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Copyright 2009 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved.

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Teacher Resource Bank

GCE Philosophy (2170)

Guidance for Unit PHIL1

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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Philosophy 2170 / Guidance for PHIL1 / Version 1.0

klm Copyright 2009 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved. 1

Guidance for PHIL1

The following guidance reflect experiences of examining PHIL1 in January and June2009 essentially the aim is to clarify where there seem to be gaps in candidatesunderstanding of the issues specified in different themes. The themes are:

Reason and experience

Why should I be governed

Why should I be moral

The idea of God

Persons.

Reason and experience

Broadly, most candidates appear to have a good understanding of the view of mindas a tabula rasa and the view that allideas derive from and are determined by senseexperience. The vast majority are able to give an account based on Locke and/orHume of the role that sense experience plays in furnishing the mind with ideas, andof the view that sense experience also sets a limit to what can be imagined.

However, the specification also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the viewthat claims to know about what exists oroccurs must be justified by senseexperience as an area of study and it is less clear that candidates are able to focuson:

knowledge claims about what exists oroccurs

the extent to which experiencejustifies a knowledge claim.

For example, whereas the view that, a blind man can form no notion of colours or adeaf man of sounds is a knowledge claim about who cant have certain ideas,possessing the idea of, for example, redness is not a knowledge claim. Thosewithout a defect of the organ, those whove gained the idea of redness, are able tomake knowledge claims such as my neighbours front door is painted red which, likeother knowledge claims, may be true or false. One definition of knowledge, thetripartite definition, is that knowledge is justified true belief. The belief that myneighbours front door is painted red might be justified by going next door andlooking or through listening to the testimony of others such as my neighbour whoinforms me that he has just painted his front door red.

Clearly, there are very many knowledge claims, such as the planet Mercury is

heavily cratered; of all the Roman gods Mercury was the most popular amongst theinhabitants of Romes conquered territories; the boiling point of mercury is 357degrees centigrade; Katie Price is mercurial, etc. Whether these claims are true orfalse is determined by experience in some way, through experiment, observation orresearch.

Why is this important? One question from the summer 2009 examination series was:

Critically discuss the view that all knowledge comes from, and is justified by, senseexperience.

Accounts of the role of experience in how we acquire the ideas of whiteness,

unicorns or golden mountains, etc, are not answers to this question. Similarly,references to certain innate capacities such as the ability to acquire language do

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2 Copyright 2009 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved. klm

not show that we have some innate knowledge and do not, therefore, constitute arelevant critical discussion of the view in question.

In short, centres need to ensure that candidates are able to distinguish between, andfocus on when required, questions concerning the acquisition of ideas and conceptsand questions concerning the source and justification of knowledge claims.

Why should I be governed?

Again, most candidates appear to be familiar with and quite knowledgeable aboutsome sections of the specification, particularly:

different views of the condition of mankind in a state of nature

the benefits of political organisation

consent as the basis of political obligation

the concepts of power and authority.

However, the final section of the specified content concerns disobedience anddissent, particularly:

grounds for dissent

the aims, methods and targets of civil disobedience and direct action

how either might be justified.

Evidence from the 2009 examination series suggests that a large number ofcandidates are only able to describe grounds for dissent in terms of Hobbesianand/or Lockean contract theories so that sovereign bodies may be overthrown andreplaced if they fail to protect us or secure our rights.

There are two issues here: grounds for dissent may be wider (eg moral grounds maybe linked to widely held moral standards rather than rights); the activity of dissentingmay not be aimed at replacing a sovereign body.

One question from the summer 2009 examination series was:

Why, if at all, might civil disobedience be justified?

A large number of answers located a response in social contract theories, providingalternative accounts of life in a state of nature, the basis of political obligation and thegrounds we might have for overthrowing the sovereign. Many didnt mention civil

disobedience at all. It is possible, therefore, that this area of the specification is notreceiving sufficient attention.

