannoo Ergaa Makmaaksa Ilaalchisee

Yaada dhiyaate kanarraa kan hubatame, irra-guddaan xiyyeeffannoo barnoota afoolaa bifa

makmaaksaa, ibsa walii-galaa akka ta‟e deebii kennamerraa hubatame (44%). Kunis, makmaaksi

maal akka ta‟e ibsa kennuufi amaloota isaa tarreessuutiin fakkeenya kennuurra darbee, xiinxala

biro akka hin haamatne beekamaadha. Fakkeenya kennuutiin galumsaan barachuun harka

lammaffaarratti kan filatame (36%) yeroo ta‟u, makmaaksa hiika callaatiin dhiyeessuun, harka

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sadaffaatiin eerame (20%). Akkaataa makmaaksi ittiin barsiifamu, gama yaada barsiisotaan akka

armaan-gadiitti dhiyaata:

Makmaaksi, akkuma afoola kamiiyyuu yeroo kennameef hordofee dhiyaata. Akkanaan, gosooti

afoolaa hundinuu bifa ibsaatiin kennama. Makmaaksaaf jedhee wanti addatti taasifamu garuu hin

jiru. Xiinxallis ta‟e shaakalli dabalamus, tasumaa itti hojjetamee hin beeku. Kana faanas,

makmaaksi akka toora ogummaatti, bifa itti dhiyaatu hin jiru.

Yaada qorannoo kanarraa ijoon calaqqee as bahu, waa afur faana buusa. Inni tokkoo, gosooti

afoolaa, bifa wal-fakkaataa ta‟een akka kennmanidha. Kana jechuun, haala akka barsiifamuuf

kannameen alatti, akki itti deemamu addaa akka hin jirredha. Lammaffaan, makmaaksi bifa

ibsaatiin (yaad-rimee) dhiyyachuudha. Yaad-rimeetiin dhiyaachuun gaarii ta‟ee garuu, sun qofti

gahaa akka hin taane garuu hubatamaadha.

Sadaffaan, makmaaksi bifa adda ta‟een, kallattii ofii qabaatee akka hin barsiifamne yeroo ta‟u,

inni afraffaan, akka ogummaatti haala itti xiyyeeffatamu akka hin jirredha. Kan xiyyeeffatamu

afoolummaadha; malee, addummaa makmaaksaa miti. Kunis yaada ijoo barruu xiinxalamee bira

qabamee Yeroo ilaalamu, makmaaksa akka koobaa dubbiitti tajaajiluuf gahaa akka hin taane

hubachiisa (Stewart, 2016). Ijoowwan barnooti makmaaksaa ittiin dhiyaatu kan shaakala

fuuleffates, akka armaan-gadiitti dhiyaate:

4.4 Ijoowwan Shaakalli Makmaaksaa Ittiin Dhiyaatu Ilaalchisee

Ijoowwan shaakalli makmaaksaa ittiin dhiyaatu ilaalchisee, ergaa makmaaksaa sakatta‟uun akka

shaakala ol-aanaatti barattootaan eeramee jira (64%). Maalummaa makmaaksaa xiinxaluunis

hanga tokko akka shaakalaaf dhiyaatu barattooti tuqanii jiru (32%). Akkaataa yookaan haxa ittiin

makmaaksa xiinxalanirratti garuu, shaakalli jiru gad-aanaa ta‟uu, deebiin barattootaa ni mul‟isa

(4%). Asirratti wanti hubatamuu qabu, ergaa makmaaksaa sakatta‟uun maal akka qabatu dha.

Ergaan makmaaksa tokkoo, jecha inni irraa madde yookaan taatee isaarraa abuuramuu ni

danda‟a. “ Bakka hin waraannetti , hin luqqifatin!” makmaaksi jedhu, ergaan isaa maal akka ta‟e

beekuudhaaf jechoota „waraanuu‟ fi „ luqqisuu‟ jedhan sirriitti haleelanii hubachuun dirqama

ta‟a. Lammaffaa, ergaa makmaaksaa sakatta‟uun, maalirratti akka inni xiyyeeffatu addaan

baasuu yookaanis, taatee jiruu inni irratti makmaakame sakatta‟uu jechuu dha (Finnegan, 2012:

424). Yaadi cimsaa kun, haalli waliif dabarsaa (transmission) makmaaksaan qabamee taasifamu,

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jiraachuu afoolaatiif (the very existence) bu‟uura akka ta‟e ibsa. Kanas fakkenyaan ibsuun yoo

barbaachise, “Yeroo ilma gudeedi diimatu, haadha ijatu diimata,” jedhee kan makmaaku maal

hordofsiisuuf akka ta‟e hubachuun dirqama ta‟a. Aarii moo gara-jabina? Ergaan isaa, ka‟umsa

aadaatiin wal-qabattee waan qabuuf, daree keessa taa‟anii qofa kan hojjetamu hin ta‟u;

pirojeektii bal‟aa barbaada.

Makmaaksi tokko-tokko, golollisa hiikaa (semantic darkness) qachabaachuu danda‟a (Cervero,

2016). Fakkenyyaf “Quphansuu al-tokkoo; baqa waggaa tokkoo!” Makmaaksi kun, ergaa bif-

lamee of-keessaa qabaachuu waan danda‟uuf, akeekkachuun gaarii dha; quphansuufi baqa

maaltu akka wal-simssie. Gam-tokkoon, quphansuun, ofirra gad taa‟uu waan ta‟eef, hafuurri

midhaanii yoo tufatte, nama qaanessiti kan jedhuun wal-simachuu ni danda‟a. Gam-birootiin,

warra gaddaa al-tokko gad-taa‟anii gaafatanirraa hafanii, ija baqachuullee mul‟isuu ni danda‟a.

Kanaaf, ergaa sakatta‟uun shaakala jabaa kan fedhu ta‟ee argama.

Asirratti, gaheen barattooti mul‟isan kun, miidhagaa ta‟us, haxa ittiin makmaaksa xiinxalan, kan

afoollan biroorraa adda ta‟erratti xiyyeeffannoon jiru gad-aanaa ta‟uun ammoo, hojiifi mala

waan addaan baase fakkaata. Yaadi barsiisota afaan Oromoo kanaaf galaa ture.

4.5 Aantummaa Aadaafi Taatee Jiruu Qabatee Dhiyaachuu Makmaaksaa

Aantummaa aadaafi taatee jiruu makmaaksi qabu, ergaa bifa garaa-garaa kan taateewwan

jireenyaan wal-qabatan hammachuu isaatiin ibsama. Fakeenyaaf, “Ba‟aa namni ol siif fuudhu,

hin baatin!” jedhee jaarsi yoo dubbate, ergaan isaa maal akka tahe eeruutiin dura, jechooti achi

keessatti gargaaramaaf oolan maal akka bu‟uureeffatan hubachuun dirqama.

Akkuma maddi isaa jiruufi jireenya hawaasaa ta‟e, akkaataan inni itti barsiifamus, ijoo qarruu

ta‟e (original) sana qayyabsiisee xiinxalarraan gara gargaarama ol-aanaatti kan geggeessu ta‟uu

qaba (Elliott, 2010). Yaadi Elliott (2010:4) akka ibsutti, namni makmaaksa baratu, qajeeltoo

jireenyaa barata; dhoksaa jiruu egeree dursee beekkata; ni akeekkata; qaruuxuma xuuxxata;

hubee suuqqata; ibsoota mi‟aa qaban kanneen ija-qarofi gurra-bano ta‟an muuxata; ni

muuddatallee. Yaadi ragaa qorannoo ijoo eerameen wal-simatu, akka armaan-gadiitti dhiyaate.

Deebii kennamerraa kan hubatames, aantummaa aadaafi taatee jiruu hordofanii makmaaksa

barachuun bal‟inaan akka jirudha (88%). Aantummaa aadaa qabachuun kun kan barbaachiseef,

makmaaksi dubbii seensisa; dubbii ceesisa yokaan dubbii fixa. Kanumaafis makmaaksi tokko

kan dubbii fiduu, tokko ammo kan dubbii fixu kan jedhamuuf. Ciminni sun aagaan qabamee,

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bakka haalli daangessu jirurratti (8%) xiyyeeffannoon addaa akka barbaachisu bira hin darbamu.

Aantummaa aadaafi taatee jiruu makmaaksi qabu (lifelikeness) mirkaneessuudhaaf (Kim fi kbh,

2010; Finnegan, 2012), barannoo keessatti barattootifi barsiisonni qorannoo bifa pirojeektii

dirree gargaaramuun, harka diriirfatanii barnoota cimsachuudhaaf bu‟aa argamuun gamatti, ijoofi

ergaa aadaa gola afaaniffaa yookaan afoolessaa keessatti danqamee jiru babaasuudhaaf galumsa

waan ta‟eef, gaaffiin armaan-gadii barattootaaf dhiyaatee deebiin kenname xiinxalamee jira.

4.6 Haala Qu’annoo fi Xiinxala Makmaaksaa Ilaalchisee

Qu‟annoofi xiinxala makmaaksaa ilaalchisee, ijoo makmaaksaa xiinxaluufi (40%) ergaa

dhokataa babaasuutiin dhiyeessuun (32%) duraa-duubaan akka shaakala ol-aanaatti dhiyaatee

jira. Sana faana silaa kan akka gumbii egereetti ol-kaawwamuu male, makmaaksaaf gumee

hiikaa, fakkeenyaan sukkuumanii ol-kaa‟uu ta‟ee, garuu shaakala keessatti hanga ta‟e gad bu‟aa

(28%) ta‟uutu eerame. Yadni cimsaa kana faana wal qabatus, gama barsiisotaatiin kennamee jira.

Innis akka armaan-gadiitti dhiyaata:

Makmaaksi akka qaama koorsii tokkootti, al-takkaa hiika, gargaarama,

xiinxala walii-galaa qabatee barsiifama. Kunis, gosoota afoolaa

tarreetti taa‟an keessaa akka tokkootti kennanuu isaatiin wal-qabatee,

bu‟aa aadaa, duudhaafi safuu hawaasaa calaqqisiisuun ergaa darbuu

qabu qorachiisuu bifa danda‟uun ta‟a.” [Hirmaataa 3ffaa, Mudde,

2016].

Ijoo yaada hirmaataa kanaarraa wanti hubatamu, makmaaksi akka qaama Afoolaatti, dame og-

afoolaa jalatti ramadamee yeroo barsiifamu, koorsii tokkoon maalummaan, ergaan fi

gargaaramni iddoo murtaawaa kanatti cafaqamee akka dhiyaatu dha. Kun jiraachun akka jirutti

ta‟ee garuu, gargaarama makmaaksaa haala hawaasa keessatti hojiirra ooluun [abbaan-qabeenyaa

hawaasaa waan ta‟ef] dhiyeessuudhaaf, dursa kan ta‟u makmaaksuma bifaafi tarree jechaatiin

adda baasuu akka ta‟e ni hubatama (learning the premise). Kunumtiyyuu, koorsii tokko yookaan

gar-tokkee koorsii ta‟uuf mala. Inni sadaffaafi ol-aanaan, xiinxala cimaa gargaarama addaa

barbaadu geggeessuu waliin wal qabata.

Yaaduma kana kan cimsu, ijoon Elliott (2010) dhiyaatu, barattooti makmmaksa yeroo baratan,

sadarkaa addaa-addaa keessa darbuu akka qaban, sana faanas miira (sense), qixaa‟ina inni ittiin

dhiyaatu (brevity or shortness) fi mi‟aayina yookan dhamii makmaaksaa (salt or taste) akka

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hubachuu qabantu eeramee jira. Zaid (2016) makmaaksaan qabanii dandeettii gabbisuu

ilaalchisee, calaqqee muuxannoo, dagalfata jiruufi aadaa, hubee qaruuxumaa fi wal-quunnamtii

waaraa akka cimsu eeree jira. Yaaduma ragaafi qaacceeffama murtaawaa kanarraan qaari‟ee,

argannoon walii-galaa akka armaan-gadiitti kenname.

