2 : 1: ........................................................................1.1 .......................................1.2 : Adam Smith ................................................1.3 Adam Smith: .............................................................1.4 : .....................................1.4.1 H ........................................................................1.4.2 : ...........................1.4.3 :H ( ) ....................................................................................1.5 .................................................................. 2: 2.1 () .....................2.2 ............................................................................................2.3 , ..................2.4 , .......................................................................2.5 ........................................2.6 , : .................................................... : 3: ........................................................................................................................3.1. - ......................................................................................3.2. ...........................................................................................................3.2.1. .......................................................................................................3.2.2. .......................3.2.3. , ; ............1.3. ...............................................3.3.1. .................................3.3.2. ; .......................................................3.3.3. ....................................................................................1.4. ............................................................................3.4.1. .............................................................3.4.2. ........3.4.3. , , ..................................................................................3.5. .......................................................................3.5.1. .................3.5.2. ..................3.5.3. 3.5.4. ................................................................................................3.5.5. ................................................................................................3.5.6. .................................................1.6. ........................................................................3.6.1. ......................................................3.6.2. 3.6.3. , , ...........................................................................3.7. ........................................................3.7.1. ...............................................................................................................3.7.2. ................................................................................................3.7.3. ................................................................................................1.8. ...........................................................................................3.8.1. ..........................................................3.8.2. .........................................................3.9. ...........................3.9.1. .......................................................................................................................3.9.2. ....................................................................................................3.9.3. ...................................................................................................... 4: .................................................4.1. ............................................................4.1.1. ..........................................................................4.1.2. ..........................................................................4.2. ...................................................4.2.1. ...............................................................4.2.2. , .......................................................................................................................4.2.3. .........................4.2.4. 4.2.5. ..........44.3. ....................................................4.3.1. ....................................................4.3.2. ..4.3.3. ....................................................................4.3.4. ...............................4.3.5. ; ...................................................................4.3.6. ..................................................................................................4.3.7. ; ......4.3.8. ; .....................................4.3.9. , ..........4.3.10. ...................................................................4.3.11. - .......................................4.3.12. - Engel .......4.3.13. - ........................................................................4.3.14. - ..................................................................................................4.3.15. ..4.3.16. , Giffen ...........................................................................................4.3.17. ................................................................................. 