Following Rawls, we might define civil disobedience as a public, non-violent andconscientious breach of law undertaken with the aim of bringing about a change inlaws or government policies. (Analytical discussions of civil disobedience mightchallenge certain aspects of this definition.) Thus, the suffragette movement, theresistance to British rule in India led by Gandhi, the US civil rights movement led byMartin Luther King Jr, Rosa Parks and others might all be seen as morally justifiableattempts to influence the social, moral and political climate and bring about change.

A minority of candidates referred to these, and other, examples and a useful exercise

might be to get students to research other, more recent, campaigns that might accordwith definitions of civil disobedience.

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As noted, good discussions of civil disobedience might well take issue with certainaspects of Rawls influential account of the characteristics of civil disobedience.Such an approach might also be useful as a means of comparing and contrastingcivil disobedience with other forms of dissent such as conscientious objection ordirect action. It is difficult to formulate a precise distinction between different forms ofdissent: if conscientious objection takes place on a large scale it can begin to looklike civil disobedience; non-violent forms of direct action can also be compared tocivil disobedience. Consequently, candidates may find it easier to concentrate onexamples of direct action which can be contrasted with the alleged characteristics ofcivil disobedience. It has been noted, for example, that the nation state is too largeto bother with some small problems in life such as a local councils decision toclose a village school, or permitting local development that threatens a natural habitator a way of life and too small to tackle global problems such as global warming,world poverty, the activities of transnational companies, etc. Some of these, andother, issues have attracted direct action campaigns from groups who are opposed tothe state, or to a core feature of the state; some groups, or networks, do containdissenters who are militant, who will use violence and who seek rapid change

through methods that are unlikely to appeal to the moral sentiments of the majority.

A useful exercise may be to study a particular example of direct action in depth orto ask groups of students to research the aims and activities of different socialmovements.

Why should I be Moral?

There have been two noticeable tendencies in this theme so far:

A tendency to arrange and juxtapose Aristotle, Hobbes and Kant according to therequirements of the question. Such answers are frequently quite good but tend to

lack an internal critical analysis: given the question of whether or not it pays to bemoral, for example, candidates may describe Aristotles position and say that forAristotle the answer is yes and then describe Kants position and say that for Kantmoral action is divorced from such considerations. No critical analysis of eitherposition is advanced.

A tendency to define morality as altruism and contrast this with self-interest oregoism which, by definition, is seen as non-moral. Typically, candidates who referto egoism are unable to differentiate between ethical egoism and psychologicalegoism and, consequently, critical discussions are often very limited. Morefrequently, approaches of this type are devoid of any philosophical contentwhatsoever so that, for example, actions like theft are invariably seen asself-interested and not stealing, which is seen as moral, is invariably seen asbeing of no benefit at all. Answers like this do not score highly.

As stated in the specification, the purpose of this theme is to examine the nature ofmoral motivation and introduce students to contrasting accounts of the relationshipbetween self-interest, practical reason and morality. These accounts are rooted insocial contract theory, virtue ethics and deontological ethics. At present it wouldseem that a substantial number of candidates are unaware of these traditions inmoral thought.

The essential focus of the theme is on moral motivation and not on what actions aremorally right: that is, assuming for the moment that all of us are able to identify some

actions that we regard as morally right, the issue concerns the connection between

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the rightness of such actions and the reasons or obligations we might have forperforming them. Some reasons that have been proposed are:

1. Because it pays to perform right acts; it is in our interest to perform right acts.This view sometimes finds expression in everyday sayings such as honesty isthe best policy.

2. Because performing right actions contributes to a healthy, well-balanced,personality and, as such, moral actions allow us to flourish as individuals andcontribute to our happiness.

3. Because a society in which people follow certain moral rules is a better, andsafer, society than one in which there are no such rules or in which rules arenot observed. Collectively we make an arrangement that allows us to livetogether harmoniously and enables us to pursue our interests withoutpreventing others from pursuing their interests.

4. Because as humans we have certain sympathies and sentiments. Many of ourstrongest desires are not self-centred: most of us would not find it easy toabuse, hurt or torture another person; at the same time most of us do naturally

respond to the needs of others and are sympathetic when the occasion occurs.5. Because performing moral actions is simply the right thing to do. We tell thetruth because its the right thing to do: we avoid lying to, or stealing from, othersbecause these are wrong actions. The rightness of an action is a good enoughreason for performing the action.