BOQONNAA SHANAFFAA

GUMEE ARGANNOO, XUMURAAFI YABOO

5.1 Gumee Argannoo

Argannoon qu‟annoofi qorannoo kanaa, kallattii gaaffiilee kennamanittin ilaalamee akkaataa

armaan-gadiitti tarreeffame:

Afoolli Oromoo, hangi inni itti xiyyeeffatamee barsiifamu bifa koorsiitiin malee qindii wal-

qabataatiin akka hin taane, yaadaafi qaaccessa ragaarraa hubataame. Makmaaksi shaakala

aangessuudhaaf bifa murtaa‟een yoo jiraatellee, barattooti haala ogummaa isaanii cimsachuu

danda‟aniin akka xiinxalaniif qindiin addatti kenname murtaawaa dha.

Makmaaksa barachuun ka‟umsa adda-baafannoo amala fi ergaa haa ta‟u malee, ergaa fi maa‟ii

gargaarama makmaaksi dubbii keessatti qabu hubachuun silaa waan male. Haa ta‟u malee, hayyi

shaakalaa jiru bifa dhiyeessa barannoorraa kan hedduu hin fagaatne; darbees, gahaa kan hin

taane tahuutu hubatame;

Shaakala makmaaksaafi dhiyeessa dalagamaadhaaf yeroonis tahe dalagaan keessaafi alaa

baay‟ee murtaawaa tahuutu mirkanaa‟e. Kanuma faanas, makmaaksa barachuu, makmaaksarraa

barachuufi makmaaksaan barachuun sirriitti toora qabatee hin dhiyaanne.

5.2 Xumura

Adeemsi barnoota Afoola Oromoo, hangam akka makmaaksa barsiisu gaaffii duree kan ture

ta‟ee, gahee bifoota afoolaa biro cinaa qabamee yeroo ilaalamu, ol-aanaa ture. Haa ta‟u malee,

taateewwan hawaasi makmaaksa fayyadamuuf xiinxalchiisuurratti, addaan bahee yeroos ta‟e

xiyyoo shaakalaa kan cimse qabaatu ta‟uu dhabuun laafina irraa-jalaati. Deebiin hirmaattota

barsiisotaa, garri guddaan baay‟ina shaakalaa yoo ta‟ellee, irraa-jalaan yeroo itti kennanii

maalummaa makmaaksaa addatti hubachiisuun ni hafa. Asirratti, maaltu ta‟uuf akka male,

xiinxaluun dirqama. Makmaaksa akkuma argametti hiikuurra, akka hawaasi hiikkatutti, madda

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isaa hordofanii hiikuun murteessaafi amanamaa taasisa.

Kunis, moodeloota yookaan xurree qorannoofi akkaataa hojiirra-oolmaa makmaaksaa, yaada

beektotaa ammaan-dura as dhufan kanneen akka Moodela Aadaa (cultural model), faaraafi faana

aadaa hordofsiisuu; Moodela xiin-afaanii (Language model), gargaarama afaaniifi jechoota

aantii; akkasumas, Moodela Guddina Dhuunfaa (Personal growth model), qooda-fudhannaafi

fedhii barattootaa dhunfaatti cimsuudhaaf abbaltii fi hordoffii taasifamu faana wal-qabata (Zaib,

2016).

Barattooti makmaaksarraa akka barataniif carraan jiru maal akka fakkaatu, qorannoon kun kan

sakatta‟e yeroo ta‟u, hojiin guddaan baruufi barsiisuu keessatti hojjetame, makmaaksarraa

baarchuu akka ta‟e ture. Sanas ta‟ee garuu, barattooti kan moojula isaanii keessa jirurraa ka‟anii

of-danada‟anii raga guuranii akka qorataniif shaakalli jiru bu‟aa-ba‟ii akka qabu hubatameera.

Akka muuxannoo dhuunfaatti garuu, barsiisoti shaakala gahaa qabu.

Makmaaksaan barachuuf faarri mijaawaafi dalagmaan jiraachuu ilaalchisee, makmaaksarraa

bu‟aawwan argaman bifa gumeetiin ol-kaawwachuun; sanaanis mariifi dalagaa gumaacha

ogummaa kan bifa ammayyaa qabu uumuufi xiinxala hunda-galeessa geggeessuurratti hanga

fuuleffannaa jalqabaatiif maluun hin hojjetamne.

5.3 Yaboo Qorannichaa fi Akeektuu Faana Egeree

5.3.1 Yaboo Qorannichaa

Makmaaksi, amala waa-uumee calaqqee hawaasaa kan qabufi dhalootaaf ergaa jiruufi jireenyaan

wal-simataa kan dabarsudha. Akka hawaasa Oromootti yeroo ilaalamu, duudhaan makmaaksaa,

afoolaan dhiyaachuurraa gara barreeffama xiinxala gad-fagaataati kan cehaa dhufe waggoota

kurnan-lamaan asitti. Maddeen qarruun jiran buleeyyii ta‟uufi isaanis haala adda-addaatiin bakka

isaanii gad-dhiisan ta‟uun yaalii ciminaa karaa bu‟e, qaruuxuma ititaan jiru kan makmaaksarraa

argatamullee akka hin quucarsine, ademsi baruufi barsissuun Afaan Oromoo ittiin geggeeffamu

cimsee hojjechuurra akka jiru kan irra hin cehamne ta‟a.

Irra-guddaammoo, makmaaksa gama ilaallatuun, waa sadiirratti xiyyeeffachuun barbaachisaa

ta‟a. Isaanis, dursanii makmaaksa matuma isaa barsissuu; irraa-cehees, makmaaksarraa

barsiisuufi haala ol-aanaarratti makmaaksaan barsiisuudha. Kanarratti, Muummeeleen Barnoota

Afaan Oromoo Yunivarsiitiiwwan keessa jiran, golee xiinxalaa uummatanii, barattoota karaa

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sadii hojjechiisuun barbaachisaa ta‟a. Karawwan kunniinis, maalummaa, eenyummaafi bu‟aa;

ergaawwan bifa-bifaafi, xiinxala dagaaginaarratti yoo xiyyeeffatan ni deemsisa.

Kana faanas, waan garaa fi waan karaa addaan baasanii hojjechuun dirqama. Waan garaa,

gorduubeedha. Ittiin manaa-ba‟u. Waan karaa ammo galaadha. Namni karaa adeemu, of-herregee

nyaata galaaf ta‟u baadhata. Namni ogummaa xiinxalus, egeree ilaallatee waa hubata; hubachuuf

ni qorata; akaataa jiruuf toltuun waa ol-kaawwata. Kanatu, mul‟at-qabeessa nama taasisa. “

Herregaa nyaatanii, hedaa galaafatu,” jedha Oromoon.

5.3.2 Akeektuu Faana Qu’annoo fi Qorannoo Egeree (Implication for further research)

Qu‟annoon xiinxala haal-barachuu makmaaksaa fuuleffate kun, waa sadii faana buuseera:

Makmaaksa barachuu; irraa barachuufi ittiin barachuu. Ta‟us, waa hunda hammatee aagaan gale

jechuun hin danda‟amu. Yoo haa eeramuuf ta‟e, ijoowwan hedduun xiinxala wal-fakkaataa

barbaadan hafanii jiru. Isaanis akka armaan-gadiitti taa‟an:

Afoola Oromoofi Gargaarama Teknoolojii Barnootaa ;

Dhiibbaa Afoolli Oromoo Jijjiiramaafi Qarooma Hawaasaarratti Qabu;

Wal-haasisa Dagaaginaafi Ergaa Qaruuxuma Oromoofi Saboota Afriikaa Biroo;

Walitti-Hiddama Afoolaafi Eenyummaa Oromoo, kkf.

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https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/handle

http://www.ecald.com/

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Some Aspects of the Feeding and Reproductive Biology of Oreochromis Niloctus L. (Pisces:

Cichlidae) in Alwero Reservoir, Gambella Regional State, Ethiopia

1Genanaw Tesfaye,

2Fikadu Tefera,

2Abebe Cheffo

National Fisheries and other Aquatic Life Research Center, Sebeta, P.O.Box 64, Sebeta,

Ethiopia, E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is economically one of the most important fish species in

Ethiopia. Fish samples were caught using gillnets with 6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm, 12 cm and 16 cm

stretch mesh size. All the nets were set in the late afternoon between 4:00 5:00 pm and retrieved

the next morning between 8:00 and 9:00 am. at nine occasions during the wet and dry seasons

between September 2012 and March 15. Biological information such as condition factor, food

habits, and length-weight relationships are useful for management of fish resources. The sex

ratio showed preponderance of females over males (Chi-square 96.14; P˂0.01). There was a

curvilinear relationship between total length and total weight of O. niloticus in the reservoir (Y=

0.052X2.76

and R2 = 0.947). This suggests that the fishes grow isometrically. There was no

significant variation in the condition of fish between sexes (P˂0.05).Similarly, no significant

variation was observed in the condition of fishes between the wet and dry seasons. The size at

first maturity (L50) of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir (male and female combined = 22.50 cm).

In Alwero Reservoir phytoplankton species such as anabena and melosera were the major food

items for O. niloticus.

Key words/phrases: Oreochromis niloticus, Alwero Reservoir, Condition factor, Length-weight

relationship, L50

1. Introduction

Inland fisheries deliver substantial contributions to income to hundreds of thousands of rural

households in Ethiopia. Lake Tana and the Rift Valley Lakes of Ethiopia are the major sources

of commercial fisheries of the country (Tesfaye and Wolff, 2014). Manmade reservoirs such as

Alwero Reservoir, Gilgle Gibe I and III, Fincha, Koka and Tekeze Reservoirs, which were built

either for hydropower generation or irrigation purposes also contribute significant amount of fish

to the capture fisheries of the country. Alwero Reservoir was constructed mainly for irrigation

purpose and there has been fishing activities using various locally made fish gears (mainly gill


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nets) and the harvest is either consumed locally or marketed in the nearby towns of Abobo and

Gambella.

Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is among the leading farmed and most commercialized fish

species around the world. It ranks among the most preferred fish for local consumption and

market in Ethiopia. Nile tilapia contributes about 60% of the annual commercial fishery in the

country. For instance, about 90% of Lake Ziway and many of Lake Koka fish landings of capture

fisheries were dominated by O. niloticus (Tesfaye, 2016) reported that, O. niloticus is the most

dominant and commercially important species in the Tekeze Reservoir, and accounts for about

82.4% of the total production fish in the reservoir.

However, few studies have been made on the limnology and fishes of other reservoirs compared

with the natural lakes in Ethiopia due to their inaccessibility and lack of logistics. Comparative

studies on the limnology and biology of Koka and Fincha Reservoirs were conducted by Mesfin

et al., (1988) and the biology of fishes in Fincha reservoir (Degefu et al., 2011). Some biological

aspects of O. niloticus and limnological aspects of Koka reservoir were studied by Tesfaye

(2008). Teame et al., (2018) studied the reproductive biology of O. niloticus in Tekeze

Reservoir. In addition, some seasonal variation of phytoplankton in relation to variations in water

quality of Legedadi Reservoir was studied by Mesfin (1983). Very recently, population dynamics

of fishery target fish species and trophic structure of Koka reservoir were studied by Tesfaye

(2016).

One of the most important factors to fishery management is to understand the fundamental

biological aspects of fishes. Length-weight relationships provide information on the condition

and growth patterns of fishes, for inter-specific and intra-population morphometric comparisons

(Pauly, 1993). The length weight relationships of fish population is a basic parameter for any

monitoring study of fisheries as it provides important information concerning the structure and

function of populations (Anderson and Neumann, 1996). The relationship is important in

fisheries and fish biology because it allows the estimation of average weight of fish from given

length group by establishing mathematical relationship between them. It can also be used in

setting yield equations for estimating the number of fish landed and comparing the population in

space and time (Pauly, 1993).