5: ...5.1. .................................................................................5.1.1. ......................................5.1.2. ..............5.1.3. .........................................5.1.4. ...................................5.1.5. , .................................5.1.6. ....................................5.1.7. ...............................5.1.8. ...................................5.1.9. .....................5.1.10. ..............5.1.11. ............................................................................................5.1.12. ..............................................................5.2. .................................................................5.2.1. .....................................................................................................5.2.2. ............................5.2.3. ...................................................................................................5.2.4. ......................................................................................5.2.5. ..................................................................................................5.2.6. .......................5.2.7. ........5.2.8. ..............5.2.9. .........................................................................................................5.2.10. ......................5.2.11. .......5.2.12. , ....................5.2.13. ....................................................................................................... 6: ......................................................... +++6.1. ..............................................................................................6.2. .......................................................................6.2.1. .......................5.2.2. , ....................................................................................6.2.3. ......................6.2.4. P = MR s SAC ;......................................................................................................6.2.5. ............................................................. +++6.3 ........................................................................................6.3.1. 6.3.2. ................................................................................................6.3.3. .........................6.4. ............................................................6.4.1. ............6.4.2. .....................................................................................................................6.5. ......................................................................................6.5.1. ......................................6.5.2. ................................................................................................ : 7. .....................................67.1 ...........................................................7.1.1. .........................................7.1.2. ...................................................7.1.3. .........................................................7.2. ....................................................................7.2.1. ..............................7.2.1.1. ...................................................................7.2.1.2. ...........................................7.2.2. ................................7.2.3. ..............................................................................7.2.3.1. ...............................................7.2.3.2. - .................7.2.3.3. ...................................................7.2.4. ...................................7.2.5. ............................................................7.2.5.1. ............................................................7.2.5.2. ....................................................7.2.6. ...................7.2.7. ...........................................7.2.8. ..............................................................................7.2.8.1. ................................................7.2.8.2. .........................7.2.8.3. ............................ 