This list incorporates egoism, virtue ethics, a contractual approach, an approachbased on natural sympathies and deontology. Outlines and critical discussions ofthese approaches can be found in most texts aimed at students.

In general, a large number of candidates would benefit from being more informedabout these positions and some candidates, who are quite well-informed, might focus

more on relevantcriticisms (ie criticisms pertinent to the issue of moral motivation).

The idea of God

Candidates appear to be broadly conversant with the requirements of this theme.

The only noteworthy issue arising from responses to questions set in the 2009examination series relates to the section of the specification concerning the view thatthe idea of God is merely a human construction. The majority of candidates wereable to reference Hume, Marx, Feuerbach, Freud, Nietzsche, Dawkins and others inproviding a very full account of the view itself and the vast majority were content toconclude their responses by concurring with the view. Analysis, where present, was

typically one-sided. Few were inclined to examine critically any of the views theyoutlined. Is it really the case that religiosity represents an infantile desire, amongstcommon people, to be assured and protected by an enormously exalted father orthat it is the sigh of the oppressed?

Clearly, one cannot expect Philosophy AS students to engage in sustainedpsychological or sociological discussions of such views but one might reasonablyexpect such views to be questioned.

Persons

Again, candidates appear to be broadly conversant with the requirements of thistheme, although many seem to find some issues challenging.

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The main issue arising from responses to questions set in the 2009 examinationseries relates to the section of the specification concerning the view that the conceptof a person is primitive. Very few students knew what this referred to and struggledto address the question. Primitive, in this context, means that the concept is logicallyprior to other concepts: that is, we have to have the concept of a person first beforewe begin to individuate ourselves as persons (and use the term I), differentiateourselves from others and differentiate between others.

One way of demonstrating why this is so is challenging and making students familiarwith the view is to select a concept such as grief, love, anger, pain etc and askstudents to:

Identify both the physical or behavioural characteristics associated with theconcept andthe psychological or mental characteristics associated with it.

Explain which characteristics they use when deciding (not necessarily correctly) toascribe the concept to others and which characteristics they use when deciding(incorrigibly?) to ascribe the concept to themselves.

Think about when and how they learned the concept.

The idea is that when they applied the concept for the first time possibly learning itfrom the behaviour of others they applied it to a person, a being with both physicaland mental characteristics. So, against the idea that I think therefore I am is the firstcertainty which may lead to doubt about whether there are any other thinkers andto solipsism we have the view that the concepts we ascribe to ourselves areascribed to persons, beings like us who possess both mental and physicalcharacteristics. The concept of a person is, therefore, basic or primitive.

Beyond this, evidence from the 2009 examination series suggests that on top ofcertain gaps in understanding there are issues concerning how to construct a good,

analytical, critical discussion. The following section deals with this.

Answering 30 mark questions at AS level

It is important that students understand the assessment objectives against whichtheir work will be assessed and the style of response appropriate to these objectives.The assessment objectives are:

AO1: Knowledge and UnderstandingAO2: Interpretation, Analysis and ApplicationAO3: Assessment and Evaluation.

Knowledge and Understanding

This assessment objective is not heavily weighted in the essay questions. Out of the30 marks possible, a maximum of 3 marks is awarded for Knowledge andUnderstanding. Mark schemes indicate that 3 marks will be rewarded to responsesthat demonstrate a sound understanding ofsome issues raised by the question,identifying relevant ideas/evidence.

Interpretation, Analysis and Application

This assessment objective is heavily weighted in the essay questions. Out of the 30

marks possible, a maximum of 18 marks may be awarded for Interpretation, Analysisand Application. Mark schemes indicate that top band responses will be

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characterised by clear and closely argued discussions of the issue in question andwhich incorporate a well-developed appreciation focused on some relevantphilosophical issues by applying and analysing a range of points in some detail andwith precision. Thus, responses should demonstrate:

a grasp of some issues raised by the question (Interpretation)

an account of what has been said, or of what might be said, about these issues(Application)

a consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of various points or positions(Analysis).