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Information of condition factor of fish is a necessary prerequisite to a demographic analysis of

fish population. It exhibits variation between species and for the same species with time, sex, age

and other variables (Bagenal and Tesch, 1987). For example, it has been used in comparing

populations living under similar or different levels of food availability, density and climate. The

information is also used in determining the time of sexual maturity, the degree of food source

availability and growth pattern in fishes. In fisheries science, the condition factor is used to

compare the condition, fatness or wellbeing of fish (Lecren, 1951). Condition factor is also a

useful index for monitoring of feeding intensity, age and growth rates in fish. Since the condition

of fishes is affected by both biotic and abiotic environmental conditions, the conditions factor

can be used as an index to assess the status of the aquatic ecosystem in which fish live (Anene,

2005).

Descriptions of reproductive strategies are fundamental topics in the study of population

dynamics of fish species and also for evaluation of the reproductive potential of individual fish

species. This will increase our knowledge about the state of a stock and improves standard

assessments of many commercially valuable fish species (Murua et al., 2003). Moreover, the

availability of data on reproductive parameters and environmental variation leads to a better

understanding of observed fluctuations in reproductive output and enhances our ability to

estimate recruitment (Kraus et al., 2002). For example, studies on breeding season and factors

associated with it are needed to protect new recruits and predict recruitment variability

Scientific knowledge on food and feeding habits of fish is an important condition for successful

fisheries management program and fish culture (Fatema et al., 2013). It is also used for

assessment of resource partitioning within and between-species competition, prey selection,

predator-prey size relationships, distribution of feeding types with latitude, ontogenetic diet

shifts and habitat selection (Pauly, 2000).

Comparatively, there is well documented information on the biology of O. niloticus collected

from major lakes of Ethiopia (Tesfaye and Tadesse, 2008). However, the reproductive and

feeding biology of fishes in Gambella region particularly in Alwero Reservoir have not studied

yet. Therefore, the overall objective of this study was to investigate important aspects of the

biology of commercially important fish in Alwero Reservoir of the Gambella region.

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2. Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the study site

The Gambell region is located in the western tip of Ethiopia between 7

o37‟17''N latitude and 33

o-

35o21''E longitude. The regional state of Gambella is divided into three administrative zones

(Anywa, Nuer and Majang) and Special district (Itang).

The climate of the study area is characterized by one rainy and one dry season. The average

maximum temperature of the region varies between 31.05oC in July and 40

oC in March. The

average daily minimum varies from 17oC in January to 22.67

oC in April (Fig 2).

Alwero Reservoir (7°51'26"N 34°32'10"E) is situated 57 km south of the Gambella town and 6

km from Abobo village at an altitude of 400 m. It is shallow reservoir with a maximum depth of

7 meters and covers total area of 74 km2. The reservoir was constructed in 1992 by damming the

Alwero River mainly for irrigation purpose. Currently, the reservoir is also used for fishing,

domestic water supply and livestock watering point for the local communities.

Fig. 1: Maps of (a) Ethiopia, (b) Gambella region and its major rivers, (c) Alewro Reservoir

The shores of the dam are rocky especially in the western part and covered by extensive

macrophyte vegetations all along its other shore areas. These littoral regions of the dam provide

favorable breeding sites, shelter and foraging sites for fish populations. The reservoir is home to

different species of fishes and crocodiles probably predating on fish population in the water.

.

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Fig 2: Average Rainfall (mm) rainfall pattern of Alwero Reservoir (Source: National

Meterological Agency of Ethiopia)

Perennial open savanna grasses characterize the vegetation of the study area. There are varieties

of shrubs and trees scattered uniformly in the tall grasses. The morphometric, physical, chemical

and biological communities of the reservoir were not studied prior to this investigation.

Fig 3: Mean maxima and mean minima monthly air temperature (

oC) of Alwero Reservoir.

2.2 Fish sampling and measurment

Fish samples were collected using gillnets (6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm stretched mesh size)

(Gashaw Tesfaye, 2016) set overnight during 2012-2015. On the following morning, the fishes

were removed from the nets. Immediately after capture, total length (TL), total weight (TW) of

each specimen were measured to the nearest 0.1cm and 0.1gm using measuring board and

sensitive balance, respectively. The sex of each specimen was indentified and maturity level of

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some of the specimens was rated based on five point maturity level determination (Gashaw

Tesfaye, 2006) as immature (I), recovering spent or developing virgin (II), ripening (III), ripe

(IV) and spent (V). Each gonad was then removed and weighed to the nearest 0.1gm.

2.3. Data analysis

The length-weight relationship of O. niloticus was estimated by using the equation W=aLb

(Bagenal and Tesch, 1978) where W= weight (g), L= total length (cm), a= intercept of the

regression line and b= slope of the regression line. A logarithm transformation, ln = lna + lnbL,

was used to make the relationship linear.

The well being (condition) of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir was determined using Fulton's

Condition Factor (FCF) by the equation suggested by Bagenal and Tesch (1978) as follows; FCF

= TW100/TL3 where TW = total weight and TL = total length.

The Gonado-somatic index (GSI) of O. niloticus was calculated using the equation:- GSI=

Gonad weight X 100/Total weight. The breeding season of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir was

determined from percentages of fishes with ripe gonads collected in the wet and dry seasons

during the sampling period.

The length at first maturity (L50) has been defined as the length at which 50% of the total number

of individuals of a length group reaches maturity (Willowughby and Tweddle, 1978). It was

estimated graphically as describe in Nelson et al., (2009) as follows;

P = A (1+e(-r.(Lt-L50)))-1:

Where P is the proportion or ratio of reproductive females for each size class; A is the curve

asymptote; r is a rate parameter related the speed of size change from non reproductive to

reproductive status; Lt is the total length (cm) and L50 is the size at first maturity (cm).

2.4. Food and feeding habit

A total of 240 gut (95 O. niloticus, 50 Bagrus sp, 50 Citharins and 45 Hydrocynus forsskali)

samples were analyzed. Preserved stomach contents of fishes specimens were transferred into a

petri-dish. Larger food items were identified by eye whereas small-sized food items were

microscopically examined using a WILD type stereoscope (magnification 6X to 50X). In

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addition, smaller food items, such as phytoplankton, were examined at high magnifications

(100X to 400X) under a compound inverted research microscope. Each food item was identified

to the lowest taxon possible using description, illustrations and keys in the literature (Edington

and Hildrew, 1981; Defaye, 1988). After identification, a list of items found in the stomach was

prepared.

3. Results and discussions

3.1 Sex ratio

A total of 1019 O. niloticus specimen were examined from Alwero Reservoir in nine occasions

between September 2004 E.C and February 2007 E.C.

Table1: The number of females, males and sex ratio of O. niloticus caught from Alwero

Reservoir

Season Female Male sex ratio (Female : Male) X2

Wet season 419 261 1:0.62 0.04

Dry season 249 84 1:0.34 0.24

Total 668 345 1:0.52

Studies on sex ratio would provide information on the proportion of female to male, indicates the

dominance of sex in a population and information necessary for fish reproduction and stock size

(Agbugui, 2013). According to the sex ratio model of Fisher (1930), animals should produce

offspring of a balanced sex ratio (1:1). Population with an imbalanced sex ratio due to unusual

environmental condition can be considered as a disturbed or maladapted for the given condition

(Bohlen et al., 2008). In many fish species, unusual ecological condition changes can cause shifts

in the sex ratio (Devlin and Nagahama, 2002). Temperature is the most important cue affecting

sex but density, pH and hypoxia have also been shown to influence the sex ratio of fish species

(Budd et al., 2015). In the present study, female specimens were more numerous (X2, P < 0.05)

than males (Tables 1 and 2). Similar findings were reported for O. niloticus from Lakes

Babogaya (Abera, 2012), Hayq (Worie and Getahu, 2014) and Tekze Reseroir (Tsegaye et al.,

2018). However, it is in contrary to the report for Amerti Reservior in Ethiopia (Hailu, 2014).

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Table 2: The number of females, males and sex ratio in sample of O.niloticus caught from

Alwero Reservoir.

Length class

(cm)

Females Males Sex ratio

(male :Female)

X2 P-value

9 - 13 4 3 1:1.33 0.14 0.705 ns

13 - 17 1 4 1:0.25 1.80 0.180 ns

17 - 21 2 6 1:0.33 2.00 0.157 ns

21 - 25 10 4 1:2.50 2.57 0.109 ns

25 - 29 82 39 1:2.10 15.28 0.000 ***

29 - 33 171 87 1:1.97 27.35 0.000 ***

33 - 37 303 106 1:2.86 94.89 0.000 ***

37 - 41 81 58 1:1.40 3.81 0.051 ns

41 - 45 11 29 1:0.38 8.10 0.004 **

˃45 1 17 1:0.06 14.22 0.000 ***

Total 666 353 1:1.89 96.14 0.000 ***

*** (P˂0.001), ** (P˂0.01), * (˂0.05), ns = not significant (P˃0.05)

3.2 Length-weight relationship

A total of 1019 specimen of O. niloticus ranging in size from 9-48 cm were examined based on

nine months sampling program. The mean total length (TL) and standard deviation were

32.94±4.22 for females and 33.32±6.23 for males. The length-weight relationship of O. niloticus

in the reservoir was curvilinear (Fig 4) and best described by the regression equations; Y=

0.052X2.76

; N=1019, and R2 = 0.947; N= 1019 for the sexes combined.

The regression equation result calculated separately for the two sexes was also curvilinear (Table

2) and described by the equations Y= 0.051X2.78

; R2 = 0.9560.956 (males) and Y= 0.060X

2.72; R

2

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= 0.91 (Females). This study showed that there was no marked difference in the length-weight

relationship between the two sexes of O. niloticus in the Alwero Reservoir.

In fishes, the regression coefficient b = 3 describes isometric growth. The value is exactly 3 if the

fishes retain the same shape and their specific gravity remains unchanged during life-time

(Ricker, 1975). However, some fishes have values greater or less than 3, a condition described as

positive allometric growth and negative allometric growth respectively. As it can be seen in fig.

4 O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir showed a slight deviation from the theoretical isometric

growth (b = 2.76), i.e the weight of these fishes increases nearly as the cube of length. This

shows that the growth of the O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir was nearly isometric i.e fishes

grow symmetrically or the fish would not be thinner with increase in their length.

The b value obtained in this study was comparable to the b value of O. niloticus (b=2.74) in

Lake Tana and Lake Langeno (Tadesse, 1999). However, it is not in agreement with the b value

of O. niloticus obtained from Lake Hawassa (b =3.01) (Admassu, 1990), from Lake Ziway (b =

3.03) (Tadesse, 1988), from Lake Koka (b = 2.89) (Tesfaye and Tadesse, 2008), and from Lake

Chamo (b= 2.98) (Teferi and Admassu, 2002).

y = 0.055x2.744

R² = 0.933

Total length (cm)

Fig 4: Length-weight relationship of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir (both sexes combined).

To

tal

wei

gh

t (g

m

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The b value computed for female and male O. niloticuswas 2.72 and 2.78, respectively and there

is no significant difference in the mean b values between sexes (Table 3).

Table 3: The length-weight relationship of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir

Sex Y R2 No.

Male 0.051X2.78

0.956 353

Female 0.060X2.72

0.91 666

3.3 Fulton’s Condition Factor (K)

The body condition of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir is described in tables 4 and 5. The

average Fulton's Condition Factor value of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir was 2.29±0.35 for

the sexes combined. The Fulton's condition factor of females was 2.28±0.33 and 2.29±0.37for

males. It revealed that there is no significant variation (P>0.05) between sexes and between

seasons. It was 2.24±0.32 in the wet season (May - October), 2.35±0.35 in the dry season

(November - April).

Table 4: Fulton's condition factor (K) of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir in wet and dry

seasons.

Season K±Sd N

Wet season 2.248±0.32 681

Dry season 2.35±0.35 338

Total 2. 285±0.35 1019

Seasons and environmental factors such as stresses, availability of food and food quality, feeding

rate, degree of parasitism and reproductive activity are linked to the condition of fishes (Tefera,

1987). The mean K value obtained for O. niloticus in this study was higher than value reported

for the same species from Koka Reservoir (Tesfaye and Tadesse, 2008), Lake Ziway (Tadesse,

1988), Lake Beseka (Beyene, 2005), and Fincha Reservoir (Degefu et al., 2012). However, the K

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value obtained for O. niloticus in this study was lower than the value obtained from Lake Chamo

(Teferi and Admassu, 2002).

