Grammar GuidePRESENT SIMPLE TENSEUse thepresent simplefor:statements of fact and general statementsExample:Marcoworksfor a publishing company.habitual or repeated actionsExample:Hetakesthe bus to work every day.PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSEUse thepresent progressivefor:continuing actionsExample:Yokois takinga marketing class this semester.actions in progress at the moment you're speakingExample:Right now sheis workingon a marketing campaign.future actions that are planned or definitely intended.Example:Sheis presentingthe campaign next week.PRESENT PROGRESSIVE VS. PRESENT SIMPLE TENSEUse thepresent simplefor:statements of fact and general statementsExample:Marcoworksfor a publishing company.habitual or repeated actionsExample:Hetakesthe bus to work every day.Use thepresent progressivefor:continuing actionsExample:Yokois takinga marketing class this semester.actions in progressExample:Right now sheis workingon a marketing campaign.future actions that are planned or definitely intended.Example:Sheis presentingthe campaign next week.PRESENT PERFECT TENSEUse thepresent perfect tense:to talk about activities that began in the past but continue in thepresent, especially with expressions of time beginning withfororsinceExample:Marcohas workedfor a publishing companyfor more than tenyears/sinceI've knownhim. (he still works there)to emphasize the fact of completing a task or activity.Example:Haveyoufinishedthe report? I'm still waiting to see it.to say that something took place more than once or repeatedly rightup to the present.Example:Mr. Weisshas goneto the same dry cleaner for years.when a past event is relevant in the presentExample:I've soldthe house, and now I have to move.together with words indicatingeverorneverExample:I've never beento Prague.Haveyouever gonethere?SIMPLE PAST TENSEUse thesimple past tense:to talk about activities that began and ended in the past.Example:Marcoworkedfor a publishing company. (he no longer does)with expressions indicating finished periods or specific momentsin the past, e.g.yesterday, two days/weeks/years ago, lastmonth, in 2002,etc.Example:Wewentto Brazilsix years ago.in story-telling.Example:Once upon a time, thereliveda beautiful princess.PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSEUse thepast progressive tense:to talk about an activity that was in progress, taking placeat a specific moment in the past.Example:Whatwereyoudoinglast night around 8?