Assessment and Evaluation

Again, this is important because 9 of the 30 marks are available for this assessmentobjective. Good answers will provide a well thought out appreciation of someproblematic issues raised by the specific demands of the question and which employreasoning to support the conclusion advanced. Thus, following a focused critical

discussion, a position should be advanced in relation to the question asked.

One way of stressing the significance of the assessment criteria and familiarisingstudents with the style of response required is to ask for their employment in anon-philosophical essay of the students choice an essay on anything. Studentscan write about whatever they like butmust demonstrate knowledge andunderstanding of some relevant issues; an analysis of some relevant points and areasoned conclusion. The following essay was written by an AS Philosophy studentduring the first few weeks of the course.

Which is the better colour, orange or blue?

Colour. Defined in the dictionary as A visual attribute of things that results from thelight they emit or transmit or reflect, but the issue here is more than just what colouris, it is what colourdoes. Orange vs Blue. Which is better? Which is most pleasingand desirable with the most pleasurable psychological and physical effects? Whenfaced with this question, most people would side with what they personally preferwithout actually thinking about whythey chose that colour. Here, I am going to delveinto the characteristics of each colour to try to reach a solution to this problem ofsuperiority.

Let us begin with blue. Blue is mainly associated with feelings of calmness, which isalways beneficial when we live in such a stressful world. Blue can cause feelings oftranquillity and peace, and can stimulate restfulness so is used in meditation andmany bedrooms. As there are many different shades of blue, the effects are varied.Rich and strong blues stimulate clarity, and soft blues calm the mind and increaseconcentration. This is advantageous in the work place, which is why most officesand classrooms are painted blue. However, too much blue can be perceived asunemotional, cold and uncaring. This can produce feelings of uneasiness,melancholy and depression.

Blue is the least appetising of all the colours, so is often used by some weight lossschemes who tell dieters to eat off of a blue plate, so can potentially improve health.However, blue does not occur often in natural foods, mainly in artificial foods. Also,

human instinct causes the individual to avoid blue foods because it often means thefood is poisoned or spoiled.

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Blue can be associated with two main miraculous things in the world, the sky and theocean. Although most of the world we see is blue, it can also be connected with ice,winter and mourning.

The worlds favourite colour seems to be blue, but it is mainly preferred by men,meaning that it is not a gender-neutral colour. Also, blue is often associated withnegative things when used in language, such as the blues, blue moon, and sacrbleu!

Now orange. Orange is mainly associated with feelings of excitement andenthusiasm, which would surely add some life to our seemingly dull and monotonouslives. Orange raises the pulse rate and energy levels, giving a sense of vitality to anindividual; this is why orange is used in gyms to raise energy levels. Orange is alsoconnected to warmth, and is a fun, flamboyant colour. The colour orange is acombination of red and yellow, so has the intensity of red but is calmed by yellow,making it a fairly balanced colour. However, this energetic vibe given off by orange,it may cause restlessness and frivolity. Orange is a fairly immature colour because

of its fun characteristic, and may cause irritation if there is too much of it.Orange is connected with many positive things in the world such as oranges,sunrises/sunsets and autumn. However, orange can be mainly connected with fire,which can be beneficial in warming and cooking, but more often than not causesserious damage and pain.

Even though orange is one of the least favourite colours in the world, this may bebecause it is not a common, simple colour like blue. It is however moregender-neutral because it is associated with neither male nor female.

Clearly there are fewer negatives to the colour orange compared to blue. Orangesoverall feel is happy and warm, compared to blues general feel of sadness and

coldness. The main argument against orange is that it can be immature and lacksintelligence, but surely everyone needs a bit of fun in their lives. The argumentagainst blue is that it can cause depression and a sense of loneliness. This isexactly what the world does not need! Also, in a world of increasing cases of obesityand couch potatoes, why would we want a colour that causes feelings of calmness,relaxation and sedation? Surely these effects wouldpromote laziness and thereforeadd to the growing number of obese and unfit individuals. Orange, however, hasbeen shown to stimulate a person, and actually increases the pulse rate and energylevels. If we glorify this colour like we should, we could eventually end up with aworld full of fit, energetic and healthy people.