Table 5: Average Fulton's condition factor of O. niloticus from different water bodies of the

country.

Water body K Sources

LakeZiway 1.03 Zenebe Tadesse (1988)

Lake Beseka 1.65 Gashaw Beyene (2005)

Lake Chamo 2.35 Yirgaw Teferi and Demeke Admassu (2002)

Lake Langano 1.67 Zenebe Tadesse (1999)

Koka Reservoir 1.87 Gashaw Tesfaye and Zenebe Tadesse (2008)

Lake Ziway 1.89 Gashaw Tesfaye and Zenebe Tadesse (2008)

Fincha Reservoir 2.29 Fassil Degefu and Fikadu Tefera (2006)

Tekeze Reservoir 1.91 (M) and 1.82 (F) Tsegaye Teame et al., (2018)

The Fulton's condition Factor is based on the hypothesis that heavier fish of a particular length

are in a better physiological condition (Bagenal and Tesh, 1978). It is strongly influenced by

both biotic and abiotic environmental conditions. It can be used as an index to assess the status of

the aquatic ecosystem in which fish live (Anene, 2005). Therefore, it appears that O. niloticus in

the present study is in better body condition compared to the condition of same species in other

fresh waters of the country (Tables 4 and 5).

In the present study, the largest fish caught was 48 cm (TL) (average 33.25±5.01) and about 2 kg

total weight (average 872.99±321.01 sd gm) probably one of the largest O.niloticus fish ever

caught from Ethiopian fresh waters. One of the probable reasons for the better body condition of

O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir could be related to the phytoplankton community composition

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in the reservoir. It has been observed that there are quite diversified phytoplankton species in the

Alwero Reservoir (personal observation). The relatively high water temperature (mean

±sd28.08±1.09oC) in Alwero Reservoir is conducive for the fish to digest and absorb food more

efficiently than fish in other cooler waters (Tefera, 1993). Therefore, the combined effect of

good food quality and quantity and better water temperature, optimum pH and other physico-

chemical conditions in the Alwero reservoir is likely for better body condition of O. niloticus.

Similarly the absence of variation in the body condition of the fish in the dry and wet season

could be attributed to suitable habitat condition of the reservoir.

3.5 Length at first maturity (L50)

The average length at first maturity is defined as the length at which 50% of the individuals of

fishes reach maturity (Willoughby and Tweddle, 1978). In the present investigation, the

percentage of female and male O.niloticus having gonad maturity stages III, IV and IV were

plotted against length (Tesfaye, 2006). The smallest mature female sampled was 20.5 cm and

weighed 443gm while the smallest mature male caught was 27.5 cm weighted 603 gm. The size

at first maturity of O. niloticusin Alwero Reservoir was 22.50 ± 1 sd TL cm for sex combine.

Fig.5: L50 of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir (n = 629).

The size at first maturity of O. niloticus obtained for O.niloticus (Fig 5) in this study was higher

than those reported for the same fish species by other investigators in Lakes Ziway(18.10TL cm

for females and 19.6TL cm for male) and Langano(19.50 TL cm for both sexs). But the value is

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lower than the value obtained from Lake Koka (23.90 TL cm for both sexs) (Tesfaye, 2006),

Fincha Reservoir (Degefu, et al., 2011), Lake Hayq (Worie, 2014) (Table 6). According to

Wooton (1998); Teferi and Admassu (2002), size at first maturity is inversely correlated to the

degree of fishing mortality. They noted that L50 is related with the condition of the fish and the

fish individuals that are in good conditions tend to breed at larger sizes than those in poor

conditions. Accordingly, O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir tend to breed at larger size than O.

niloticus in some other lakes in Ethiopia.

Table 6: L50 of O. niloticus in different water bodies of Ethiopia and some other countries

Lake Country Male

(TL, cm)

Female

(TL, cm)

Reference

Alwero Ethiopia 22. 50* Present study

Awassa Ethiopia 19.8 18.80 Demeke Admasu (1994)

Tana Ethiopia 20.7 18.10 Tesfaye Wudneh (1998

Chamo Ethiopia 42.2 42.00 Yirgaw Teferi et al., (2001)

Victoria Kenya 34.5 30.80 Njiru et al., (2006)

Albert Uganda 14.0 12.00 Trewaves (1983)

Koka Ethiopia 23.1 23.90 Gashaw Tesfaye (2006)

Ziway Ethiopia 19.4 18.10 Gashaw Tesfaye (2006)

Langano Ethiopia 19.4 19.70 Gashaw Tesfaye (2006)

* Sexes combined

3.4 Gonado-somatic Index (GSI) and breeding season

The average GSI calculated for female O.niloticus in Alwero reservoir was 1.235 (n=355). It was

calculated for fish ranging in length from 26cm 47cm total length. The GSI varied significantly

(ANOVA, P˂0.001) between seasons. GSI value of females ranged from 1.32±0.04 to

5.098±0.04 and those of males ranged from 0.32±0.047 to 1.32±0.047.

O. niloticus with ripe gonads were caught in all the sampling months. However, the peak activity

was recorded in the dry (January - February) season. Balarin and Hatton (1978) stated that

environmental factors such as water temperature and photoperiod influence gonadal development

in tilapia. In tropical regions, seasonal fluctuations in temperature and photoperiod are very low;

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this might be favorable for tropical fishes to spawn at any time of the year (MeConnel, 1982). In

Alwero Reservoir, temperature (above 27oC throughout the year) and solar radiation are

probably some of the reasons why O. niloticus breed throughout the year. Another environmental

factor that triggers spawning in tropical tilapian fishes is rainfall (Admasu, 1997). However, the

rainy months were not in coincident with the peak breeding activities in the present study.

Although its bi-modal breeding peaks, O. niloticus in Lake Small Abaya, spawn throughout the

year (Asaminew et al., 2011). Studies conducted in some of the rift valley lakes of Ethiopia

(Tadesse, 1988) indicated that O. niloticus spawn throughout the year. In Lake Turkana, the

same species spawn through the year (Stwart 1988), and these are in agreement with the present

study. However, similar studies conducted in other water bodies of the country revealed that O.

niloticus breeding months were between December and March in Lake Ziway (Tadesse, 1889)

and January and March in Lake Hawssa (Admassu, 1996).

3.7 Food and feeding habit

3.7.1 Stomach content analysis

The phytoplankton Anabena, Melosera and Synedra species are more encountered in the gut of

O. niloticus and Citharinus fishes (Table 7). Detritus are also abundantly encountered in the guts

of Citharinussp and O. niloticus in this investigation. However, zooplankton food items were

less frequently encountered compared to phytoplankton food items from the gut of O. niloticus

(Table 7). On the other hand, phytoplankton species were not identified from the gut of Bagrus

and Hydrocinus species in this study (Table 6). Unidentified macrophyte fragments, Synedra,

Melosera and Coelastrum were frequently observed from the gut of Citharinus. In addition to

these, detritus materials were observed from the gut of the fish. The guts of Bagrussp consists of

unidentified fish scale whereas whole fish and fish scales were observed in the gut of H.

forskalli(Table 7).

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Table 7: Composition of gut content of O. niloticus, Bagrussp, Citharinus and H. forskalii from

Alwero Reservoir

Fish species

Food items

(Phytoplankton)

O. niloticus Bagrussp Citharinussp Hydrocynussp

Macrophyt fragments + + +++ -

Euglena + - - -

Anabena +++ - - -

Syenedra ++ - ++ -

Coelastrum + - ++ -

Pediastrum + - ++ -

Peridinium + - - -

Microcysists + - - -

Eudorina + - - -

Senedesmus + - ++ -

Difflugia + - + -

Cosmarium + - + -

Melosera +++ - +++ -

Stereptoccocus + - - -

Aphnocpsa + - - -

Navicula + - ++ -

+++ = Dominant ++ = Abundant + = Scarce - = No food

Diet composition of B.docmak in Lake Chamo consisted of insects, mollusks and different fish

species such as H. forskali, Labeohorie, O. niloticus and small Synodonisschall (Anja and

Mengistou 2001). Accordingly, in this study the gut of same species in Alwero Reservoir

consisted of unidentified fishes that have already been partially digested. Since the gillnets were

set overnight (set late in the afternoon and lifted the next morning between, 8:00-9:00),

regurgitation and digestion of the food items might have taken place. This might have led to the

occurrence of fragmented food items such as fish scales in the guts of Bagrussp and tiger fishes

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in the reservoir. High regurgitation rate has been observed for B. docmak (Corbet. 1961) in Lake

Victoria.

Table 8: Composition of gut content of O. niloticus, Bagrussp, Citharinus and H. forskalii from

Alwero Reservoir

Fish species

Food items (Zooplankton) O. niloticus Bagrussp Citharinussp Hydrocynussp

Fish scales - +++ - ++

Fish skeleton - + - -

Amphipod - + - -

Zooplankton fragments

+ + - -

Mud + + ++ -

Naupuli + - - -

Brachionus + - - -

Keratella + - - -

Copepod + - - -

Whole fish - - - +++

+++ = Dominant ++ = Abundant + = Scarce - = No food

This study showed that O. niloticus in the reservoir feeds on varieties of plankton species. The

fish ingested different groups of phytoplankton, zooplankton, macrophytes and detritus. Tadesse

(1988) stated that tilapia is opportunistic which is capable of shifting from one diet to another

depending on temporal and spatial variations in availability of the diet in the habitat.

Some of the food items ingested by O. niloticus in the Alwero Reservoir were also reported for

the same fish species in other Ethiopian water bodies in Koka Resrvoir (Engdaw et al., 2013), in

Lake Awassa and Lake Ziway respectively. This study showed that O. niloticus mainly feeds on

phytoplankton and rarely on zooplankton (Table 6 and 7) and macrophytes. Tefera (1987)

reported that most zooplanktons are consumed by adult of O. niloticus on regular basis.

Accordingly, some species of zooplankton were indentified from the gut of the fish in the present

study (Table7 and 8). Mud/sand grains were also encountered significantly in the gut of the fish

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in the present investigation. A study conducted by Wakjira (2013) has also shown similar result

for the same species in Gilgel Gibe Reservoir.

4. Conclusions and recommendations

The length-weight relationship of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir was found to be TW=

0.052TL2.76

. The b value obtained (b=2.74) in this study is showed no significant deviation from

theoretical cube value. This indicates that the fish increases nearly as the cube of length i.e., the

fish grows symmetrically or the fish would not be thinner with increase in their length in the

reservoir.

The condition factor calculated value (K = 2.29) of O. niloticus in the reservoir was relative

higher than the values in Rift Valley Lakes of Ethiopia.

The food of O. niloticus in the Alwero Reservoir was composed of a variety of food items. The

blue-green algae, zooplankton fragments and detritus were ingested by the fish. However; the

blue-green algae, Microcystsspecies were the most important food item.

O. niloticus breed throughout the year in the reservoir however; January and February are peak

breeding seasons.

This study presents some biological aspects of O. niloticus in Alwero Reservoir for the first

time. Prior to this investigation, nothing has been studied about the limnological aspects and

biological communities of the reservoir. In general, little is known about the reservoir. Therefore,

detailed investigations and studies are required on various aspect of the reservoir.

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93


Prevalence of Early Marriage and Its Consequences among Reproductive Age Women in

Bale Zone, Ethiopia

Muhammedawel Kaso1*,

Daniel Bogale1, Desalegn Markos

2,

1 Department of Public Health, College of Health Science, Arsi University, Arsi Asella, Ethiopia

2Department of Nursing, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, St. Paulo‟s Hospital, Addis

Ababa, Ethiopia

*corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Ethiopia has one of the highest rates of early marriage in the world, with one in two girls

marrying before her 18th

birthday and one in five girls marrying before the age of 15. Early

marriage means early sexual activity, and therefore early childbearing. Therefore this study

intended to assess the prevalence and consequences of early marriage in Bale Zone.