Iwas watchingthe soccer match on TV.to describe a "background" action, something that was happeningwhen another action took place.Example:I was explainingthe theory of relativity when the bell rangand the students got up and left.to emphasize the duration of an action.Example:Iwas calling youall nightlast night, but you were out.SIMPLE PAST VS. PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSEWhen these tenses are used together, use thesimple pastto describe a single event that took place at a given moment in the past, and use thepast progressive tenseto describe an on-going or background action.Example:Iwas watchingthe game on TV when youcalled.SIMPLE PAST VS. PRESENT PERFECT TENSEThepresent perfectis used whenever an event or action has relevance or continues in the present. However, when an event or action belongs wholly in the past, you should use thesimple past. Compare:Example:Have you ever seena tennis match at the Australian Open?Did you seethe Agassi-Federer match last night?Example:My new boyfriendhas writtenme so many letters; my oldboyfriendwroteonly oneto say goodbye.PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSEThepresent perfect progressiveis used to express how long an action has been going on. It is often used together withforandsince.Example:Ihave been sittinghere waitingfor you for 45 minutes!Ihave been playingtennissince I was a kid.PRESENT PERFECT VS. PRESENT PERFECTPROGRESSIVE TENSEThepresent perfectis used to express repeated actions in the past, while thepresent perfect progressiveis used to emphasize the duration of an action.Example:Ihave waitedfor you many times. You are always late!Ihave been sittinghere waiting for you for 45 minutes!Thepresent perfectfocuses on the results or the completion of an action, while thepresent perfect progressivefocuses on the action itself. Compare:Example:Ihave been studyingEnglish grammar all morning.Ihave learnedhow to use the present perfect.PAST PERFECT TENSEThepast perfectis used to express an action that took place before another action or moment in the past.Example:By the time we arrived at the theater, the moviehadalreadysoldout.PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSEThepast perfect progressiveis used to express an action that was going on before another action or moment in the past.Example:By the time I started working on the project, the othershadalreadybeen workingon it for weeks!HABITUAL PAST ("USED TO")Thehabitual pastexpresses an action that took place repeatedly in the past. It is often used to talk about past habits.Example:When I was in college, Iused tosleep late all the time. Now Iwake up at 7 AM every day.GERUND (-ING FORM OF VERBS)Thegerundis a verb form that functions as a noun and refers to the act of doing something.Example:I enjoyreading,goingto the movies, andsurfingthe Net. I don'tlikeplayingsports.PRESENT PARTICIPLE (-ING FORM OF VERBS)Thepresent participleis a verb form that functions as:an adjective.Example:You can study theremaininglessons on your own.an adverb.Example:He asked for the car keyspleading.a reduced relative clause.Example:The man [who is]walkingacross the campus is myHistory professor.INFINITIVE ("TO" FORM OF VERBS)Theinfinitiveis the form of a verb that you'll find in a dictionary it hasn't been changed to reflect when an action is taking place or who is performing the action, e.g.to go, to read, etc. Theinfinitivecan also be used as a noun, much like the gerund, to refer to the action itself.Example:I liketo go shoppingon the weekends.To erris human,to forgivedivine.GERUND VS. INFINITIVESome verbs can be followed by thegerundorthe infinitive. The most common include:begin, start, continue, like, love, hate.Example:Iliketo go shoppingon the weekends. I alsolikegoingto the movies.Some verbs must be followed by thegerund, not the infinitive. The most common include:enjoy, finish, stop, keep, consider, think about, discuss,andtalk about.Example:Ienjoyreadingthe Sunday paper over coffee.Some verbs must be followed by theinfinitive, not the gerund. The most common include:want, need, would like, would love, hope, expect, promise, plan, mean, decide, offer, agree, forget,andtry.Example:Iagreedto goto the conference, only after my companypromisedto payfor it.

PRONOUNSApronounis a word that takes the place of a noun.Asubject pronountakes the place of the subject:Example:Petergave Emma a present. >Hegave Emma a present.Adirect object pronountakes the place of the direct object.Example:Peter gave Emmaa present. > Peter gaveitto Emma.Anindirect object pronountakes the place of the indirect object.Example:Peter gaveEmmaa present. > Peter gavehera present.When thedirect object pronounand theindirect object pronounappear together, thedirect object pronouncomes first.Example:Peter gave Emma a present. > Peter gaveit to her.Apossessive pronounshows ownership or belonging.Example: The present isEmma's. > The present ishers.Areflexive pronounshows that the subject is also the object of an action.Example:Emmais looking atherselfin the mirror.It can also be used for emphasis.Example:I don't need your help. I can paint the housemyself.The pronouns in English are:SUBJECTDIRECT OBJECTINDIRECT OBJECTPOSSESSIVEREFLEXIVE

Imeto/for meminemyself

you (sg.)youto/for youyoursyourself

hehimto/for himhishimself

sheherto/for herhersherself

weusto/for usoursourselves

you (pl.)youto/for youyoursyourselves

theythemto/for themtheirsthemselves

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVEThecomparativeis used when you compare one person, thing, idea or action to another. Thesuperlativeis used when comparing one member or part of a group to the group as a whole.-+

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-est-eras ... as-er-est

leastless thanmore thanmost

not as

Example:Jessie drivesfaster thanHelga. She'sthe fastestdriver I know.Maria isless interestedin the opera than Natasha, but Steve isthe least interestedof the group.This restaurant isnot as goodas I expected.There are some irregular comparatives:good/wellbetterbest

bad/badlyworseworst

farfarther/furtherfarthest/furthest

ADVERBSAnadverbis a word that describesverbs,adjectives, and otheradverbs. It is used to describe the nature of an action or a quality. Most adverbs in English end in-ly, such asquickly, pleasantly, etc.Example:Michael drivesslowly. He is avery slowdriver. Hevery rarelydrives over 55 mph.There are specialadverbs of timewhich expresshow oftensomething happens:neverrarelysometimesoftenusuallyalways

