Chap.12 Species diversity 鄭先祐生態主張者 Ayo 工作室 Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity2 Species Diversity Measures of species diversity Measures of species

Chap.12Chap.12Species diversitySpecies diversity

鄭先祐鄭先祐生態主張者生態主張者 AyoAyo 工作室工作室

Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity 2

Species DiversitySpecies Diversity

Measures of species diversityMeasures of species diversity RichnessRichness Geographic patterns of diversityGeographic patterns of diversity Determinants of species divesityDeterminants of species divesity Mechanisms: Island biogeographyMechanisms: Island biogeography Mechanisms that produce high species Mechanisms that produce high species

diversitydiversity Environmental ApplicationEnvironmental Application


Measures of species diversityMeasures of species diversity

Diversity = richness Diversity = richness (( 豐富度豐富度 )) + + evennessevenness(( 均勻均勻度度 ))

Indices of species diversity Indices of species diversity Simpson’s index (p.297)Simpson’s index (p.297) The Shannon-Weaver index (p.297-298)The Shannon-Weaver index (p.297-298)


Core-satellite hypothesisCore-satellite hypothesis

The distribution of rare and common The distribution of rare and common species is bimodal – most species are either species is bimodal – most species are either rare or common rare or common 大部分的種類是常見或大部分的種類是常見或是稀少。是稀少。 ((Fig. 12.4)Fig. 12.4)



Total species RichnessTotal species Richness



Latitudinal trends in diversityLatitudinal trends in diversity



Diversity in EcotonesDiversity in Ecotones

Species diversity is also high in ecotones, Species diversity is also high in ecotones, the boundaries between two habitats.the boundaries between two habitats.

If the transition is more gradual, it is refered If the transition is more gradual, it is refered to as an ecocline.to as an ecocline.


Deep-ocean diversityDeep-ocean diversity

Grassle(1991) sampled 233 sites between Grassle(1991) sampled 233 sites between 1500 and 2500 meters below the surface off 1500 and 2500 meters below the surface off the coast of New Jersey.the coast of New Jersey.

The samples revealed 198 species in 171 The samples revealed 198 species in 171 families of 14 phyla (Table 12.1)families of 14 phyla (Table 12.1)



Mechanisms: Mechanisms: island biogeographyisland biogeography(( 島嶼生物地理學島嶼生物地理學 ))

The equilibrium theory of island biogeographyThe equilibrium theory of island biogeography Empirical evidenceEmpirical evidence Biogeography of habitat islandsBiogeography of habitat islands Conservation applications Conservation applications





Biogeography of Biogeography of habitat islandshabitat islands




Fig. 10. Schematic Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of some illustration of some principles for the principles for the design of nature design of nature

reserves.reserves.


Fig. 11. Baja CaliforniaFig. 11. Baja California


表表 1. 1. Cortez Cortez 海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。

項目項目陸生陸生植物植物

沿岸沿岸魚類魚類

陸棲陸棲鳥類鳥類

陸棲陸棲爬蟲爬蟲

蜥蜴蜥蜴陸棲陸棲哺乳哺乳

5050kmkm22 之海洋島嶼之海洋島嶼所含之平均數所含之平均數

105105 1313 9.39.3 3.53.5 1.31.3

陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島嶼含有更多的種類？嶼含有更多的種類？

NoNo NoNo NoNo YesYes YesYes Very Very YesYes

島嶼上所含之種類比大島嶼上所含之種類比大陸塊上還少嗎？陸塊上還少嗎？

NoNo 有一有一點點

YesYes YesYes Very Very YesYes

HoloceneHolocene 才出現之海洋才出現之海洋性島嶼所含的種類數比性島嶼所含的種類數比老生島嶼還少嗎？老生島嶼還少嗎？

NoNo NoNo NoNo NoNo No No 有一點有一點

距大陸愈遠，種類數愈距大陸愈遠，種類數愈少嗎？陸橋性島嶼少嗎？陸橋性島嶼海洋性島嶼海洋性島嶼

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

YesYes

有一點有一點YesYes

特有性：陸橋性島嶼特有性：陸橋性島嶼海洋性島嶼海洋性島嶼

00

22

00

00

00

00

55

3535

00

4747

1616

6969


Fig. 13. Fig. 13. 島嶼生物地理學島嶼生物地理學 (( 修改自修改自 Case & Code, 1987)Case & Code, 1987)


Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with solid Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with solid edges represent edges represent enclosuresenclosures preventing access by sheep. preventing access by sheep. Broken lines mark delineated plots in the grazed area.Broken lines mark delineated plots in the grazed area.