Within the seasons, blue is connected with winter, and orange autumn. Here I see

no contest between the two: freezing hands, runny noses and colds or cosy jumpersand easy walks in the woods when the leaves are turning orange, red and yellow.Since orange has very weak negative points, and generally causes happiness, it isclearly the best colour. Orange is fun and happy, causes enthusiasm andexcitement, and actually increases body resistance against infections andstrengthens the lungs, pancreas and spleen. In my eyes, there is no doubt thatorange is by far the superior.

Comment

One benefit of doing this early in the course is that given there are no complexphilosophical concepts and arguments to deal with most students are able tocomfortably write a reasonably lengthy response. This response is just over 800words and would be 3-4 sides long if hand-written. (Many students are capable of

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producing responses of a similar length, in timed conditions, in response tophilosophical questions by the end of the course).


The response demonstrates a reasonably sound understanding ofsome issuesraised by the question and does identify some relevant ideas/employ some evidence.

Colour is defined as a visual attribute of things that results from the light theyemit or transmit or reflect. (Later in the course it might be defined as asecondary quality of an object.)

Relevant issues for consideration are identified not in terms of what colourisbut in terms of what colourdoes.

The response is focused on orange and blue (there arent irrelevantreferences to red and green) and on which of the two colours is better.

This is to be decided in terms of which has the most pleasurable psychologicaland physical effects?


Both colours are subjected to some critical scrutiny:

Advantages of Blue Disadvantages of Blue

Blue is associated with feelings ofcalmness, reducing stress by inducingfeelings of tranquillity; it can stimulaterestfulness this is why it is often used inmeditation and in many bedrooms.Positive effects are varied according toshade: rich and strong blues stimulateclarity, and soft blues calm the mind andincrease concentration; this is deemed tobe advantageous in the work place andthis is evidenced by the number of officesand classrooms painted blue.It has positive associations with marvelslike the sky and the ocean.It is the favoured colour of many.

Blue may be perceived as unemotional,cold and uncaring too much of it mayproducemelancholy and depression.It is the least appetizing of all the colours this is evidenced by its use in someweight loss schemes but while this mayhave some advantages (in terms ofhealth) it is suggested that our humaninstinct is to avoid naturally blue foods(poison, mould).It has negative associations with ice,winter, death and mourning.It is mainly preferred by men and is notgender neutral.In language it is often associated withnegative things we speak of having theblues.

Advantages of Orange Disadvantages of Orange

Orange is linked to excitement andenthusiasm and life: it raises the pulserate and provides a sense of vitalitywhich is why it is often used in gyms.It is also associated with warmth, funand flamboyance.Due to its position between red andyellow it has both intensity and calmness:it is a balanced colour.It has positive associations with eg

sunrises/sunsets.It is gender-neutral.

Some characteristics have negativeconnotations: restlessness, frivolity, alack of maturity. Too much of it may beirritating.The association with fire may beconnected to warmth but also to damageand pain.

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Following the points selected for discussion, a reasoned argument is employed toreach a conclusion.

The argument is:

There are fewer disadvantages to orange compared to blue.

Some of the disadvantages of orange are trivial and can be discounted surely everyone needs a bit of fun in their lives.

The disadvantages of blue are serious: we dont want more depression.

We can do without the alleged advantages of blue we need to guard againstfeelings of calmness, relaxation and sedation.

We cant do without the advantages of orange: stimulation and energy.

The position argued, therefore, is:

There is no doubt that orange is the superior colour.

The content here is trivial, and deliberately so. The structure of the essay,however, is important: it qualifies as a top band response to all three of theassessment objectives employed in Philosophy. The important point to stress isthat good Philosophy essays when actual questions are eventually set shouldpossess a similar structure.

For example, consider a question on the June 2009 PHIL1 examination paper:

Why, if at all, might civil disobedience bejustified?How might answers to this question be constructed?


What is required is a response that demonstrates a reasonably sound understandingofsome issues raised by the question and which identifies some relevant ideas/employs some evidence. The relevant issues are:

civil disobedience

justification.