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FUTURE TENSEThefuture tensecan be formed in two ways:will(orshallin British English) + simple infinitive or "be going to" + infinitive. The two forms have the same meaning when they are used to make general predictions about the future.Example:Jasonwill callyou tomorrow about the picnic. Mariais going tocomeas well.Howeverbe going tois more commonly used when talking about an already existing plan or intention, whilewill/shallis more commonly used to show readiness to do something.Example:I want to learn Japanese, so I'mgoing to signup for a class. Don'tworry about the homework assignments. I'llhelp you.Note that thepresent progressiveis often used to talk about a future event, especially when there is a definite intention or specific time, or when you want to add emphasis to your statement.Example:It's definite!I'm buyingthe red car tomorrow! Then we'realldrivingdown to the shore.Note that thesimple presentcan also be used to talk about the future event, especially with verbs such asbegin, start, finish, open, close, arrive, leave, depart, be,and in reference to a schedule or timetable.Example:Wearrivetomorrow on the 8:45 bus from Cambridge.FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSEUse thefuture progressive tense(will/shall + be + -ing)to indicate that an action or event will be in progress at a given time in the future.Example:This time tomorrow, I'll be drivingto the beach in my newsports car.or simply to refer to fixed future events or those which do not involve the idea of personal intent.Example:One of our Customer Service representativeswill be contactingyou regarding your reservation.FUTURE PERFECT TENSEUse thefuture perfect tenseto indicate an action or event that will have taken place before another action or moment in the future.Example:By the time you read this letter, Iwillalreadyhave reachedToronto.FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSEThefuture perfect progressive tenseindicates how long an action will have been going on by the time another action or moment in the future arrives.Example:By the time you get to the beach, Iwill have been enjoyingthesand and sun for a week!CONDITIONAL AND "IF" CLAUSESTheconditionalis often used with "if" clauses to talk about certain conditions and their desired consequences and outcomes.Thesimple conditionalis used to express the consequences of an action or state.Example:If I have enough money, I will buy a car and drive to the shore.(Situation: I may or may not have enough money.)If you take the subway, you'll get there faster.Thehabitual conditionalis used to express typical actions and their associated consequences.Example:If it rains, I always bring an umbrella.Theunreal conditionalis used to express a condition and its desired consequences, knowing that it is unlikely for this outcome to occur.Example:If I had enough money, Iwouldbuy a car and Icoulddriveto the beach.(Situation: I don't have enough money.)Thepast unreal conditionalconditional is used to express a condition in the past and the consequences had this condition been met (but it wasn't).Example:If I had had enough money, Iwould have boughta car and Icould have drivento the beach.(Situation: I didn't have enoughmoney.)SUBJUNCTIVEThesubjunctiveis often used in "that" clauses following words or phrases that stress importance, such asdemand that, insist that, suggest that, advise that, it is important that, it is essential that, it is necessary that,etc.Example:In many cultures it is acceptable to arrive at a meeting 15minutes late. In the United States,it is expected that you beon time.MODAL VERBSModal verbsgenerally express the speaker's feelings about an action. They can express:probability

certainpossibleprobabletheoretically possibleimpossible

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will/shallmay/mightshould/would/couldcanwill not/shall not

Example:The new designwillbe ready tomorrow. Wemaybe able topresent it to the client next week. The clientshouldbe pleased,even though new clientscanoften be difficult to please.Wewill notmiss this opportunity!obligation

strong obligationrecommendationwillingnessno obligation

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must/need/have toshould/had betterwill/shallneed not