表表 2. 2. 於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內，顯花於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內，顯花植物的種類數之比較。植物的種類數之比較。

項目項目隔離區隔離區牧養區牧養區

小型小型中型中型大型大型小型小型中型中型大型大型

NN 3232 88 22 1616 44 11

總數總數 2929 2626 2020 2626 1616 1515

最多最多 // 各各區區

1515 1515 1515 1313 1212 (15)(15)

最少最少 // 各各區區

33 88 1515 55 88 (15)(15)

全區全區 3434 種種 2626 種種


表表 3. 3. 各型樣區的種類數目之變化。各型樣區的種類數目之變化。

項目項目小型小型中型中型大型大型全部全部種類種類 19851985

19861986

19871987

2929

3030

3333

2626

2727

2929

2020

2020

2525

3434

3333

4040

遺失種類遺失種類 1985-19861985-1986

1986-19871986-1987

44

22

55

33

33

22

55

11

新增種類新增種類 1985-19861985-1986

1986-19871986-1987

55

55

66

55

33

77

44

66


Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos.archipelagos.

a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islandsa. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islandsb. Galapagos land birdsb. Galapagos land birds

c. Galapagos Darwin's finchesc. Galapagos Darwin's finchesd. Galapagos ferns.d. Galapagos ferns.

海洋性島嶼

離岸 200 公里以上


Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos.archipelagos.

e. Galapagos insectse. Galapagos insectsf. Galapagos flowering plantsf. Galapagos flowering plants

g. Caribbean bats.g. Caribbean bats.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.

海洋性島嶼



Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic archipelagos. archipelagos.

g. Caribbean bats.g. Caribbean bats.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.h. Facroes islands ground beetles.

i.. Canary Islands birdsi.. Canary Islands birdsj. Canary island ground beetles.j. Canary island ground beetles.

海洋性島嶼



Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores archipelagos. archipelagos.

a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.

c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits. c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits.

d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.

沿岸島嶼

離岸 100KM 以內


沿岸島嶼

離岸 100KM 以內

Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshore Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshore archipelagos. archipelagos.

e. Birds of the California Channel islands.e. Birds of the California Channel islands.f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel

islands.islands.g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.

h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.


Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores archipelagos. nearshores archipelagos.

g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf

of California.of California.

沿岸島嶼

離岸 100KM 以內


Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates.habitat isolates.

a. Mammals of East African national parks.a. Mammals of East African national parks.b. Birds of East African national parks.b. Birds of East African national parks.

c. Mountaintop small mammals. c. Mountaintop small mammals. d. Mountaintop plants.d. Mountaintop plants.

陸域隔離區


Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates.habitat isolates.

e. Mountaintop birdse. Mountaintop birdsf. Birds in New Jersey woodlotsf. Birds in New Jersey woodlots

g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.

陸域隔離區


Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial habitat isolates. terrestrial habitat isolates.

g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.

i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.

陸域隔離區


切割棲息地後，所含的生物種類數反而增加，切割棲息地後，所含的生物種類數反而增加，可能的原因：可能的原因：

1. 1. Habitat diversityHabitat diversity 2. Population dynamics.2. Population dynamics.

– Priority effectsPriority effects– Multiple stable equilibriaMultiple stable equilibria– Edge effects Edge effects – DisturbanceDisturbance– Species pool and dispersal ability.Species pool and dispersal ability.– ColonizationColonization– Evolutionary effects.Evolutionary effects.– Extinctions.Extinctions.

3. Historical effects. 3. Historical effects.


當代的切割理論與生物保育策略當代的切割理論與生物保育策略

「一大」或是「多小」？「一大」或是「多小」？ (1) (1) maximizes the mean size of reservesmaximizes the mean size of reserves (2) maximizes the number of reserves(2) maximizes the number of reserves


Mechanisms that produce high Mechanisms that produce high species diversityspecies diversity

Evolutionary timeEvolutionary time Ecological timeEcological time Climatic stabilityClimatic stability Climatic predictabilityClimatic predictability Structural heterogeneityStructural heterogeneity Primary productionPrimary production Biotic interactionsBiotic interactions Intermediate levels of disturbanceIntermediate levels of disturbance Geographic areaGeographic area


Consequences of species Consequences of species diversitydiversity

One early principle of community ecology One early principle of community ecology held that diversity and stability are causally held that diversity and stability are causally related.related.

1. Species diversity leads to complex 1. Species diversity leads to complex ecological interactions.ecological interactions.

2. Complex systems are inherently more 2. Complex systems are inherently more stable.stable.


Diversity and StabilityDiversity and Stability

1. 1. Rivet Rivet 金卯金卯丁丁 hypothesis (Ehrlich and hypothesis (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1981)Ehrlich, 1981)

2. Redundancy hypothesis (Walker , 1992)2. Redundancy hypothesis (Walker , 1992)– 有些物種是比要重要，但有些則是較無所謂。有些物種是比要重要，但有些則是較無所謂。

Keystone speciesKeystone species 的觀念。的觀念。 3. 3. Idiosyncratic hypothesis (Lawton, 1994)Idiosyncratic hypothesis (Lawton, 1994)

– 這是這是 null modelnull model ，， diversity diversity 和和 ecosystem ecosystem functionfunction 的關係是的關係是 indeterminateindeterminate 。。


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Chap.12 Species diversity 鄭先祐 生態主張者 Ayo 工作室 Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity2 Species Diversity Measures of species diversity Measures of species

Chap.12 Species diversity 鄭先祐生態主張者 Ayo 工作室 Ecology 2001 Chap.12 Species Diversity2 Species Diversity Measures of species diversity Measures of species