8. .........................................................8.1 ..........................................................8.1.1. ........................8.1.2. ........................................................................8.1.3. ............................................................8.1.4 ...............................................................8.2 .....................................................8.3 ...................................................... 9. ........9.1 ..............................................................................9.2 ...................................................................................9.2.1 .............................................................9.2.2 .........................................................................9.2.2.1 ..................................................9.2.2.2 ..................................................9.2.2.3 ..........................................9.3 ...............................................................9.3.1 . ............................................................9.3.2. .....................................................................9.3.2.1 - .............................................9.3.2.2. ...............9.3.2.3 ..........................9.3.2.3. ...........................................................9.3.2.3. .......................................................9.3.2.3. .........................................................9.3.2.3.. ................9.3.3 .....................................................................9.3.4 ..............................................................................9.3.5 ............................................ 10. IS - LM........................................................10.1 ................................................................................................10.2. IS........................................................................................10.2.1 .................................................................10.2.2 IS..............................................................10.2.3 IS.........................................................10.2.4 IS................................................................. IS............................................................10.2.5 IS.........................................................10.3. LM........................................................................................10.3.1 LM..........................................10.3.2 LM....................................................................................10.3.3 LM..................................................................10.3.4 ...........................................................10.4. IS - LM............................................................................10.4.1 ...............................10.4.2 IS -LM..........................................10.5. .............................................10.5.1 ...................................................................10.5.1.1 ...............................................10.5.1.2 ..........................................10.5.1.3 ..................................................10.5.2 ........................................................................10.5.3 .....................................................................10.6. ................................................................... : ............ 11: ...........................................11.1 ........................................................................................11.2 .................................................11.3 ........................................................11.4 ...................................11.5 ...............................................................11.6 : ...................................11.7 ........................................................11.7.1 , ...........11. 7.2 , .............................................................11.8 12: ......................................812.1 ....................................12.2 ( ), ( ) () .........................................................12.3 ...........................................................................12.3.1 ...........................................................12.3.2 ...12.4 ;12.4.1 12.4.2 - ..............12.4.3 ......................................................12.4.4 ............................12.5 ( ) ; .............................................12.5.1 .............................................12.5.2 : ................................................................. 