Example:In order to impress the new client, wemustcome up with a goodcampaign, whichshouldbe creative and cutting-edge. Iwillwork on putting together the presentation. The rest of youneednotworry about this. Just do your job as well as you can.permission, withcan, mayandmightExample:CanI ask you a question?MayI use your pen?MightI close the window? It's cool in here.advice, withshouldExample:Youshouldcall the doctor if you still have a fever tomorrow.PAST MODALSTo express obligation, permission, advice, etc. in the past, use a modal verb followed byhave+ past participle.Example:Youshould have calledthe doctor if you had a fever.PASSIVE VOICEIn thepassive voice, subject and object switch places. It is usedto place emphasis on the passive subjectExample:This chair was built by my grandfather, but that one was boughtat a flea market.when the subject of an action is unknown, not important, or general ("people", "they", etc.)Example:Germanis spokenhere.The schoolwas builtin 1923.The staffwas invitedto a holiday dinner.Note that only verbs that can take an object can appear in the passive, and that when a verb has both a direct and an indirect object, either of them may become the subject of the passive sentence.Example:active:Amy gave me a book.passive:I was given a book by Amy.passive:A book was given to me by Amy.The agent of the action, when mentioned, is introduced by the prepositionby.Example:The schoolwas builtin 1983 by the town of Greenhill.PHRASAL VERBSPhrasal verbsare "compound" verbs that consist of a verb and a preposition. The verb+preposition combination has a different meaning from the verb alone, e.g.to call off(to cancel),to give up(to surrender),to hand in(to submit),to go over(to review). Phrasal verbs can be:separable, meaning that an object can come between the verb and the preposition, and an object pronounmustcome between the verb and the preposition.Example:We had tocalloffthe meeting. = We had tocallthe meetingoff.We had tocallitoff.inseparable, meaning that nothing can come between the verb and the preposition.Example:Let'sgo overthe report one more time before we hand it in.CAUSATIVEThecausativeuses the verbshave, get,andmaketo express the idea of one person getting another person to do something.Example:We're tryingto get the kids to brushtheir teeth every night. Wehave tomake them understandwhy this is important. So,we'rehaving my brother, a dentist,explainit to them tomorrow.Note thathaveandmakeare followed by the simple infinitive form.Getis followed by the infinitive with "to".COMMANDS/IMPERATIVETheimperativeorcommand formconsists of the simple infinitive and is used:to give directionsExample:Gostraight for three blocks, thenturnright at the traffic light.to give ordersExample:Beon time for this meeting. Our general manager will be there!!to make requests, together with the wordpleaseExample:Please turnthe radiodown.For added emphasis, add "do" before the imperative.Example:Do come in.When referring to yourself or a group of you, the imperative is formed with the verb "let" + object pronoun + infinitive.Example:Let me seethe paper.... OK,let's goto the 8:00 show.DETERMINERSDeterminershelp describe or identify nouns as known or unknown, near or far, but they are not adjectives. Determiners can be:articles(indefinite or definite)Example:I went intothestore you recommended, but I couldn't findapair of linen pants.demonstratives(thisorthat)Example:Thiscoffee shop is great, butthat oneover there is awful.possessives(my, your, his, her, its, our, their)Example:I lovemynew car!Note that articles, demonstratives, and possessives are never used together with the same noun.QUESTIONSQuestions can be used:to ask if a statement is true (simple, yes/no questions):Example:Are you going to the game on Saturday?to ask for specific information (wh-questions), using questions words likewho, when, where, why, how:Example:Whenare you going to the game?Whoare you going with?Whereare your seats?to ask for confirmation of a statement (tag questions). Note that the tag question is negative when the statement is affirmative, and vice versa.Example:You're goingto the game on Saturday,aren't you?You're not goingto the game on Saturday,are you?REPORTED SPEECHReported speechis used to communicate what someone said without using a direct quotation. It usually involves changes in pronoun and tense. In most cases, verbs are shifted one tense further into the past. Note thatwillchanges towould, andcantocould.Example:Marta said, "You lost weight!" --> Martasaid I had lostweight.Raul said, "I can't speak German." --> Raulsaid that he couldn'tspeak German.REPORTED COMMANDSCommandsare often reported using an (object +) infinitive. This structure does not work, however, following the verbssayorsuggested. The verbstell,order, orinstructare commonly used in this scenario.Example:Marta said, "Lose weight!" --> Martatold me to loseweight.Raul instructed the class, "Speak German!" --> Raulinstructed usto speakGerman.RELATIVE CLAUSESRelative clausesare clauses that begin with question words (who, which, where, when, how) orthatand are used to give describe or give more information about people or things. There are two types of relative clauses:Essential relative clausesprovide information that is necessary to identify a noun.Example:This is the reportthat we have to read for the meeting.The manwho is crossing the street is my boss.Non-essential relative clausessimply provide additional information about a noun.Example:Mark Twain wroteHuckleberry Finn,which was banned inmany schools.This is my friend Eduardo,who just flew in from Mexico City.COUNT NOUNSCount nouns, as the name suggests, refers to nouns which name separate objects or ideas and can literally be counted, i.e. in front of which you can place a number, such asfive people,a dozen apples,a hundred trees, etc.When talking about quantities, with count nouns you can use numbers, indefinite articles, and the quantifiersfewormany.Example:They served ustoo few potatoes.Last month I receivedfour lettersfrom my friend, but this month Ihaven't receivedmany.MASS NOUNSMass nounscannot be counted. They usually refer to materials, liquids, abstract qualities, or groups of things without clear boundaries. You cannot place a number directly in front of a mass noun, and most mass nouns do not have a plural form.When talking about quantities, with mass nouns uselittleormuch.Example:They served ustoo much rice.I've hadlittle newsfrom my friend this month.COUNT VS. MASS NOUNSWhen talking about quantities, with count nouns you can use numbers, indefinite articles, and the quantifiersfewormany; with mass nouns uselittleormuch.Example:They served ustoo much riceandtoo few potatoes.Last month I receivedmany lettersfrom my friend, but this monthI've hadlittle news.Note that nouns with the same meaning can be considered count nouns in one language and mass nouns in another. For example,hairis considered a mass noun in English (My hairdresser cut off too much hair this time.), but its a countable noun in Italian (Devo tagliarmi i capelli. Lit. I have to cut my hairs.).SHORT ANSWERSShort answersare used to avoid unnecessarily repeating all of the information that was included in a question.Short answerstypically consist of just the subject and the auxiliary verb ordowhen there is no auxiliary verb. Note that the contracted formI'mcannot be used in short answers.Example: Is she happy living in Europe?Yes, she is./No, she isn't.

