Asian Asian AmericansAmericans

Where Most Asian Pacific Where Most Asian Pacific Islanders LiveIslanders Live

Asian Asian Pacific Pacific

IslandersIslanders

Chinese Chinese Americans and Americans and

Japanese Japanese AmericansAmericans

Intergroup Relations ContinuumIntergroup Relations Continuum

Government Policies toward the Chinese, Government Policies toward the Chinese, The Chinese came to the U.S. during the 1850s

California gold rush. They encountered racial hostility despite the

overwhelming need for manual labor in the mid-19th century; were often expelled from mining camps, barred from schools and from obtaining citizenship, denied the right to testify in court, and murdered.

After the Civil War, anti-Chinese tensions increased, culminating in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) marked the first The Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) marked the first

time the government enacted a human embargo on a time the government enacted a human embargo on a particular race of laborers.particular race of laborers.

Expelled from various trades and occupations as well Expelled from various trades and occupations as well as from many residential areas, Chinese immigrants as from many residential areas, Chinese immigrants had no choice but to congregate in Chinatowns.had no choice but to congregate in Chinatowns.

Stages in the development of ChinatownsStages in the development of Chinatowns Involuntary choice in response to societal prejudice Involuntary choice in response to societal prejudice

& discrimination& discrimination Defensive insulation as a protection to against Defensive insulation as a protection to against

racist hostilityracist hostility Voluntary segregation as group consciousness Voluntary segregation as group consciousness

emergesemerges Gradual assimilation, a process markedly slowed by Gradual assimilation, a process markedly slowed by

voluntary segregation and social isolationvoluntary segregation and social isolation Congress ended the ban on immigration from China in Congress ended the ban on immigration from China in

1943.1943.

Government Policies Government Policies (continued)(continued)

Government Policies Government Policies (continued)(continued) Most Chinese who came in the 19th century were

farmers, artisans, craftsmen, political exiles, and refugees. Many were sojourners.

Visible because of their race, appearance, and practices, the Chinese aroused both curiosity and suspicion.

A major social problem affecting most Asian A major social problem affecting most Asian immigrants through the 1940s was the shortage in immigrants through the 1940s was the shortage in the U.S. was the shortage of Asian women.the U.S. was the shortage of Asian women. After World War II a greater number of Asian After World War II a greater number of Asian

women migrated to the U.S.women migrated to the U.S. The Chinese built much of the western part of the

transcontinental railroad and cost the railroad company 2/3 as whites to maintain.

Government Policies towards the JapaneseGovernment Policies towards the Japanese

The Japanese arrived in 1868 and settled in the western states where anti-Chinese sentiment was still strong.

Early immigrants entered manufacturing and service occupations. Hostility from union members, resenting Asians’ willingness to work for lower wages and under poor conditions, produced inevitable clashes.

Most Japanese entered agricultural work, first as laborers and eventually as tenant farmers or small landholders; other Japanese became contract gardeners on the estates of whites.

The Immigration Law of 1924 denied entry to specifically barred the Japanese because it denied entry to all aliens ineligible for citizenship.

Government Policies Government Policies (continued)(continued) By the late 19th century, labor supply exceeded

demand, and laborers, union organizers, and demagogues mounted racist denunciation of Chinese “competition.”

1941 - Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor; and the subsequent war led to removal of 110,000 Japanese from their homes and placement in “relocation centers.” Traditional Anti-Asian sentiment, opposition to

Japanese agricultural business, and “fear” of the Japanese were underlining reasons for this expulsion.

National security was the primary justification. The Supreme Court case, Endo v. United

States, brought an end to this forcible detention.

Evacuation CampsEvacuation Camps

Government Policies Government Policies (continued)(continued) The Evacuation Claims Act (1948) brought

token repayment of about 10% of actual Japanese American losses.

Civil Rights Act, signed by Ronald Reagan, authorized reparation amounting to $20,000 tax free for surviving Japanese.

The Filipino1898 - the Philippines became a U.S. possession;

Filipinos came to the U.S. with a unique status as U.S. nationals there was no quota restriction on their entry until 1935.

1908 - The Gentlemen’s Agreement curtailed Japanese emigration; the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association recruited Filipinos to work the plantations.

Government Policies Government Policies (continued)(continued) Of every 100 Filipinos coming to California between

1920-1929, 93 were male. 1924 - California growers, faced with the loss of

Mexican labor because of quota restrictions in the Immigration Act recruited Filipinos.

Many young Filipino males went to urban areas seeking jobs. Discrimination, along with lack of education and job skills, resulted in their getting only low-paying domestic and personal service work in hotels, restaurants, other businesses, and residences.

Feeling that they were being exploited by their employers, Filipinos often joined unions (or formed their own unions when denied membership in existing unions) and went on strike, intensifying management resentment. Ironically, the union hierarchy also disliked them and later joined in efforts to bar Filipinos from the U.S.

Since the Immigration Act of 1965, Filipino immigration has been quite high. About half of all Filipino Americans speak only

English. The largest concentration of Filipinos outside the

Philippines is in Hawaii.

The Koreans

Koreans arrived in substantial numbers after the Korean War and the Refugee Relief Act in 1953. The immigration law of 1965 opened the doors to Asian immigrants even more.

Almost 70% of the Korean American population identifies itself as Christian.

Nationwide, the 12% self-employment rate of Korean Americans is the highest of all ethnic or racial groups, including whites.

Ethnic churches make important contributions to Korean immigrant communities, serving more than religious purpose. The church becomes a social organization, providing religious and ethnic fellowship, a personal community, and a family atmosphere within an alien and urban environment. Korean American churches serve as a focal point for enhancing ethnic identity.