13: - .......................................................................13.1 - 13.1.1 - 13.1.2 , , , .................................................13.2 - ..................................13.3 ....................................13.3.1 von Bortkiewicz ....13.3.2 ....13.4 .................................... 14: H ...........................................................14.1 ...........................................................................................................14.2 .......................................................14.3 (1900-1937) ....................................................................14.3.1 ..14.3.2 - ...............................................14.3.3 . ....................................................................14.3.4 : ......14.3.5 .............................................14.3.6 ..14.3.7 .............................................14.4 ....................................................................14.4.1 ..................14.4.2 ....................................................................14.4.3 ...................14.5 ............................................................................................. : ............................................ ......................................................................10 : 1 1.1 1 () () . , ., ( ) . , , , , , , . , . , . , , ( ), , ( ). ( , ). , , , , , .. , , ( , , ..) , ( , ,...), , (, ). , - . , 1 , , -- -- , ( ). , , . : .12 ( ) . ( ) , , , ( - ), , ( ) ( 1977, 1978, 1983). ( ) : ( ) . , , , ( , , ..), (), , ( ) . , ( ) ( ). (1564-1642), , ( ) . 17 , 1789, () . () () . .1.2 : Adam Smith , ; Adam Smith (1723-1790), , 1776 2. Smith (2An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Smith, , . ) :) , . , , ( , Smith), . , ( , ), , .) , , ( ), ( : to command, Smith). Smith , : , , , ( ), , , ( ) , : ( ) . AdamSmith ( ) .3 , , , .4 , , (Smith 2000) , , , () ( , ) () . , I.viii.15 15 8 1 () .3 H (Smith 2000I.v.1) , , , (standard) . , (Smith 2000 I.v.7). To , , : , [ , ] (1133b17-18).4 , . , 14 , : ( ) (, ) ( ) .5 Smith , , ( ), . () , , , ( ) .6 , , , . David Ricardo(1772-1823), Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), James Mill (1773-1836), Sismonde deSismondi (1773-1842) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), . - : , , ( ) , , ( ). , , (Smith 2000, I.vi.1).5 , (Smith 2000, I.vi.7).6 , Smith , , , Tableau Economique Quesnay. , - , . , William Petty(1623 - 1687), Dudley North (1641 - 1691), John Locke (1631 -1704), Nicholas Barbon (1640 - 1698),David Hume (1711 - 1776), James Steuart (1712 - 1780) Franois Quesnay (1694 - 1774) J. Turgot (1727-1781), , Adam Smith. , ( ) , (Anikin 1974,Galbraith 1987, Schumpeter 1994, Screpanti & Zamagni 1995)., . Adam Smith ( ) ( ) . - ( .. ) , . , , Smith, (Smith 2000, I.ii.5, 28). , homo oeconomicus, . , , , , (Smith 2000,I.iv. 1 37). , , Smith ( ) , , . , , , ( ) (Moss 1996,Parts IV & VI). ,7 , . , , , , Smith, ( - ) Ricardo. . .8 7 , . : , jus naturale, () () , () () , (...) : (...) , (1989, 199-202 & 240-241). . (1995).8 Smith : , , , , , ' . , , , . , . , , , , 16 , ( , , , ) ( --.. , --, ). Smith , , , : , ( ), , , , .91.3 Adam Smith: Smith ( ) . , ( , Smith) , , .10 , () . , . . , ' , (Smith 2000, IV.ii.9).9 Adam Smith Fr. Quesnay: .Quesnay [ ] , . , , , . , , . , (Smith 2000, IV.ix.28).10 , , , . , ( ). . Smith I.vii.7 .: ,, , . (...) , (Smith I.vii.15)., . , , -, ( ), , , . , , .11 , () , .12 , , , -, - ( ) ( ) ( )., . , , , - . ( ), : ( ), ( ) ( ).13 Smith , , , . , , , , - . ( 11 , , , . , . , (Smith 2000, I.vi.5).12 , , . (...) (Smith 2000, I.viii.6&7).13 H , , , , . (...) , , . , , (Smith 2000, I.vi.17).18, ): , , .14 , J.-B. Say (1767-1832) , , . : , . , . . Smith . ( , ) , ,15 ( ). , , - , ,16 ( ) ( ): (.. ) , ( , , .) , ( , ..) , , 14 . (...), , , , , (...) , , , , (Smith 2000, I.vii.1&4).15 (Smith 2000, I.viii.15). ( Smith 2000, I.viii.16., ), , Smith, (Smith 2000, I.viii.39).16 James Steuart (1712-1780), : ( Rubin 1994, 91). Steuart , , , .. () , , . ( ) (), . . ( , , , ..) , , , , ..., ( ) . , ( ) ( ), ( ), ( ) ( , ), ( ) ( ). ( - , , .. , ...). ( ) . Pierro Sraffa, N.1717 Sraffa , :P1= [x11*P1](1+r) + L1*w (1)P2= [x21*P1+ x22*P2](1+r) + L2*w (2), P1 , x11 ( ..) (1) , w , r ( ) L1 ( -) . P2 , x22 x21 . L2 . 4 (P1, P2, r, w). ( ,x02, ---- ), : w = x02*P2(3), . , P1 P2 ( P1 = 1 (4)), (, 2) 1. 2 n . n+2 , ( , ) . Sraffa , , . . (. 1985, 1992, Kliman 1999). ( ) , , . , , .., , .201.4 : 1.4.1 H ( , , ), ( / ) , Adam Smith. David Ricardo Smith. ( , , ).18 Ricardo . Ricardo, , () (, / 1989, 111). H ( , ).19 , (, 1992, 1). Ricardo , , . , , ( ). , : Ricardo, ( ), : , . ( -- ), 18 , , , (, / 1989, 99).19 (...) , , , . , (, 1992, . 