Thus, it would seem to be useful to start with a brief outline of both:

Civil disobedience involves the deliberate violation of a law and is intended todraw attention to an injustice, or perceived injustice, with the intention ofrighting that injustice.

If it can be justified attempts to justify it may draw upon political,socio-economic, legal or moral grounds.

If the rest of the essay is appropriately focused on these issues this should ensurethat all 3 marks for Knowledge and Understanding are awarded. While there are only3 marks available for Knowledge and Understanding, clearly if a student does notunderstand the issue in question there is little chance that the ensuing discussion willbe relevant.

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Relevant points may draw from:

Some elaboration of civil disobedience possibly linked to what some politicalphilosophers have argued. For example:

Civil disobedience is political action; the activities involved are public ratherthan private.

The rule of law itself is not rejected; unlawful conduct is typically non-violent,non-revolutionary, and the group or groups involved are willing to acceptpunishment for infringements of the law.

Given that the purpose is to draw attention to an injustice, dissent should beproportionate to the injustice and the actions of dissenters should notoffend/outrage public opinion.

Lawful attempts to redress the injustice have already been made.

Action should be prudent if there is no possible chance of success it may be

more prudent not to engage in civil disobedience.

These points or some of these points should be linked to justification. Thegrounds of justification might be:

Legal/moral: a law does not uphold individual rights; a law discriminates egrights are not extended to certain groups; a law operates in sectional interestsand fails to treat individuals or groups equally; a law does not comply withwidely held moral standards; a law does not coincide with natural law.

Political/social: a law intrudes into an area of private life such that the state isexceeding its rightful role; lawful attempts at redress have been made; actionsare not outrageous, they comply with a right of dissent and are successful indrawing public attention to an issue.

Examples of civil disobedience may be provided eg civil rights campaigns.

Some analysis of these points should be provided. For example:

Is it necessary that lawful attempts to redress an injustice should be tried first eg the use of normal political channels like writing to an MP? The proportion ofpeople voting in certain sections of the community is low this might suggest alack of faith in the political system.

Violence is typically defined as the unlawful use of force could it be the case that

some targeted violence is likely to be more successful than non-violentdisobedience?

Linked to both of the above points, direct action campaigns avoid mainstreampolitical organisation and at least some of those involved are willing to useviolence, eg against property, to make authorities take notice. While normallyreferred to as new social movements, their aims of protecting the environment,protecting ways of life, protecting and extending rights etc are political.

Arguably, these movements might enjoy greater success because some issuesseem to be too small to be adequately dealt with through normal political channels eg the use of a particular field to trial genetically modified crops or too large fora nation state to deal with eg global warming, the war on terror, poverty andfamine in parts of the world, etc.

How can we know whether an action is likely to be successful or not is this aninvitation to do nothing?

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Might the moral standards of society be such that the majority are not reallybothered by infringements of minority rights? Are majorities really necessary toattempts to force political change?

It isnt being suggested that all of these points should be made remember that thetop band of the mark scheme refers to discussions which show a well-developedappreciation focused on some relevant philosophical issues.


There isnt a right answer rather, following on from their analysis of points selectedfor discussion, students should construct a reasoned argument to support theirconclusion. Thus, any of the following might be argued:

Civil disobedience is never justified: illegal actions undermine the rule of lawgenerally (and this isnt in our interests) or on the grounds that it is hypocriticalto enjoy the benefits afforded by political organisation and object to aspects of

that organisation. Civil disobedience must occasionally be justified: a right of dissent would mean

nothing if it were never exercised; if it were denied in principle then consentwould mean nothing either.

When? Perhaps not if due to certain factors it might lead to serious disorder ora crisis of legitimacy or to a worsening political situation for certain groups.However, in principle, it is justified when a law infringes the liberty and rights ofcitizens, oppresses certain groups, offends against moral standards or,

perhaps, against a higher moral law.

Clearly, in terms of content, this is all more complex than blue and orange but interms of structure it is similar:

What issues are raised?

What positions might be taken and what might be said for or against them?

What conclusion does my discussion lead me to?

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