Koreans: Middleman MinorityKoreans: Middleman Minority The 12 percent self-employment rate of Korean

Americans is the highest of all groups. In cities and exurbs, small Korean family-operated businesses are especially conspicuous.

In Los Angeles, they dominate the retail wig and liquor business. In D.C., Philadelphia, New York City, and Chicago, they are visible as grocery-store owners and fruit-stand operators. Others work as employees in these small stores and firms, which penetrate the black and Hispanic markets.

Because they occupy an intermediate position in trade and commerce between producer and consumer, Koreans are a middleman minority.

As the Vietnam War ended, Vietnamese refugees As the Vietnam War ended, Vietnamese refugees entered the U.S.entered the U.S. Immigration from Vietnam remains significant.Immigration from Vietnam remains significant.

Contributing to Vietnamese immigrants’ adjustment Contributing to Vietnamese immigrants’ adjustment problem was the federal government’s policy of problem was the federal government’s policy of scattering the refugees throughout the U.S.scattering the refugees throughout the U.S.

Vietnamese have lower labor force participation, and Vietnamese have lower labor force participation, and median family incomes, higher poverty and median family incomes, higher poverty and unemployment rates, and disproportionate unemployment rates, and disproportionate representation in low-skill, low-paying jobs, than representation in low-skill, low-paying jobs, than most East Asian groups.most East Asian groups.

The Vietnamese

Other Southeast AsiansOther Southeast Asians

Of the approximately 1 million Indochinese Of the approximately 1 million Indochinese Americans identified by the 2000 censusAmericans identified by the 2000 census 24% were from Laos24% were from Laos 15% were from Cambodia (Kampuchea)15% were from Cambodia (Kampuchea) 61% were from Vietnam61% were from Vietnam 111,000 were from Thailand (formerly Siam)111,000 were from Thailand (formerly Siam)

Asian American Political Activist and Interest GroupsAsian American Political Activist and Interest Groups

Asian American Federation of Union Members (AAFUM)Asian American Federation of Union Members (AAFUM)

Asian American for Equality (AAFE)Asian American for Equality (AAFE)

Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund (AALDEF)Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund (AALDEF)

Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA)Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA)

Asian American Women for Equality (AWE)Asian American Women for Equality (AWE)

Asian Pacific American Coalition for Presidential Appointments (APACPA)Asian Pacific American Coalition for Presidential Appointments (APACPA)

Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance (APALA)Asian Pacific American Labor Alliance (APALA)

Asian Pacific American Voters Project (APAVP)Asian Pacific American Voters Project (APAVP)

Asian Pacific Labor Alliance (APLA)Asian Pacific Labor Alliance (APLA)

Asian Pacific Voter Registration Project (APVRP)Asian Pacific Voter Registration Project (APVRP)

Asian Immigrant Women Advocates (AIWA)Asian Immigrant Women Advocates (AIWA)

Association of Indians in America Association of Indians in America

Chinese Progressive Association (CPA)Chinese Progressive Association (CPA)

Chinese Americans United for Self-Empowerment (CAUSE)Chinese Americans United for Self-Empowerment (CAUSE)

Chinese American Voter Education Committee (CAVEC)Chinese American Voter Education Committee (CAVEC)

Asian American Political Activist and Interest GroupsAsian American Political Activist and Interest Groups

Chinatown Voter Education AllianceChinatown Voter Education AllianceChinese American Citizens AllianceChinese American Citizens AllianceCoalition of Asian Pacific Americans for Fair Representation (CAPAFR)Coalition of Asian Pacific Americans for Fair Representation (CAPAFR)Japanese Americans Citizens League (JACL)Japanese Americans Citizens League (JACL)Korean American Coalition (KAC)Korean American Coalition (KAC)Korean Immigrant Women AdvocatesKorean Immigrant Women Advocates (KIWA)Little Tokyo’s People’s Rights Organization (LTPRO)Little Tokyo’s People’s Rights Organization (LTPRO) National Council of Japanese American Redress (NCJAR)National Council of Japanese American Redress (NCJAR)Organization of Chinese Americans (OCA)Organization of Chinese Americans (OCA)

Inter Ethnic Cooperation in Political ActivismInter Ethnic Cooperation in Political Activism

Black Korean Alliance (BKA)Black Korean Alliance (BKA)

Latino and Asian Coalition to Improve our Neighborhood (LACTION)Latino and Asian Coalition to Improve our Neighborhood (LACTION)

Naturalization Rates by Years in U.S. and by Race, 1990Naturalization Rates by Years in U.S. and by Race, 1990

All immigrants (in thousands)All immigrants (in thousands) 17,612 17,612

Naturalization rates by years in U.S.Naturalization rates by years in U.S.0-10 years0-10 years 15%15%11-20 years11-20 years 454521 or more years21 or more years 7474

Naturalization rates by RaceNaturalization rates by RaceNon-Hispanic WhitesNon-Hispanic Whites 63%63%BlacksBlacks 3636LatinosLatinos 2828AsiansAsians 4343

The naturalization rates did not decrease for Asian immigrants between 1970 to 1990

U.S.U.S. Supreme Court Cases affecting Americans of Asian OriginSupreme Court Cases affecting Americans of Asian Origin

Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886)Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886)

Takao Ozama v. United States, 260 U.S. 178 (1922)Takao Ozama v. United States, 260 U.S. 178 (1922)

United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, 261 U.S. 204 (1923)United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, 261 U.S. 204 (1923)

Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943)Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943)

Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1994)Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1994)

Oyama v. State of California, 332 U.S. 633 (1948)Oyama v. State of California, 332 U.S. 633 (1948) - California Alien Land Law of 1913 and 1920

Social Indicators About Asian-Americans(in percentage)