Community based cross-sectional study design was conducted in 2015, on a sample of 634

reproductive age women. The respondents were drawn from five randomly selected districts of

Bale Zone. The total sample was allocated proportionally to each district based on the number of

reproductive age women it has. Then, data were collected using pre-tested and structured

questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS for windows version 17.0. The

findings of the study were presented and analyzed using descriptive methods i.e. proportion,

mean and standard deviation. In addition to this, bivariate and multivariate analysis was done to

see the relation between variables and 95% CL with AOR was used.

The mean marital age of the study participants was 17.05 (±2.8 SD). The prevalence of early

marriage was 360 (58.7%). About two third, 67.7% of school attendants dropped out school

because of their marriage. As compared to those who attend grade 9 and above, those who did

not attend education and grade 1-8 were 6.81 (AOR= 6.81 95% CI; 1.34-34.49) and 2.41 (AOR=

2.41 95% CI; 1.29-4.51) times more likely to married early respectively. Rural residents were

4.60 (AOR= 4.60 95% CI; 1.80-11.74) times more likely to marry early than their urban resident

counter parts.


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This study revealed the fact that there is higher prevalence of early marriage in the study area.

The more a girl receives education, the less likely she is to engage in early marriage and

therefore districts health bureau, gender office and education bureau in collaboration with other

concerned stakeholders shall emphasize on girls‟ education.

Key words: Early marriage, Reproductive age, Bale zone, Ethiopia

Introduction

Early marriage, also known as child marriage is defined as any marriage carried out below the

age of 18 years [ UNICEF, 2001; Rodgers B, 2012; USAID, 2012] before the girl is physically,

physiologically, and psychologically ready to shoulder the responsibilities of marriage and

childbearing [ Rodgers B, 2012].

Early marriage is a widespread problem in developing countries [ Mekonnen BM et.al, 2009].

Estimates reveal that 1 in 3 girls in the developing world are married before the age of 18 [

USAID, 2012]. It is generally declining worldwide, although a substantial proportion of females

in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia are still married before their 18th birthday [ Lloyd CB,

2005]. Ethiopia has one of the highest rates of early marriage in the world, with one in two girls

marrying before her 18th birthday and one in five girls marrying before the age of 15 [ Central

Statistical Agency (Ethiopia), 2006], particularly in rural areas [ Muthengi E et.al, 2011]. Report

from a part of the country showed the lowest age at marriage in the country, with 46% of girls

marrying by age 15, and virtually all girls married by age 18 [ Central Statistical Agency

(Ethiopia), 2006].

The wider range of developmental activities, including schooling, skill building, sports, and

friendships, are often not part of the adolescent experience of girls because marriage is on their

immediate horizon [ Santhya K.G. et.al, 2010]. Young women who marry early are generally at a

distinct disadvantage within the marriage [ Erulkar A, 2013]. They usually enter marriage poorly

equipped to negotiate adult marital roles, given their limited education, knowledge and skills [

UNICEF, 2011]. Large imbalances of age between husband and wife can compromise a

woman‟s power within the marriage; she may have little involvement in decisions related to

family planning, childbearing and use of maternal and child health services.

95


Early marriage usually means that young girls enter marriage without adequate information

about critical sexual and reproductive health issues, such as sexual intercourse, contraception,

sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy, and childbirth [ Santhya K.G. et.al, 2010]. Older age at

marriage is positively associated with the likelihood that a young woman had discussed

HIV/AIDS, marital fidelity and use of maternal and child health services with her husband [

Erulkar A, 2013]. Child brides are also at greater risk for contracting HIV and other sexually

transmitted diseases due to their inability to reject unsafe sexual practices [ICRW, 2007].

Early marriage means early sexual activity, and therefore early childbearing [ Santhya K.G. et.al,

2010]. Teenage pregnancies put mothers at high risk to many health-related complications and

their newborns to poor birth outcomes [ Mukhopadhyay P et.al, 2010]. Delaying marriage and

childbearing can improve the health of a mother and her child [ USAID, 2012].

Child marriage is a human rights violation and a practice that undermines efforts to promote

sustainable development [ USAID, 2012]. Arranged marriage at an early age is common in most

developing countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular [ Mekbib T-A et.al, 2010]. In the

practice of early marriage, children and teens get married with the consent of their parents,

families and/or guardians [Mekonnen BM et.al, 2009]. The vast majority of marriages were

arranged and very few included consent from the bride [ Erulkar A et.al, 2009]. Young women

are often married to men who are much older, and find themselves in new homes with greater

responsibilities, without much autonomy or decision-making power, and unable to negotiate

sexual experiences within marriage [ Santhya K.G. et.al, 2010]. Older husbands, on the other

hand, have on the average more sexual experience, a greater number of life time sexual partners,

and a greater lifetime risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and AIDS, which

increases the girl‟s vulnerability to these infectious diseases [ Save the Children Norway, 2011].

Education is absolutely fundamental to the human rights of girls in achieving economic

opportunities and it also greatly enhances a country‟s ability for climbing out of generational

poverty [ Rodgers B, 2012]. Adolescent girls married before age 18 have low educational

attainment, earning power, social mobility and they face negative health outcomes including HIV

and sexually transmitted infections [ Mekbib T-A et.al, 2010]. Girls are often forced to terminate

their education [ USAID, 2012]. Failure to enroll in school or early dropout by teenage mothers

affected obstetric care utilization, which in turn will exert direct impact on maternal health status

96


and child survival [ Taffa N, 2004].The major social costs of dropping out of school include

reduced political participation, increased demand for social services, increased crime rates and

poor levels of health [ Shadreck M, 2013].

This paper attempted to assess the prevalence of early marriage and its consequence among

reproductive age women. It is hoped that the findings will help ongoing program and policy

efforts to identify the key factors of early marriage and halts social, economic and health

consequences of early marriage.

Methods

Study setting and period

The study was conducted in Bale zone from April 18, 2015- May 20, 2015. Bale Zone is one of

the 18 rural zones of Oromia Regional State, located in Southeast of Ethiopia. It is the second

largest zone in the region with an area of 67,329.6 km2 that extends from 50 22‟- 80 08‟N

latitudes and 380 41‟- 400 44‟E longitudes and having 14.93% high land, 21.54% mid land and

63.55% low land distribution. Robe is the Zonal capital town. There are 2 town administrative,

10 farmer and 8 agro pastoralist districts in the zone. According to 2007 census Bale Zone has a

total of 1,418,864 populations out of which 697,185 were females. [ Bale Zone Heaalth Office,

2013]. A community based quantitative cross-sectional study design was employed.

Study population

All Bale Zone child bearing age women were the source population for this study. All child

bearing age women found in five randomly selected districts namely, Agarfa district, Dinsho

district, Madawalabu district, Berbere district and Robe town were the study population. The

study subject was randomly selected reproductive age woman from aforementioned districts.

Sample size determination and sampling procedure

Sample size determination

The study employed the single population proportion sample size determination formula. The

following assumptions were considered to calculate the sample size: proportion (p) of early

marriage in the study area was 50%. The logic behind this assumption is: Bale Zone is composed

97


of many ethnic groups and share wider boundary with other regions of the country and with

another country. This condition hinders researcher not to take another proportion of early

marriage as it may not represent the prevalence of early marriage among these ethnic groups.

Ninety five percent CL with 5% margin of error was considered. Based on this assumption, the

calculated sample size was 384 women. Multiplying by 1.5 for design effect and adding 10% for

non-response rate, the final total sample size was 634 child bearing women.

Sampling procedure

First, 20 districts were stratified in to three groups based on their livelihood. The three strata

were agrarian, pastoralist and town administrative districts. The assumption behind this

stratification was; there is difference in accessibility of information and composition of society in

different district. Then, one district from town administrative stratum and two districts from

agrarian and two districts from pastoralist were selected randomly from the list of each stratum.

Finally, the total sample size was proportionally allocated to five districts based on the number of

reproductive women found in each district. Three kebeles were selected from each district after

feasibility issues were addressed through simple random sampling. After the number of women

in that kebele was determined, sample size allocated for each district was allocated for each

kebele. Women in the selected kebele were selected by simple random sampling method. In-case

if a woman selected for interview was not in her home, she was visited on the second day.

Finally she was considered as non-respondent.

In this study, marriage before 18 years of age is considered as early marriage for females. It is

also named as child marriage.

Data collection tool and procedure

Structured tool adopted from relevant literatures that includes all the relevant variables i.e. socio-

demographics and early marriage assessing tool was used to meet the objective of this study after

it was translated in to local language. Eight diploma Nurses who are fluent in speaking Amharic

and Afan Oromo were involved in the data collection process. Four supervisors were recruited

for supervision. Data collectors and supervisors were trained for two days on data collection

tool and collection procedure based on the guide developed beforehand. The principal

investigator and the supervisors were strictly follow the overall activities on daily base to

98


ensure the completeness of questionnaire, to give further clarification and support for data

collectors.

Data quality control

The questionnaire was first prepared in English from different relevant literatures that were used

by others researchers and then, translated to local languages (Amharic and Afan Oromo). Back

translation to English was also made by another person to compare the consistency. The data

collection tool was pretested on 5% of similar population on one of the district which was not

included in the actual study. Findings and experiences from the pre-test was utilized in

modifying the tool. After pretest, Cronbatch‟s Alpha was calculated by using SPSS window

version 17.0 to test internal consistency (reliability) of the item and Cronbatch‟s Alpha greater

than 0.7 was considered as reliable.

Data collectors and supervisors were trained for three days (including practical sessions) on the

study instrument and data collection procedure. Data collectors, supervisors and principal

investigators were checked the collected data for completeness and corrective measures were

made on the spot accordingly.

Data processing, analysis and presentation

The data were checked for completeness and consistencies, then cleaned, coded and entered in to

computer using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) windows version 17.0. Descriptive

statistics i.e. proportion, mean and standard deviation were computed to determine the

prevalence of early marriage and other variables. Additionally, bivariate and multivariate

analyses were carried out to examine the existence of relationship between prevalence of early

marriage and selected determinant factors. By controlling the effects of other variables

(controlling the effects of confounders), the independent effect of each variable was determined

through multiple logistic regression. Variables having P-value ≤ 0.05 on binary logistic

regression was the candidate for multiple logistic regressions. Statistical significance was

declared at P≤0.05, 95% CL with AOR.

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Ethical consideration

The proposal was approved by Ethical Review Committee of College of Medicine and Health

Sciences of Madda Walabu University. In addition to this, letter of permission was obtained from

Bale Zone administrative and health office and from each district administrative and health

office. Verbal consents was obtained from the study subjects after explaining the study

objectives and procedures and their right to refuse not to participate in the study any time they

want were assured. For this very purpose, a one page consent letter was attached to the cover

page of each questionnaire stating about the general objective of the study and issues of

confidentiality.

Results

Out of the total 634 reproductive age women who were planned for this study, 619 were

successfully interviewed that is yielding the response rate of 97.6%.

Socio-demographic characteristics of the study participants

The mean age of the study participants was 30 (± 9.2 SD) years. About sixteen percent of

respondents, 101(16.3%), were between the age group of 15 and 20 years. Muslim was found as

a pre-dominant religion which accounts 366(59.1%) followed by orthodox, 36.5%.

More than one-third of participants, 233 (37.6%), reported that they were educated up to primary

school which is almost as equal as those who were not able to read and write, 229 (37%). One

hundred twenty nine (22.5%) husbands of the study subjects were unable to read and write

whereas 114 (37.3%) of them were secondary and above educational level.

Majority, 540 (87.2%) of the respondents were ethnically Oromo and the vast majority,

574(92.7%), of respondents were married while only 6 (1%) women were single. Large number,

448 (72.4%) of study subjects were house wife and the income level of 159 (34%) participants

was less than 500 Ethiopian birr (Table 1).