1). (Ricardo 1992, 89).20 Ricardo , , , . . (.. ) . ( ) , , , (2) . () ( 10% ). , ( ) (, ). , (r). : - - 0,1r1= ---------------, + : - - 0,2r2= --------------- 2 + r1>r2. (r1= r2= r), (2>1= ), . (. Rubin 1994,333-344, 390-397).[ . , , , . 20 Carey, , , 1848, Ricardo , , ( Rubin 1994, . 416).22 : = + ( -) = + + ( . 2). - / . . 21: , , , (...) [farmer]. , . ; : - . , , : , , - , . , , , , , , ( 2000: .vi. 11). ; - ( ), , , (1979: 383), , , , .. . [ ] : -- -- , , , , , . [ ] 1) ( , 2) , , , . , , ( 1979: 384). , , : , , . , . . 21 . ( 1979: 389). , , . . . ( / ) . , , , ( ) , ]. , , J.-B. Say, Th. Malthus, Fr. Bastiat (1801-1850) , Smith, , . , Malthus, , ( ) (. 3 ), J.-B. Say ( Bastiat) , (, , , , . ), -- --22 .1.4.2 : Say, () . ( Rubin 1994, 386).23 Say , ( , , ). 22 Utility: . . , . . , utility, , .23 Ricardo, : 2.000 , , 2.000 (utility) , ; () ( 1992, 266).24 , . () . -- -- (marginal utility), . 1870, : Theory of Political Economy Stanley Jevons (1871),Grundsaetze der Volkswirtschaftslehre Carl Menger (1871) Elements dEconomie Politique pure Leon Walras (1874). (Roll 1989, Moss 1996 Parts IV &V, 1988, marginal utility --. 2, . 33, 242. Heinrich 1991, 57-88).24 , , . ( Say) ( , , ).25 () , () () , ( ): ( , ) , , , ( ) . , , ( ), .2624 Jevons 1862, 1866, Internet (. Jevons 1866).25 , , , . ( - - ) ( ) . , , , ( , , ..) . , (. ).26 Kuhn (Kuhn, 1962). , , : Adam Smith, , , . - , ( ), , 19 Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). Bentham: , . () ,, , , , () (principle ofutility) , () (utility) , (benefit), , , , () ( ) , , , (Bentham 1948, 1-2). Jevons -- (...) (...) (...) .27 , , - . ( ) : ( ) . Smith Ricardo ( ) , ( ) , () .28 , , , , , , , .27 A true theory of economy can only be attained by going back to the great springs of human action --the feelings of pleasure and pain. (...) Economy investigates the relations of ordinary pleasures and pains(...), and it has a wide enough field of inquiry. (...) A second part of the theory proceeds from feelings tothe useful objects or utilities by which pleasurable feeling is increased or pain removed (Jevons 1866).28 , Adam Smith ( : utility) . : (utility) . , . , , 26 , , : - . , . () , , . (). , , , . , , , . Bentham: () , (Bentham 1948, 3). (Bentham, The Theory ofLegislation, 1931, 144, Rubin 1994, 301). , : , () . , , ,, . () , (Fr.Bastiat, Harmonies economiques, 1850, 1988,228-229). , (Stanley Jevons, The Theory of PoliticalEconomy, & 1871, 21, 1988, 229). () (Bhm-Bawerk,Kapital und Kapitalzins, II. Positive Theorie des Kapitals, 1912, 507, 1988, 254).29 , . , : , (Smith 2000, I.iv.13). (Smith 2000, I.iv.14).29 N, , John-Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Bentham. Dissertations and Disquisitions (1867, 334), Bentham . ( Roll 1989,355). .. 19 .30 , , . , , . John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946). Keynes, , ( -) , . ( ) ( ), ( Say), . . .1.4.3 : H ( )O Karl Marx (1818-1883) 1857-67, .31 30 , ( , ), Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), Francis Ysidro Edgeworth(1845-1926) Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) M. , Eugen von Bhm-Bawerk (1852-1914) Friedrich von Wieser (1851-1926) , Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) ,Knut Wicksell (1851-1926) Gustav Cassel (1866-1944) , Irving Fisher (1867-1947) John Bates Clark (1847-1938) . . Robbins 1998, 258-320. Screpanti/Zamagni 1995, 145-211.31 , :1) 1857-58, 1939-41 ( , 1976, BastiatHarmonies conomiques, Paris 1851) Grundrisse der Kritik der Politischen konomie ( , 1989, MEGA 1976).2) H , 1859 (MEGA1980).3) 1861-63, , 1905-10 . 1861-63 1982 (MEGA1976-, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1976, 1982, 1985).4) 1863-67, , 6 , 1969 (MEGA 1988, 1992,Marx 1969, 1983). 1863-67 .28 , , , ( ). , (. ). , , , () . , , 1840. - . () , , , , , . 1845, Feuerbach, : . , (6 Feuerbach, / ..., . 47). : , , , , (MEW 3, 38). , , ( 1990, 194). , , : (/ 1965, . 29). , ( ) -( , , ----, ).32 , 5) . , 1867. (1872-73), , . ( 1872-75). ( 1863-67), 1884 1895 . (. MEGA 1983, 1978, 1978-, 1979, 1991). ( ) , 1976, , MEGA (Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe). , 1989 - , (. Hecker 1998).32 H , (M 1993, 34). (, , ) , . ( ) , ( ), , , . , , , . , , , . , , , , , , ( ) : , .., , (MEW3, 26). . , , (MEW 3, 46. . Althusser1972, 1978 & 1983, 1977). ( ), - , . , , . : , ( ). , , : , ( , -- -- ) , . ( ) ( ), . () ( ) . () : (M 1963, 14). ( 1988, 227).30 (...) [ ] , (/ 1965, . 45). , , : .33 ( ), , . . ( ), - ( ), , . -, : . ( )., , - (-) . , , ... , ( ), , , . - , , - . , - , . , , ( ) -. , ( ), - . 33 , : - , ...( ) . , , , .34 , - , ( ), , ( , . 4 ). . , , - , . : , , (. 11 & 12 ).1.5 , , , . , ( ) , . , ( ) , . , , .34 , , ( 1991, 73).32 2 , , , (. 