Tom Walsh works in production, right?Yes, he does./No, hedoesn't.EXCLAMATIONSExclamationsare statements made to express strong emotions or reactions. The most common types of exclamations are formed withhoworwhat:Exclamations with how:how+ adjective/adverb (+ subject + verb)Example:Chocolate ice cream!How delicious!Exclamations with what: what (a/an) (+ adjective ) + nounExample:What luck! What a great watch!And it's on sale!CONTRACTIONSTwo words that very often appear together are sometimes shortened and combined into a single form. This usually happens with nouns/pronouns and auxiliary verbs (I am = I'm; I have = I've) or with auxiliary verbs andnot(is not = isn't; can not = can't).Example:She'sso happy living in Japan, I doubtshe'llever move backto the States.Iwouldn'twant to pry, but Idon'tunderstand why she left.CONJUNCTIONSConjunctionsare words used to combine two or more sentences/clauses. The most basic conjunctions areand,but, andor. Other common conjunctions includebecause, although, yet, so, and all the relative pronouns. Note that you generally use only one conjunction to join two clauses (exceptand soorand yet).Example:She's happy living in Japan,butshe misses the United States.AlthoughI would prefer to go to your party, I have to go toan office party instead.-EVERWORDSAdding-everto a question word gives the idea of "any", e.g.whoever(=any person),however(= in any way),whenever(= at any time), etc.Example:Whereverthey are, I'm sure they're thinking of you.Whoeverbroke into my apartment was only interested in myelectronic equipment.