100


Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, Bale zone, Ethiopia, May, 2015

Characteristics Frequency Percent

Age of respondent

15-20 101 16.3

20-25 163 26.3

26-30 128 20.7

31-35 57 9.2

36-49 170 27.5

Total 619 100.0

Marital status

Single 6 1

Married 574 92.7

Divorced 25 4

Widowed 14 2.3

Religion

Muslim 366 59.1

Orthodox 226 36.5

Protestant 27 4.4

Ethnicity

Oromo 540 87.2

Amhara 79 12.8

Respondents’ educational status

Unable to read and write 229 37

Read and write 9 1.5

10 education 233 37.6

20

and above education 148 23.9

Husband education

Unable to read and write 129 22.5

Read and write 25 4.4

10 education 206 35.9

101


20 and above education 214 37.3

Respondents’ occupation

House wife 448 72.4

Gov. Employee 33 5.3

Self-employee 10 1.6

Farmer 24 3.9

Merchant 84 13.6

Other 20 3.2

Husband occupation

Farmer 250 43.6

Gov. employee 118 20.6

Self-employee 44 7.7

Merchant 115 20.0

Other 47 8.2

Residence

Rural 129 20.8

Urban 490 79.2

Income

<500 159 34

500-1000 151 32.2

1001-2000 114 24.4

>2000 44 9.4

Marital age and education

In this study, the prevalence of early marriage was 360 (58.7%). The mean marital age of the

study participants was 17.05 (±2.8 SD) year and the mean marital age for their husband was

26.51 (±6.6) year. There was greater than ten years age difference between 200 (32.6%) study

subjects and their husbands. About twenty percent, 125 (20.4%) of the respondents reported that

their husbands have another wife. Two hundred thirty three (38.9%) of the respondents gave

their first birth before 18 years of age. Out of the total married respondents, 192 (31.3%) were

not consented for their marriage (it was arranged marriage). Concerning education, 237 (38.7%)

102


of the study participants were attending school during their marriage. However, out of these

school attendants, 159 (67.7%) quited their education because of their marriage. Only 246

(40.1%) of the respondents were tested for HIV/AIDS with their husbands before their wedding

(Table 2). For those who have children, the mean number of children is 4.1 (±2.9 SD) per

respondents.

Table 2: Prevalence of child marriage and school dropout rate of respondents, Bale Zone,

Ethiopia, May 2015

Characteristics Category Frequency Percentage

Marital age < 15

15-17

18-19

>= 20

82

278

136

117

13.4

45.4

22.2

19.1

Age difference with husbands <= 5

6-10

11-20

> 20

195

218

165

35

31.8

35.6

26.9

5.7

What do you think the

appropriate age for girls to get

married?

< 18 years of age

18 years of age

> 18 years of age

134

226

259

21.6

36.5

41.8

Your age at the time of the first

birth

<= 15 years

16-17 years

18-19 years

>=20 years

39

184

135

215

6.8

32.1

23.6

37.5

Do you know the minimum

marital age of the country?

Yes

No

242

377

39.1

60.9

Did you give consent for your

marriage?

Yes

No

421

192

68.7

31.3

Does your husband have wife

other than you?

Yes

No

125

488

20.4

79.6

Were you tested for HIV/AIDS Yes 246 40.1

103


during your marriage together

with your husband?

No 367 59.9

Did you attend school during

your marriage?

Yes

No

237

276

38.7

61.3

Did you drop school because of

your marriage?

Yes

No

159

78

67.1

32.9

Birth control and obstetric outcome

About fifty percent, 287 (50.1%) of the respondents gave their first birth within the first year of

their marriage. Out of the total respondents who had at least one birth during the study period,

almost half, 311 (50.1%) of them had no plan to give birth immediately after their marriage of

which only 92 (29.6%) of them used family planning (FP). More than half, 374 (61%) of the

study subjects had no information about family planning at the time they married. Concerning

obstetric condition, 307 (53.6%) of the respondents faced prolonged labor on their first birth. In

addition to this, 99 (16%), 52 (8.4%) and 98 (15.8%) of the study subjects encountered abortion,

still birth and infant death respectively (Table 3).

Table 3: Birth control and obstetric outcome of respondents Bale Zone, Ethiopia, May 2015

Characteristics Category Frequency Percent

When did you give your first

birth after your marriage?

Within the first year

within the second year

After the second year

287

172

114

50.1

30

19.9

Did you have information

about FP during your

marriage?

Yes

No

239

374

39

61

Did you have planned to give

birth immediately after your

marriage?

Yes

No

302

311

49.3

50.7

If you did not have planned,

did you use FP?

Yes

No

92

219

29.6

70.4

How long did your first labor Less or equal to 12 hrs 307 53.6

104


140 127

119 120

101 100

80

60

40

20

Husband Opposition Has no information Prohibition by Religion To have many child

about FP

Reasons not to use Family Planning

last Greater than 12 hrs 266 46.4

Did you encounter abortion? Yes

No

99

520

16

84

If you encountered abortion,

how many times?

Once

Twice and above

69

30

69.7

30.3

Did you encounter still birth? Yes

No

52

567

8.4

91.6

If you encountered still birth,

how many times?

Once

Twice and above

43

9

82.7

17.3

Encounter infant death Yes

No

98

521

15.8

84.2

If you encountered infant

death, how many times?

Once

Twice and above

57

41

58.2

41.8

Those who had no plan to give birth immediately after their marriage gave different reasons why

they were not utilizing FP. Husband opposition, lack of information about FP, prohibition by

religion and seeking many children were their reasons (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Reasons given for none use of family planning to delay pregnancy immediately after

marriage, Bale Zone, Ethiopia, May 2015

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Bivariate and multivariate analysis

Some variables were tested for statistical association with early marriage both at bivariate and

multivariate level. Only variables significant at binary logistic regression were kept in multiple

logistic regression model. Accordingly, education, residence, giving consent for marriage and

making HIV/AIDS test with husband before marriage were statistically significant variables both

at bivariate and multivariate level. As compared to those who attend grade 9 and above, those

who did not attend education and grade 1-8 were 6.81 times (AOR = 6.81, CI= 1.34-34.49) and

2.41 times (AOR= 2.41, CI = 1.29-4.51) more likely to married early respectively. Rural

residents were 4.60 times (AOR= 4.60, CI = 1.80-11.74) more likely to marry early than their

urban resident counter parts. On the other hand, respondents who were not to make test for

HIV/AIDS with their husband before their marriage (wedding day) were early married about two

times (AOR = 1.93, CI = 1.05-3.56) more than those tested respondents. Respondents who were

not to be consented for their marriage were early married about three times (AOR = 2.94, CI =

1.36- 6.35) more than their counter parts (Table 4).

Table 4: Factors associated with early marriage among reproductive age women, Bale Zone,

Ethiopia, May 2015

Characteristics Married Crude OR

(95% CI)

Adjusted OR

(95% CI) Before 18

years of age

At 18 years of

age and above

Religion

Muslim 35.2% (128) 64.8% (136) 2.15 (0.96-4.79)

Orthodox 49.8% (111) 50.2% (112) 1.17 (0.52-2.65)

Protestant 53.8% (14) 46.2% (12) 1.00

Education

Has no education 75.5% (179) 24.5% (58) 8.10 (5.01-12.95)*** 6.81 (1.34-34.49)*

Grade 1-8 61% (141) 39% (90) 4.11 (2.62-6.45)*** 2.41 (1.29-4.51)**

Grade 9 and above 27.6% (40) 72.4% (105) 1.00 1.00

Residence

Rural

83.7% (108)

16.3% (21)

4.73 (2.87-7.80)***

4.60 (1.80-11.74)**

106


Urban 52.1% (252) 47.9% (232) 1.00 1.00

Consented for marriage

Yes

No

48.2% (203)

81.8% (157)

51.8% (218)

18.2% (35)

1.00

4.81 (3.18-7.28)***

1.00

2.94 (1.36- 6.35)**

Husband has another

wife

Yes

No

77.6% (97)

53.9% (263)

22.4% (28)

46.1% (225)

2.96 (1.87-4.67)***

1.00

1.46 (0.57- 3.74)

1.00

Drop school

Yes

No

66% (105)

44.9% (35)

34% (54)

55.1% (43)

2.38 (1.37-4.15)**

1.00

1.24 (0.66-2.34)

1.00

Tested for HIV/AIDS

Yes

No

39% (96)

71.9% (264)

61% (150)

28.1% (103)

1.00

4.00 (2.84-5.64)***

1.00

1.93 (1.05-3.56)*

*statistically significant at 0.05, **significant at 0.01, ***significant at 0.001

Discussions

Early marriage affects more than the young girls; the next generation from these girls is also at

higher risk for illness and death [ Nour NM, 2006]. Ethiopia has extremely high rates of child

marriage, particularly in rural areas [ Muthengi E et.al, 2011]. The current study revealed that

there is high prevalence of early marriage. About sixty percent, 58.8% of the study participants

were married before 18 years of age. The figure is varying between urban and rural dwellers. The

finding of this study is almost in agreement with the study conducted in Amhara region [

Pathfinder International Ethiopia, 2006]. The higher prevalence of early marriage is not

surprising as this study included some remote parts of the country where there is strict social and

cultural practices supporting early marriage and no tight legal enforcement to protect child

marriage. In this study, one in three girls had married by the age of 15 which is not in line with

another study in which one in six young women in Ethiopia had married by age 15 [ Erulkar A,

2013]. This variation could result from variation in the study area and period.

This study tried to assess respondents‟ views on marital age; 78.3% of the respondents felt that a

girl‟s ideal marital age is 18 years and above. This finding is in agreement with another study [

107


Erulkar A et.al, 2009]. About 7% of the respondents were less than or equal to 15 years old at the

time they gave their first birth. This finding is a little bigger than the finding from extracted from

Ethiopian demographic and health survey (DHS) data of 2000 [ Taffa N, 2004]. The possible

justification could be the previous result represents wider parts of the country with urban and

rural composition whereas the recent study represents only one zone of the region which might

have higher prevalence of early marriage and child pregnancy. Additionally, there is a strong

association between child marriage and early childbirth, as young married girls often become

pregnant numerous times because of the restriction on reproductive decisions [ Rodgers B,

2012].

About one third of the respondents reported that they were not consented for their marriage

which is better than another study on which only 16% of first marriages was consent given by

the bride [ Erulkar A et.al, 2009]. This difference could be because of difference in the study

subjects in terms of age. Another reason could be difference in social and cultural variation in the

two study areas.

Educating girls is associated with increased age of marriage, decreased family size and increased

child survival [Mekbib T-A et.al, 2010]. The recent study revealed that about forty percent of the

respondents were attending school before they got married. Out of these, about 67% of them

dropped school because of their marriage. This finding is higher than two studies in which 20%

of females dropout school because of early marriage [ Shadreck M, 2013] and 27.7% dropped

out school due to marriage [ Pathfinder International Ethiopia, 2006]. This could be due to social

and cultural variation and accessibility of facilities to attend school while caring a family. On the

other hand, Child brides are rarely allowed to continue their education [ The International Centre

for Missing & Exploited Children, 2013]. In areas where early marriage is rampant, young girls

have their childhood cut short and their social, educational and economic opportunities limited

when they enter into marriage before age 18, often with a stranger and often without their input

or consent [ Erulkar A et.al, 2009]. So that, they have no right to continuous their education once

they get married.

This study revealed that about sixty percent of the study subjects had no information about any

family planning methods when they got married. Out of those who had no information about

family planning, about seventy percent of them were in early married group. About fifty one

108


percent of the respondents had no plan to have child immediately after their marriage. However,

70.4% of the respondents did not use any type of family planning of which 75.3% were early

married women. This condition is also confirmed by the study conducted in India [

Mukhopadhyay P et.al, 2010]. This is possibly because of their lower levels of education,

absence of information about family planning, lack of access and family pressure for

childbearing immediately after marriage.

This harmful traditional practice sets up structural conditions for poverty, domestic violence,

infant and maternal mortality, the spread of disease, and gross gender inequality [ Rodgers B,

2012]. The descriptive result of this study showed that the rate of prolonged labor, abortion, still

birth and infant death are higher among early married than the late married respondents. Another

studies also revealed that stillbirth rate is significantly higher in teenage deliveries [

Mukhopadhyay P et.al, 2010] and babies born to girls in their teens face a 50% higher risk of

dying of before they reach one year than babies born to women in their twenties [ Saxena P et.al,

2010].