1976).2.1 () . , ) ) , 35 , , . , , . , - . , , () , . , , () , . ( - ) , , ( ), . . ( ). , :, , , , ( , ..), , , , . , , 35 ( , .. ), , 20. . . , , . , ( ), , ( , ), .36 ( ) . , . , , , , . , , , . , ( ).2.2 , (.. x , y , z , w , ...), ( ). , . , ( ) , : , , . , , , , .2.3 , . 1.000 . (.. 36 . , ( , , ), .34), , ( .. , ), . 1.000 , : ( ..), , .. , . , : .. , , , . , . ,, . .. 7% , 3% ... , ( ) . ( , ..) . (, ..) . ( ), (.. ). .2.4 , 1.000 , , . , , ( : , , ) : () ( ), . , 1.000 : ( ) .37 ( ). 600 . , . . 1.000 ( ), . . . 1.000 , () 100 , 900 . , 600 .2.5 , , . ( ) () . , . , , . , ( ) , , . , . , , . . 1.000 37 , (...) ( ). ( , ) (= ) (). . 3 .36 . , ( x , ). , 1.000, . .2.6 , : () , . , , ( , ). , ( ) ( , ) . , . ( ) (.. ) () . ( ) . . : , ( ), , , . , . ( ) . , . , , , 38 . . ( ) , ( ). , : , . , , , ( ), ( ). , , , ( ) , ( ) . , , () . ( ) , ( ) .39 ( ). , . , ( ) , . .38 , ( ). , , ( ) , .39 , , (), ( ) . , , , . , .38 : 40 3: 3.1. - 1 , Say, , , , , : . . , , Say. : . , , ( 1979: 265-6). 1870 , , ( , . 4)40 Jevons, Menger, Walras, . (1988: 72). . ( , ) ( ) . . , - ( 1988: 74).40 (...) , , ,, , , , . , , . , . , ... ( 1991: 16-17)., , , . -: , , ( 1988: 75). ; , -, : -- . , , . , , , .. , "" ( 1988: 75, . . .)., ( ) , , , , - , () - (), .41 , . , , ( 1988: 77). , , ; -: , , , , , ( 1988: 78)., : , . , , ( 1988: 238-9).41 . : - , , -- , , , , ( , ). ( 1988: 77).42, , . Walras, , ,.: , (...), , , , , , (Walras 1984: 65). , , .42 , , ( ) , . , (), , , - . ( ) , ( ) ( -, , ..), . ( , , ), , , ., , , , ( ) , , . , , , ( ) . . : , (), , , , . ( ) 42 ( 1988: 79-83). , , , , , , , . , , , ( , ) . , , . , , , , , .43 ; , , , , . ; ; . - . , . , . , , , . , , . : , , , (. 1988: 41-70).43 , , , . ( ) , ... ( / 1999: 128) . .443.2. 3.2.1. . ( ) : () () () . , , : .. , , .. , (- - ) .. , , ..44 , , . () . , , , ( ), ( ), , ( ) ,45 .46 , , - .4744 " ", , . ( , A. Smith, " " ( 1993: 135).45 ( ). ( ) . , . ( 1997: 65).46 ( ) ... [ ] (Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 256) . . ... [] []. ( 1997: 93). .47 . , . . , , , ( , , 48), . , , , , . .3.2.2. ., , , .. : , , , . ,, .. , , : . . , , , .. : ( ) , , , , (. 5). , , () ( ). 3.1 . , , ( , , ) . : ,... , , (Chacholiades 1990-: 27).48 , (. Begg / Fischer /Dornbusch 1998: 27).46( ) ( ), . ., y3. (). 0x1 , , x1, y2 ( ). x2, x1x2, y1, y1y2 (). , x2x3, x3, . x3 , , ( ). , . , . 3.1. . () ( ) ( ) . , , , (y1-y2)/(x2-x1) = -y1y2/x1x2 = -y/x. . -y/x, (yx), yx = -(y/x) = |y/x|. y3 y2 y1 0 x1x2x3 yx = -(dy/dx). () . yx (= |y/x|). . , , , , . , . y/x, B, . , . , , .49 : . . . , . , . . , . 3.2. , ( ). ( ). .49 ; (. Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch 1998: 37), 5. . Chacholiades 1990-: 147-52.48 3.2. , ., , , , , ., .() () 3.3. 3.3 . () , . . () , . . , () . . , , 0 0 x1x2 0 y2 y1 0 0, . . , y1, x1 x2 ( ) , x1, y1 y2 ( ). , , ; . , . , , , . , , , . , .3.2.3. , ;, . ( ) . ; . Adam Smith.50 ; , . .50 : , , , , , . , , , . , . , , , , . . , , ( Rubin 1994: 222).503.3. 3.3.1. , . , , , . ; , , , ; . : . , 51 .3.3.2. ; . , . () . ., . . . : , . : ( ) .. ().52, , . . . . , . 51 (Chacholiades 1990-: 32).52 " " ( "", , , , ). . " " , ... , , .. . " " ( ) ( 1993: 129). , , .. .: , . ( ). . . . . () . () .: . . . : () .533.3.3. , , , , , , . . ( , ) . ( ) (). , , . ( ) ( ) .53 ... , , : . , ( " "). . , , [], ( ), " ", - ( 1998: 147-8). , .52 . , , , ( ).54 , , , . , , . ( 6) :. . .. . .. super.. . , , .3.4. .3.4.1. .54 . ( ). , ( ). , ( ). . () . , , .... , . , . , .... ,... (Chacholiades 1990-: 35). . . ; . .: . . , , , .. , . .. .3.4.2. , . . , . , . . , D, 3.4 . 3.4. , (.. . , P) (.. , Q) .5555 Alfred Marshall (1842-1924). . , Marshall ( ) () (Chacholiades 1990-: 38). , , , 0 Q1 Q2 Q P P1 P2D54 P ( )56 Q, . P1 P2, Q1 Q2. ;. , , , .. , .3.4.3. , , ., () . , , .57 3.5. , , .. P = f(Q), ( P Q ) Q = g(P) ( 1976: 82). , , , , dP/dQ ( 1976: 99). , [ ] ()/( ), P/Q (Chacholiades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dQ/dP, Q P .59 () Q/P () P1 P2 () Q1 Q2 , :D =dQdP*PQ11., , . 3.7.59 Q/P P 0 Q P :dQ/dP ( / 1997: 79). . (= dQ/dP) /. 0, (= P/Q) /0. : = (/) * (/0) = /0. ( ), . 0 = . 3.7. : /0 (= /) = ( ) =/ = /. = 0, :D = /0 = 0/ = /. , , , . , .3.5.3. () . 3.8. 0 QAP P P1 P2ABD 0 Q1 Q2 Q60 . 3.8, ( 0P1 0Q1) 0P1 * 0Q1, 0Q1P1. ( 0P2 0Q2) 0P2 * 0Q2, 0Q2BP2. , . : () , . , ( )., ( ). , . () () , (). (D > 1, ). () () , (). (D < 1, )., , , . (D = 1, ).6060 , , ( ) ( ) ( D > 1) ( D = 1) ( D < 1) (. Chacholiades1990-: 54-6). ( ) . , , () Q = a - bP. P0 Q0 , :Q0* P0 = (a - bP0) * P0 = aP0- bP0. :d(aP0- bP0)/dP0 = 0 a - 2bP0 = 0 P0 = a/2b. P* = (P1 + P2)/2, . :P* = P0. P1 P2 ( Q1 Q2).:D = {[(a - bP1) - (a - bP2)] / (P1- P2)} * {(P1+ P2) / [(a - bP1) + (a - bP2)]} = = -b * {[(P1 + P2) / [(2a - b * (P1 + P2)]}. D = -1 -b * {[(P1 + P2) / [(-2a - b * (P1 + P2)]} = -1 b * (P1 + P2) = 2a - b * (P1 + P2) 3.5.4. , , ( ) ., , . 