Education and residential place were the determinant factors for a girl to married early. As

compared to respondents who attend secondary and above educational level, those who do not

attend education and those who attend primary level of education were about seven times and 2.4

times more likely to get married early respectively. Rural residents are 4.6 time more likely to

face early marriage than urban residents. These factors are also significant in another study [

Erulkar A, 2013]. This is may be due to the fact that rural girls have less chance for information

and education when compared to urban counter parts.

Giving consent about one‟s marriage beforehand is another variable which is positively

associated with early marriage. Respondents who were not to be consented for their marriage

were early married about three times more than their counter parts. Also respondents who were

not to make test for HIV/AIDS with their husband before their marriage (wedding day) were

early married about two times more than those tested respondents. The possible justification

could be most of the marriages performed at earlier age are arranged by the family and females

at this age cannot give decision about her marriage. This also hinders a young girl to ask and

convince her new husband and her parents to be tested together before their wedding.

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Child marriage affects more than the young girls; the next generation is also at higher risk for

illness and death [ Nour NM, 2006]. In the current study early married women were slightly

greater than more likely to suffer from prolonged labor than their counter parts. This might be

due to physical and biological immaturity of the female. None use of contraceptives was

significantly higher among early married mothers compared to lately married mothers to delay

the first pregnancy. This finding is also supported by the study conducted in another studies [

Santhya K.G. et.al, 2010; Mukhopadhyay P et.al, 2010] which is may be early married mothers

have less awareness about FP utilization. Since the study design was cross sectional, temporal

relationship was not identified and recall bias were limitation of this study.

Conclusions and recommendations

This study finds higher prevalence of early marriage in the study area. Educational level and

residence were variables those significantly associated. Programs to delay marriage and support

girls within marriage are critical. Such interventions should be reinforced with community based

social change strategies to address underlying determinants of early marriage. The more

education a girl receives, the less likely she is to marry as a child. Improving access to education

for girls and eliminating gender gaps in education; by district health office, gender office and

education bureau in collaboration with others concerned stakeholders are important strategies in

ending the practice of child marriage.

Acknowledgements

Funding for this study was made possible through grants offered by Madda Walabu University.

The authors are grateful to the respondents who offered their time to participate in this study.

Special thanks go to the research assistants who participated in data collection.

110


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Diseases 12 (11): 1644-1649.

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region. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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Prevalence and Predictors of Exclusive Breastfeeding among Women: A cross Sectional

Study in Hetosa District, Arsi Zone, Ethiopia, 2016

Jemal Mohammed1*

and Gebi Hussen2

1Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, College of Agriculture and

Environmental Science, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia

2Department of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia

Email address:[email protected],[email protected]

*Corresponding author:[email protected]

Abstract

Background- Exclusive breastfeeding is a very essential, long lasting and cost effective

intervention to reduce the morbidity and mortality of infants. However, the prevalence of

exclusive breast feeding in Ethiopia has been expected at 52% which is far less than World

Health Organization recommendations. The Ethiopian national HSDP IV also planned to

increase in the proportion of exclusively breastfeeding infants under the age of six months to

70% by the end of 2015. Consequently, this study aimed to assess the prevalence of exclusive

breastfeeding practices and its associated factors in Hetosa District, Arsi zone, Ethiopia.

Methods: A total of 384 mothers with infant less than 2 years old were involved in this study

between January and June 2016. Trained interviewers collected data from the mothers of the

infants. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted.

Results: Prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding was 55.2 %. Mothers who delivered at healthcare

facility (OR =2.52; 95% CI: 1.55, 4.06), who had antenatal care (OR=2.01; 95% CI: 1.34, 3.03)

and who initiated breastfeeding within the first one hour (OR =3.54; 95% CI: 2.23, 5.58) were

more likely to practice exclusive breastfeeding than their counterparts.

Conclusion and recommendation: A large proportion of children are not exclusively breastfed

during the first 6 months, although what is recommended in infant and young child feeding

guidelines. Maternal factors (age, education, occupation, antenatal care, initiation of


113


breastfeeding, prelacteal and colostrum feeding), information access and delivery place were

independent predictors of exclusive breastfeeding. Improving the mother‟s knowledge,

nutritional counselling, information access, quality of antenatal care service, place of delivery

and avoiding prelacteal feeding practices are very crucial to improve exclusive breastfeeding.

Keywords: Exclusive breastfeeding, Hitosa, Mothers, Infants

Introduction

Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) provides all infants nutritional and fluid needs in the first six

months and is a perfect combination of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and fluids (UNICEF, 2009).

EBF is recommended during the first six months of infants‟ life because it confers many

nutritional and health benefits to the child (UNICEF & WHO, 2008). Exclusively breastfeed

children are at a much lower risk of infections (EFMoH, 2004) and it is the best and cost

effective intervention to reduce infant morbidities and mortalities (UNICEF, 2009). It has been

estimated that EBF coverage of 90% will help to improve child survival (Jones et al., 2003).

Non– exclusive breastfeeding also has long term impact including poor school performance,

reduced productivity, and impaired intellectual and social development. It can also increase the

risk of dying due to diarrhea and pneumonia among 0–5 month old infants by more than twofold

(WHO, 2003; WHO,2009).

Exclusive breastfeeding from birth to six months has the potential to prevent 13% of child

mortality (Indian Academy of Pediatrics, 2010). However, no more than 35% of infants

worldwide are exclusively breastfeeding during the first four months of life (UNICEF, 2015).

Only 38% of children less than six months of age are exclusively breastfed in the developing

countries (EFMoH, 2015) and 21% in WCA (UNICEF, 2015).Global risk assessment of

suboptimal breastfeeding indicates that 96% of all infant deaths in developing countries are

attributable to inappropriate feeding occurring during the first six months of life (Lauer et al.,

2006).

In Ethiopia suboptimal breastfeeding practices are the major cause to an estimated 70,000 infant

deaths per year, 24% of the total infant death annually and which can be significantly prevented

by nutrition interventions such as exclusive breastfeeding (EFMoH, 2015) but only 52% of

children less than six months old are exclusively breastfed (CSA, 2011).Monitoring such

114


problems, the Ethiopian national HSDP IV planned to increase in the proportion of exclusively

breastfeeding infants under the age of six months to 70% by the end of 2015 (EFMoH,2010).

Appropriate breastfeeding and good nutrition for children are also recognized as crucial for

achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, principally the goals connecting with reducing

child mortality. Therefore, assessing the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding practices and its

associated factors is vital to decrease the rates and burden of infant morbidity and mortality.

Methods

A community based cross-sectional study was conducted in Hitosa District,Arsi Zone Ethiopia,

from January - June 2016. Hitosa District is located 164 km to the Southeast of Addis Ababa, the

capital city of Ethiopia. It has 26 kebeles (local administrations). Based on the EDHS 2011, the

District has an estimated population of 131,708 of which 94.3% are resides in rural setting of this

district (CSA, 2011).

Ethical consideration

Ethical clearance was obtained from Arsi University. Supportive letters also obtained from Arsi

Zone Health Bureau & Hetosa District Health office. Informed verbal consent was held from

study participants after explaining the purpose and objective of the study, and the possibility of

withdrawing from the study at any time. The participants were also guaranteed about the

confidentiality of the data.

Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

The sample size was determined by using assumptions for single population proportion formula;

Where

Z = Standard normal variable at 95% confidence level (1.96)

d = Margin of error (0.05)

P = Expected prevalence of non-exclusive breastfeeding (52%) (EDHS, 2011).

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Therefore, the total calculated sample size for this study was 403 mothers having with infant less

than 2 years old.

Eight kebeles (Gonde, Boneya Edoo, Anola, Hata, Shaki Sherera, Deya Debeso , Saro Ankato,

Oda Jila) randomly selected from 26 kebeles of the district. The sample distributed to randomly

selected kebeles by population proportion to size of study participant in each kebele. Therefore,

using list of family with infant less than 2 year which is registered by health extension worker at

the health posts of each kebele, individual mothers having child less than 2 year of age were

selected by using simple random sampling technique.

Figure 1: Schematic frame work of the sampling procedure

Data Collection

Data were collected by face-to-face interview of the selected mother by home visits, using

structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was first prepared in English to Afan Oromo

(local language) and back to English to check its consistency. During the time of data

collection when the selected mother was absent from the home at the time of data collection, a

revisit was done and mothers who absent at second visit considered as non-respondent. Data

on breastfeeding practices, socio-demographic factors, obstetric factors such as antenatal care

visits and health service related practices including pre/postnatal counseling collected by

116


interviewing the mothers of index children. Age of the child was calculated from the date of

birth to the date of the survey. For those with written confirmation, the date of birth was

obtained from vaccination cards. When a mother had no written documents, their child‟s age

was established on the date given by mother/caregiver.

Data collectors and supervisors were trained on data collection tool and its procedures for two

days. The data collected by health extension workers and college students who are fluent in

the local language (Afan Oromo). Data quality was assured through pretesting and cross-

checking the questionnaires daily by supervisors for completeness and consistency.

Statistical analysis

The collected data checked manually for completeness and consistencies, and then it coded

and entered in EPI Info version 3.5.3 and exported to SPSS version 16 for analysis.

Descriptive statistics used to summarize the socio-demographic characteristics‟ of the study

participants and the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding. To identify factors associated with

exclusive breastfeeding practice, binary logistic regression analysis was carried out at two

levels, first bivariate logistic regression was performed to each independent variable with the

outcome variable and those variables with a p value < 0.05 were included in the final model

(multivariate analysis). The strength of association was measured using odds ratio, and 95%

confidence intervals. Statistical significance was declared at a p value < 0.05.

Results

Socio-demographic Characteristics

From the total of 403 mother-infant pairs, 384 responded to the questionnaire (response rate of

95.29%). The age range of mothers included in the study was 15–40 years. Of the total

participants 43 (11.2%) were young mothers aged 15–19 years and 36 (9.4%) were aged 35

and above. The mean (± SD) age of mothers was 26.5 (± 5.5) years. Two hundred seven

(53.9%) of respondents were Muslims by religion. The largest ethnic group was Oromo

(83.9%) followed by Amhara (14.3 %). Pertaining to the educational status , more than two

third 276 (71.9%) of the respondent mothers had attended formal education of which 249 (90.2

%) completed primary school (grade 1 to 8) while 27(9.8%) of mothers attended secondary

school and above. The majorities 360(93.8%) of mothers were married and (66.4%) were

117


unemployed by occupation. Regarding the sex of infants, 198 (51.6 %) were male, whereas the

rest 186 (49.4%) were female (Table1).

Table 1: Socio demographic characteristics of study participants in Hetosa district, 2016

Variable Frequency Percent

Age of the mother

15-19 43 11.2

20-24 98 25.5

25-29 114 29.7

30-34 93 24.2

35+ 36 9.4

Religion

Christian 169 44

Muslim 207 53.9

Other* 8 2.1

Ethnicity

Oromo 322 83.9

Amahara 55 14.3

Other** 7 1.8

Educational status

No education & informal 108 28.1

Primary(1-8) 249 64.8

Secondary & above 27 7

Marital status

Married 360 93.8

Currently single 24 6.2

Occupational status

Unemployed 255 66.4

Employed 129 33.6

Sex of child

Male 198 51.6

Female 186 49.4

*Waaqeffataa **Hadiya, Gurage,Tigray

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Obstetric care, prenatal and postnatal care and access to information

More than two third 261 (68%) of infants were above 6 month. A majority (63.5%) of the

mothers had an antenatal visit during their pregnancy and 140 (57.4%) were counseled

concerning breastfeeding. Among the mothers who received postnatal care 172 (73.8%) were

told about exclusive breastfeeding up to six months of age.

Among mothers who ever breastfed, 68.8 % of mothers initiated breastfeeding within first hour

of delivery and 58.1 % of mothers gave colostrum to their infants. Out of the mothers who did

not give colostrum 60.2 % of them considered that colostrum is bad for their infant's health (it

causes abdominal illness) while 39.8% of them said that is not adapted culturally. With

regards to the mode of delivery, 283 (73.7%) of the mothers delivered normally/by vagina,

and 101 (26.3%) delivered by caesarean section.