3.9 . ( ) , . ( ) . . ( ) . ( ) . . . 3.9., , . , . , (, ).61 2b * (P1 + P2) = 2a b * (P1 + P2) = a (P1 + P2) = a/b (P1 + P2) / 2 = a/2b P* = a/2b = P0.61 QD = 1/P, QD P .: dQ/dP = -1/P2 P/Q = P : 1/P = P2. : D = -1/P2 * P2 = -1. , : 1/ * = 1. , , Q P.0 Q PD = 0D =62 , , , :. , , . 3.10. 3.10. P1. , , D D., :DA =dQdP*PQ11> DB =dQdP*PQ12. , , , , dQ/dP., , , P/Q.P1/Q1 = 0P1/0Q1 P1/Q2 = 0P1/0Q2, 0Q1 < 0Q2, P1/Q1 > P1/Q2. dQ/dP P1/Q1 > P1/Q2, , , :DA > DB.. , , , . 3.11. D D, , D D., :DA =[dQdP] *PQ11> D =[dQdP] *PQ11. P P1 A BD D0 Q1 Q2 Q P/Q = P1/Q1, D D , [dQ/dP], D, [dQ/dP], D. 3.11. D Q1A/Q1. D Q1A/Q1. , , , . Q1B < Q1, Q1A/Q1B > Q1A/Q1, D D. D D, , [dQ/dP] > [dQ/dP]. (P1/Q1) [dQ/dP] > [dQ/dP], , :DA > D.3.5.5. :. : . . , . .. : , . . 0 Q1 B QA P P1D D64. : ( ) , . . , (. , ).. : , .. : . , , , , .. : . .3.5.6. , , , . ( ).: (Y). .:Y = % : % . ,62 , . 3.12 (Y) , . (Begg / Fischer /Dornbusch 1998: 168). , , , : 62 , . 1976:140-2, Chacholiades 1990-: 162, Begg / Fischer / Dornbusch: 1998: 168-71. ( ). ( ). ( ). 3.12., (C). .:c = % : % . , .3.6. , .3.6.1. , , . . . Q >0 =0 1 . . S < 1 . ., S = 1 . .6565 , . 3.7.1. , ( ) . , :S =DQDP*( ) /( ) /P PQ Q1 2 21 2 2++=DQDP*P PQ Q1 21 2++., , () Q/QP () P1 P2 () Q1 Q2-- () dQ/dP () P1 () Q1-- :S =dQdP*PQ11.3.7.2. , ( ) ., , . 3.15 . , , , . PS = 0S =70 3.15. ( ) . ( ) . . (.. ) . ( ) . ( ) . . . , , ., , , . .66 . , 3.16. S,:dQ/dP = 0Q1/Q1A ( S)P/Q = Q1A/0Q1SA = 0Q1/Q1A * Q1A/0Q1 = 1. S,:dQ/dP = 0Q2/Q2B ( S)P/Q = Q2B/0Q2SB = 0Q2/Q2B * Q2B/0Q2 = 1. , ,67 .66 QS = bP, QS P . : dQ/dP = b P/Q = P/bP = 1/b. : S = b * 1/b = 1.67 , QS = a + bP.0 Q P A BSS 3.16.:. .. .68 3.17. 3.17. S ( ), :dQ/dP = Q1/Q1 ( S)P/Q = Q1/0Q1SA = BQ1/Q1 * Q1/0Q1 = BQ1/0Q1. BQ1 > 0Q1, SA > 1. S ( ), :dQ/dP = Q1/Q1 ( S)P/Q = Q1/0Q1SA = Q1/Q1 * Q1/0Q1 = Q1/0Q1. Q1 < 0Q1, SA < 1. , 3.18, .68 QS = a + bP, a = 0, :dQ/dP = bP/Q = P/(a+bP)S = bP/(a+bP). a < 0 ( ), bP> (a+bP), S > 1. a > 0 ( ), bP < (a+bP), S < 1. P ASSB 0 Q1 Q0 Q1 Q2 Q72 , : S S = 1 ( ) S > 1 ( ) S < 1 ( ). 3.18.3.7.3. :. : , , , .. : () . () . . , ( ), . . ( ). .3.8. P S 0 Q , , , .69 , , ( ).3.8.1. , . , , . , , () ., , , , , , . . ( ) .3.8.2. 3.19. ( 3.19) ., , , Walras. 69 ... . :1. .2. , . , (Chacholiades 1990-: 51).74 A. Marshall , .70, , , , , D S. o PE QE ( ). 3.19. ( ). . . , , , ; : ( ) , , , , , ( ); : () , . , P2, . , . . , () . . , , , . , P1, , 70 Walras - Marshall 1980: 202-4, 223-5, 233, 237, 242-8. . Walras 1984, Marshall 1961.0 Q1 QE Q2 Q P P2 PE P1EA BSD . . , () . . , , , ., . ( ) ( ) . , , . 3.20 . , . . . 3.20. P2, . ,, , . . , , . , P1, , , , . . , , .0 Q1 QE Q2 Q P P2 PE P1EA BDS 76: , () . ., , : . , ( ) , () () . . , ( ), . . ( ) 3.21, .0 Q1 QE Q2 Q P P4 P3 PE P2P1S D()() 3.21. () ( ---- ---- ). , , . , P4 , . , P1 , . () ( ---- ---- ). , , . , P4 , . , P1 , . Marshall, , . . : . () ., , . () .7171 Marshall (...) (...) . 0 Q1 QE Q2 Q P P4 P3 PE P2P1D S78 ( ). Marshall . 4. ( ). Marshall . Marshall . () . , Q1, P3 P4. () ., , . , Q2, P1 P2. () . , , , , . , . () . , Q1, P3 P4. ., , . , Q2, P1 P2. . , , , , . , . ( ) Walras Marshall . , , ( ) . . : , , ( ) . , ( ) . 3.19 3.20. , (Nicholson 1998: 31). : Marshall .... , , [Menger, -] Jevons, ( 1980: 232). 3.19. Q1, , P1 P2. . Q2, , P1 P2. . , . 3.20 . Q1, , P1 P2. . Q2, , P1 P2. . , .723.9. , . , ,73 .3.9.1. 3.22. , , , , D S. P0 Q0. ( ) 0Q0EP0.72 ... [ ] ( 1980: 247). . .73 ., (): ( ) ( , ). (Chacholiades 1990-: 65).80 ( ) D D. P0 ( ) . , , ( D S) . P1 (> P0) Q1 (> Q0). 3.22. . : , S, . P2(>P1 > P0) Q0. , S, . P0 Q2 (> Q1 > Q0). , , ( ) , ( ) . : ( ) ( ) , D. ( A, ) S A. A., .: ( ) , . : , , ( , 0 Q0 Q1 Q2 Q P P2 P1 P0SSSDDEA D ). .3.9.2. 3.23. , , , , D S. P0 Q0. ( ) 0Q0EP0. ( ) S S. P0 ( ) . , , ( D S) . 3.23. P1 (< P0) Q1 (> Q0). , , . . : , D, . P2(< P1 < P0) Q0. , D, . P0 Q2 (> Q1 > Q0). P P0 P1 P2EBDDDSS S 0 Q0 Q1 Q2 Q82 , , ( ) , ( ) . : ( ) ( ) , S. ( A, ) D A. A., .: ( ) , . , : , . ; , , , , . . ( ) ( ) D. . . . . 3.24 . (), , Q1Q2A. . (), , P2AP1. . P P1 P P1 P2SS DSS () () 3.24. , ( , , , ).3.9.3. . :. . .. . .D 0 Q1 Q2 Q 0 Q1 Q84 4: 4.1. 4.1.1 3, , ( ) ( ) ( ). . , , . () , ( ), , () ( ). , , () , . , , , , , ( ) ( , ). , (. ).4.1.2. ( ) . . (CardinalUtility) . , , (Ordinal Utility) , .4.2. , .744.2.1 () . . ( ) () , , . , , . , , , , ( ) (. ). , , , . , , , . . , , , , , , .. , , . , . (util).7574 Jevons (1835-1882), Menger (1840-1921), Warlas (1834-1910), , , Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), Nassau William Senior (1790-1864), Jules Dupuit (1804-1866), Heinrich Gossen (1810-1854) (Chacholiades1990-: 109).75 " " () . . ... .... [] . . , (Chacholiades 1990-: 110).86 . :U = f(Q) U Q . () . ., x1, x2, x3,... xn 1, 2,3,..., n , U = U1(x1) + U2(x2) + U3(x3) + ... + Un(xn).H .4.2.2. , , , . () 4.1. (U) (Q)., Q1 , U1 ( ). Q2 , U2 ( ). :. .76. ( ) ( ). Q3.. (Q3) ., , . .76 d2U/dQ2 < 0. , 4 5 , 40 44 , 4 (44 - 40). , 4 . 4.1. , Q (= Q2- Q1) U (= U2- U1). U/Q., , :MU = U/Q U . Q = 1, : MU = U., , :MU = dU/dQ.7777 , . 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q() U U2 U1AB U Q 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q() MU MU1 MU2 A U=f(Q)MU=dU/dQ88, . : , U/Q (= U) (U2- U1) (Q2-Q1). . (Q) . , . , U/Q, , . () .78 (U) (Q). , , .:. ( ) .79. 0 .. ( Q3) ( 0 Q3).80. ( ) .81 , , 0 .8278 U = Q2 + BQ, A < 0 B > 0 .79 dU/dQ2 = d(MU) < 0, .80 ( ) .81 dU/dQ = MU < 0, .82 (. Chacholiades 1990-:114-16). , , .83 : , . : , () .4.2.3. , , ,, , , . : , () , , , () . , , , , . , . ., , ( ) .84 ( () ), .85 , () , . 83 U U, MU U. MU MU.84 ( 1971: 25-6).85 Marshall [...] , " " " "( 1980: 233).90 , () . , ( ) ( ), , , () ( ). , .4.2.4. , , ., , . , ., , ; .86 . . . 8 6. , , , ;. : 1 . . 1 . 86 Gossen 1854(Chacholiades 1990-:145). 6 . , , 8 . 8 - 6 = 2 . , . , , . , , . , , ( ,, ). . :x + y = x y , () , () . ( ). , , () : . :MUx/PX = MUy/PY MUx , MUy , MUx/PX ( 1/ ) MUy/PY ( 1/ ). . , , . , .87, , ; , , MUx/PX = MUy/PY .87 X1, X2, X3,..., Xn x1, x2, x3,... xn . = x11 + x22 + x33 + ... + xnn MU1/P1 = MU2/P2 = MU3/P3 = ... = MUn/Pn, MUi i Pi i, i = 1,2,3,..., n.92 : , MUx/PX > MUy/PY. , . , . , , , . MUx/PX, MUy/PY . .: . : .4.2.5. , , ; . Marshall 10 lbs. () 2 . 9 lbs. 2 . ( 1980: 233). Marshall , . , 30 , 30 ( 1980: 234). . ( 2 ) ( 1980: 234) 10 . [ Marshall] , ceteris paribus, , ( 1980: 234) . Marshall [...] ( 1980: 234-5)., ... . , , Marshall ... [] ( 1980:236). , . , Marshall.88 4.2. D , Marshall, , 4.2., , 0P1 , .., 0Q , .. 0QAP1., , , , 0Q , 0QAP2. 0QAP1 0QAP2. 0QAP2 0QAP1, P1AP2.4.3. 88 ... Dupuit "" ( 1980: 236). P (MU) P2 P1AD0 Q Q94 () , () . V. Pareto (1906), E. Slutsky (1915), J. R. Hicks R. G. D. Allen (1934) ( F. Y. Edgeworth 1881) , () . . () . () . , ( ) . , , () . , ( ) , () (). ( ), () . F. Y. Edgeworth (1845-1926) U = f(x, y).89 U x y X Y ., x y., : ( ) , , , 89 X1, X2, X3,..., Xn x1, x2, x3,..., xn, U = f(x1, x2, x3,..., xn). ( ) () : . - Pareto ( ) , : , . ;... ;... (Pareto 1971: 177).90 . .4.3.1. . () . ( ) . , , . , .91 4.3 . 0 x1 y2 . (x1, y2). x2 y1 . (x2, y1).90 ... [...] ... " Pareto" " Pareto" ( 1980: 258). . Varian ...-: 190-2.91 . , . , 1/4 . . 1/4 . Y y2 y1A96 4.3. 0, ( - ) , . ( ) . , .. : , , , . .. : , ( ) . , ( ) ( ). , , . .. : , .. , , , , . , .. : , , , , , . , , , .9292 ... ( 1971: 17).B0 x1 x2 X4.3.2. ( ) , , , , . - , () () ( ---- ), . (Chacholiades 1990-: 119). ( ) , , X Y, U = f(x, y) (x, y) () U.93 ; , () . , . . , , . , . U1 , , , 4.4, . , , , , (x1, y3) - (x2, y2) (x3, y1), x1, x2, x3, y1, y2, y3, . , , , U1 U1.93 U = x * y. Y y3 y2 y1U3U298 4.4. U2 U3 , (. ), . , ( ). : , . U = f(x, y). , . , , U = f(x, y) (Chacholiades 1990-: 121). . . ( ) . : - , .4.3.3. .. : . 4.5. U0 . (x1 y1) 0 . 1 ( ), 2 ( y1), 3 ( y10x1) 4 ( x1X). : 1 , ( 1 ) 0 x1 x2 x3 XU1 , ( ). 4.5. 3 , , , ( 3 x1 y1) , ( x1 y1)., 1 3, , . , 2 4., 2 4. , . . . , , . , , . ( ) , , . , ( ) , , . , . , .0 x1 y1U0 A 3 4 2 1100 () ( ) ( ), , x * Ux + y * MUy = 094 x * Ux x X, y * MUy y .. ( ) : 4.4 U3 U2 U1. . 4.5 . U0 1. - , ( ), U0., U0 3. - , ( ), U0. , ( ) . . , . . U1, U2, U3, 1< 2 < 3 118 < 121 < 2014. .9594 , , , U = f(x, y), U . ( ) :0 = (f/x) * dx + (f/y) * dy = MUx * dx + MUy * dy.95 U = f(x,y) , ( ) . , U = f(x,y) , , U = f(x, y). U , U18. U18 = f(x,y) . U , .. : . ( ). ( ) - .. : , , . 4.6. U1 U2 . U1. U2. . , , - . , . , ,.96, , , , . U =xy V = U2= (xy)2. U = 5 5 =xy. V = 25 25 = (xy)2, 5 =xy (Chacholiades 1990-: 118, 564-5).96 , . , 1,00005 1,00006 ( ). , ( ) . , , . , , (Chacholiades 1990-: 560). . . Y102 4.6.. : , , , . , . ( ) , , , . , , , , ( ) (xy, ). ( ) , . , , . ; y (y) x (x). y/x ., ()97 y/x.:xy = -(y/x) = |y/x| xy = -(dy/dx)., () () , .97 , , , , .. A . B. U1U2 0 X 4.7. 4.8. 4.7, xy (= |y/x|). U0 . , , , . , . y/x, , .98 , 4.8, U0 , . , 98 , (Chacholiades 1990-: 565). 0 x1 x2 X Y y2 y1 x y AU0B0 U0104 . , , , ( ) . , ; , U0 . , , . . , . . ., , . , , , , .99 . .4.3.4. , , , , . (Varian ...-: 65).. : . , . 99 U = f(x,y). 1. ... .2. , ... . ( .) ... .3. ... . ( ) .4. ... (Chacholiades 1990-: 564). , . . , , , , U0 4.9. 4.9.. : , , . , , . , , L 4.10. . U1 x1 = y1. x1 < y3, y3- y1 , y1 < x3, x3- x1 , , . , U2 B x2 = y2.100 E x2< y3, y3- y2 , Z y2 < x3, x3- x2 , , , ... , , ,... .100 , , . , 1:1. , L. L (2 , 1 ), (4 , 2 ) ... (Varian ...-: 60).0 U0106 4.10. , , .. , ,.... : ., , , . . 4.11. U1, U2, U3, U4,... .