Concerning to pre-lacteal feeding, 273 (71.1%) of mothers did not gave pre-lacteal food while

111(28.9%) gave. Out of which ,35.1 % of pre-lacteal foods was butter , 30.6% was rue (tana

adaam) which are in relation with the belief of protecting children against illness while the rest

34.3% were other foods like plain water and milk.

Table 2: Maternal & child health/child feeding & related characteristics of study participants in

Hetosa district, 2016

Variable Frequency Percentage

Age of child

<6 month 123 32

>6 month 261 68

ANC received

Yes 244 63.5

No 140 36.5

Breastfeed counseling during ANC

Yes 140 57.4

No 104 42.6

Postnatal counseling

Yes 233 60.7

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No 151 39.3

Breastfeed counseling during PNC

Yes 172 73.8

No 61 26.2

Initiation of BF in the 1 hr

Yes 264 68.8

No 120 31.2

Colostrum feeding

Yes 223 58.1

No 161 41.9

Place of delivery

Health facility 288 75

Home 96 25

Type of delivery

Vaginal 283 73.7

C/section 101 26.3

Pre-lacteal Feeding

No 273 71.1

Yes 111 28.9

Type of prelacteal foods

Butter 39 35.1

Rue 34 30.6

Others* 38 34.3

* plan water ,milk and water with sugar

Factors associated with EBF

Mothers who are 15-19 years old were less likely to exclusively breastfed than mothers aged 35

and above years (OR= 0.62; 95% CI: 0.56, 0.61). Concerning to occupation, unemployed

mothers were two times more likely to practice EBF than employed mothers (OR=2.16; 95%

CI: 1.02, 4.90). Married mothers were two times more likely to exclusive breast feed compared

to single (OR = 2.16; 95% CI: 1.02,4.90). Mothers who were counseled regarding to

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breastfeeding during antenatal care were above three times more likely to practice exclusive

breastfeeding than mothers who were not counseled (OR=3.37; 95% CI:1.48, 7.64).

Mothers who delivered at healthcare facility and those who had antenatal care exclusively

breastfed their infants more than mothers who delivered at home and those who did not have

antenatal care (OR=2.52; 95% CI:1.55,4.06) and (OR=2.01; 95% CI:1.34,3.03), respectively.

On the other hand, infants from mothers who did not practice prelacteal feeding were almost

three times more likely to be EBF than mothers who practiced(OR =2.86; 95% CI:1.82,4.8).

The multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that age of infant was a predictor of

exclusive breastfeeding practice. Regarding initiation of breastfeeding within the first one hour,

mothers who initiated breastfeeding within the first hour were 3.54 times more likely to practice

exclusively breastfeed than mothers who initiated after one hour (OR =3.54; 95% CI: 2.23,

5.58); Mothers who fed colostrum to their infant were 2.61 times higher to practice EBF than

those who didn't feed colostrum (OR=2.6; 95% CI: 1.72, 3.97).

The in-depth interviews identified that the main barrier of exclusive breastfeeding were mothers

instability to live in Ethiopia. For instance, supervisors expressed that mothers do not consider

breast milk as sufficient and vital:

“…although health extension workers endeavor, many mothers do not practice exclusive

breastfeeding up to six month. Mothers provide infants with some food other than breast milk

the others totally detach from breastfeeding. Going to abroad and making money was pointed

out as a principal reason” [Supervisor, Oda Jila kebele].

Table3: Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals from bivariate and multivariable logistic

regression model predicting exclusive breastfeeding practice in Hetosa district, 2016.

Variable EBF practice

Yes (%)

No (%)

COR[95%CI] AOR[95%CI]

Age of the mother

15-19 20 (46.5) 23(53.5) 0.62 [0.56,0.61] 0.46 [0.41,0.82]

20-24 52 (53.1) 46 (46.9) 0.80 [0.33,1.69] 0.74 [0.23,1.46]

25-29 65 (55.1) 53 (44.9) 0.88 [0.41,1.82] 0.79 [0.54,1.87]

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30-34 54 (58.1) 39 (41.9) 0.94 [0.44,2.06] 0.82 [0.35,2.25]

35+ 21(58.3) 15 (41.7) 1 1

Educational status

No informal education 68 (63) 40 (37) 1 1

Primary(1-8) 129 (51.8) 120 (48.2) 0.63 [0.39,1.01] 0.98 [0.65,2.5]

Secondary & above 15 (55.6) 12 (44.4) 0.74 [0.31,1.75] 0.96 [0.84,1.6]

Occupational status

Unemployed 159 (62.4) 96 (37.6) 2.38 [1.54,3.71] 2.13 [1.54,4.7]

Employed 53 (41.1) 76 (58.9) 1 1

Marital status

Married 203 (56.4) 157 (43.6) 2.16 [1.02,4.90] 2.09 [1.32,5.9]

Currently Single 9 (37.5) 15 (62.5) 1 1

Type of delivery

Vaginal 173 (61.1) 110 (39.9) 1.47 [1.21,2.34] 1.37 [0.97,1.84]

C/section 39 (38.6) 62 (60.4) 1 1

Place of delivery

Health facility 177 (61.5) 111 (38.5) 2.52 [1.55,4.06] 2.54 [1.75,3.85]

Home 35 (36.5) 61 (63.5) 1 1

ANC received

Yes 151 (61.9) 93 (38.1) 2.01[1.34,3.03] 1.72 [1.24,2.93]

No 61 (43.6) 79 (56.4) 1 1

BF counseling during ANC

Yes 104 (74.3) 36 (25.7) 3.37 [1.48,7.64] 3.24 [1.56,6.87]

No 48(46.2) 56(55.8) 1 1

Pre lacteal feeding

No 171(62.6) 102 (37.4) 2.86 [1.82,4.82] 2.43 [1.97,5.05]

Yes 41(36) 70 (64) 1 1

Initiated BF within 1hr

Yes 171 (64.8) 93 (35.2) 3.54 [2.23,5.58] 3.36 [2.0 3,6.78]

No 41 (34.2) 79 (65.8) 1 1

Colostrum feeding

122


Yes 145 (65) 78 (35) 2.61[1.72,3.97 ] 2.23 [1.67,3.89]

No 67 (41.6) 94 (58.4) 1 1

Discussions

On multivariable logistic regression analysis, age of mother, educational status ,marital status,

occupation status, timely initiation of breastfeeding ,type of delivery , colostrum feeding

,prelacteal feeding, place of delivery, antenatal care and breastfeeding counseling during

antenatal care were the independent predictors of exclusive breastfeeding.

Despite what is known about the advantage of exclusive breastfeeding; the practice is not

promising in the study area. More than half, 55.2 % of mothers reported they were exclusively

breastfeeding their infant, which is much lower than Ethiopian HSDP IV target level of 70% by

the end of 2015(EFMoH, 2010) and with the finding from Goba district, south east Ethiopia

(Setegn et al., 2012) which was 71.3%. This finding is higher than the EDHS 2011 52% (CSA,

2011) and with other similar studies done in; Injibara, Awi zone 44% (Taddele et al., 2014),

Ambo 42.3% (Lense et al., 2009), Axum 40.9% (Alemayehu et al.,2014), Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

49.1% (Shafei et al., 2014) , Debre Markos, Ethiopia 60.8% (Mekuria, & Endris, 2015), Mecha

district, North West, Ethiopia 47.13% (Woldie et al., 2014). This result is higher than

worldwide prevalence ; Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana 48% (Danso, J. 2014) and Dare Salaam,

Tanzania 46% (Saka, 2012) , Malaysia 44.3% (Hafizan et al., 2014), Bangladish 36% (Joshi et

al., 2014), Nairobi, Kenya 34% (Muchina et al.,2010) , Egypt 29.9% (Shafei et al., 2014), Sudan

29.5% (Haroun et al., 2008) , Kigoma, Tanzania 58% (Nkala & Msuya, 2011) , and Nigeria

20% (Ajibadde et al., 2013). The possible reason might be due to methodological variations

between studies and differences in socio cultural, health and health service utilization

characteristics between respondents of the referenced areas and the study place.

The multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that maternal employment status was

significant predictors of exclusive breastfeeding. Unemployed mothers practiced exclusive

breast feeding better than employed. This result is similar to studies from: Debre Markos,

Ethiopia (Mekuria & Endris, 2015) ,Awi Zone, Ethiopia (Lense et al., 2009), Malaysia (Hafizan

et al., 2014;Tan, KL.2011), the Netherlands (Gijsbers et al.,2008), Cameroon (Pascale et al.,

123


2007), and Timor-Leste (Khanal et al., 2014). Justification to this could be that less maternity

leave, which makes employed mothers have less opportunity to be together at home, negotiating

exclusive breastfeeding. Such outcomes call for policy arguments to initiate breastfeeding-

friendly work environments, as well as the extension of maternity leave up to 6 months to cheer

mothers to exclusively breastfeed their babies to improve child health outcomes (Gielen et al.,

1991).

This study also revealed that early initiation of breastfeeding within the first one hour was

positively associated with exclusive breastfeeding. This result goes in line with the studies

conducted in Mecha District, North Western Ethiopia and rural Egypt (Woldie et al., 2014).

Logical justification might be that community awareness (63.5 % attended antenatal care

service and 75 % delivered at the healthcare facility).

Married mothers were nearly two times more likely to breastfeed exclusively than single. This

finding is in line with another study done in Ethiopia (Tewodros et al.,2009).This might be

explained by the fact that single mothers lack support given by their husbands and other family

members on infant exclusive feeding practices.

In this study, mothers who fed colostrum were more likely to exclusively breastfeed their

children than those who discarded. The finding was in line with the results from Axum

(Alemayehu et al., 2014). Colostrum feeding assists exclusive breastfeeding because it

encourages the early initiation of breastfeeding which also increases child survival, growth and

development. Thus the possible reason could be the increased knowledge and attitudinal

changes due to the information provided by the antenatal care clinics on infant feeding and the

importance of colostrum. Similarly, mothers who did not practice prelacteal feeding were more

likely to EBF than the respective groups. This might be due to the fact that prelacteal feeding

discourages the infants to take an adequate amount of breast milk with the appropriate

frequency. This will result in poor EBF. Infants who are never received any complements are

most likely to be exclusively fed on breast milk (Declercq et al.,2009; El-Gilany et a.,2011; Al

Ghwass and Ahmed D.2011). Additionally when mothers initiate other food to the newborn

before breastfeeding, it diminishes the infants suckling activity and which in turn influence or

decreases maternal milk secretion.

124


Conclusions and recommendations

A large proportion of infants are not exclusively breastfed during the first 6 months, despite what

is recommended in the national and global infant and young child feeding (IYCF) guidelines.

Age of mother, marital status, occupation of mother, place of delivery, antenatal care,

breastfeeding counseling during antenatal care, timely initiation of breastfeeding, colostrum

feeding and prelacteal feeding were the predictors for exclusive breastfeeding practice.

Every stakeholder must work strictly on promoting exclusive breastfeeding practices. At the

community level, health extension workers must continue educating appropriate practices related

with exclusive breastfeeding, when visiting mothers at home and at diverse contact points. The

employer organizations also should promote exclusive breastfeeding through creating an

enabling, breastfeeding-friendly working environment for employed mothers. Besides, efforts

targeting the allowance of maternity leave up to the first six months after delivery should be

applied to prevent sub-optimal exclusive breastfeeding and associated health problems among

children.

Acknowledgement

First the authors would like to give a great gratitude for Arsi University for its financial support.

The authors also want to thank everyone who gives a helping hand for the successes of this work.

Acronyms

AOR: Adjusted odds ratio; BF: Breastfeeding; CI: Confidence interval; COR: Crude odds ratio;

EBF: Exclusive breastfeeding; EDHS: Ethiopian demographic health survey; HSDP/HSTP:

health sector development/transformation program/plan; SPSS: Statistical package for social

science; WHO: World Health Organization

125


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AJSI Vol. 2, Issue 1 May 2017 Waan Garaa fi Waan Karaa