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3
Control and Prediction
Financial accounting numbers are
useful in two fundamental ways:
– They help investors and creditors
influence and monitor the business
decisions of a company’s managers.
– They help to predict a company’s
future earnings and cash flows.
4
Book Value vs. True Value
Financial statements do not reflect the company’s prospects within its business environment
– Statements are backward looking, not focusing on the future prospects.
Financial statements are inherently limited
– Statements leave out some current and historical information such as human resources and the effects of inflation.
Management prepares the financial statements in a biased manner
– Managers often choose accounting methods and estimates that make them look good.
5
Framework for Financial Statement Analysis
Book Value
Add adjustments for:
(1) business environment
(2) unrecorded events
(3) management bias
= True Value
6
Five Steps of
Financial Statement Analysis
Assessing the business environment.
Reading and studying the financial
statements and footnotes.
Assessing earnings quality.
Analyzing the financial statements.
Predicting future earnings and/or cash
flow.
7
Assessing the Business Environment
What is the nature of the company’s operations?
What strategy is being employed to generate profits?
What is the company’s industry?
Who are the major players? Competition?
What are the relationships between the company and its customers and suppliers?
How are the company’s sales and profits affected by changes in the economy?
8
Reading and Studying the Financial
Statements and Notes Read the audit report.
Identify significant transactions
– major acquisitions, discontinuance or
disposal of a business segment,
unresolved litigation, major write-downs of
receivables or inventories, etc.
Read the financial statements and
footnotes.
9
Assessing Earnings Quality
Earnings quality may be affected by a
number of strategies managers use to
influence accounting numbers. Four
major strategies are discussed:
– Overstating operating performance
– “Taking a bath”
– Creating hidden reserves
– Employing off-balance-sheet
financing
10
Assessing Earnings Quality
Overstating operating performance through the acceleration of recognition of revenue - shift the timing of revenue from a future period to the current period, through legitimate or questionable activities.
Overstating operating performance through the allocation and estimation of expenses - shift the recognition of expenses through the use of “taking a bath” and “creating hidden reserves.”
11
Assessing Earnings Quality
Taking a bath (also called “big bath”) - large losses and expenses this year may increase income in future years.
Rationale: if the current year is going to be disappointing to investors anyway, increase the loss to make next year look better. For example:
– Excessive write-downs of equipment will lead to lower depreciation expense in future years.
– Excessive write-downs of inventory will lead to lower cost of goods sold next year.
12
Assessing Earnings Quality
Creating hidden reserves - expenses may be shifted from one year to another year by overestimating expense accrual.
Excessive bad debt expense or warranty expense in the current year will lead to reduced estimates in future years, as the “reserve” is used up.
Note that these “reserves” have nothing to do with cash reserves; they simply reserve some of the “income” to future periods.
13
Assessing Earnings Quality
Employing off-balance-sheet financing - this relates to certain economic transactions that are not reflected in the balance sheet.
Managers prefer to keep certain liabilities off the balance sheet when GAAP permits it, primarily because of potential debt covenant violations, and because of the effect on certain ratios.
Examples include: – treatment of leases as operating leases (Radio
Shack) – unconsolidated investments (Enron’s
“partnerships”) which do not separate assets from liabilities.
14
Analyzing the Financial Statements
Comparisons across time
Comparisons within the industry
Comparisons across different countries
Comparisons within the financial statements:
common-size statements and ratio analysis – Profitability ratios
– Leverage ratios
– Solvency ratios
– Asset turnover ratios
– Market ratios
15
Comparisons Across Time
Financial accounting numbers can be
made more meaningful if they are
compared across time.
GAAP require side-by-side comparison
of the current and the preceding years
in published financial reports.
16
Comparisons Within the Industry
Financial accounting numbers can also be made more meaningful if they are compared to those of similar companies.
Comparison of financial accounting numbers with industry averages is also helpful.
Sources of industry information include:
– Dun & Bradstreet
– Robert Morris Associates
– Moody
– Standard & Poor
18
Comparisons Within
the Financial Statements
Common-size financial statements
Ratio analysis
– Profitability ratios
– Leverage ratios
– Solvency ratios
– Asset turnover ratios
– Market ratios
19
Common-Size Income Statement for La-Z-Boy, Inc. (Figure 5-2)
Income Statement (in millions) 2008 % 2007 %
Net sales $1,227 100 $1,451 100
Cost of sales (888) 72 (1,057) 73
Expenses and charges (460) 37 (408) 28
Net income $ (121) (9) $ (14) (1)
On the income statement, cost of goods sold, expenses, and net income are often expressed as percentages of net sales.
On the balance sheet, assets and liabilities can be expressed as percentages of total assets.
20
Profitability Ratios
These ratios are designed to measure a
firm’s earnings power.
Net income, the primary measure of the
overall success of a company, is compared
to other measures of financial activity or
condition to assess performance as a
percent of some level of activity or
investment.
21
Return on Net Income
Equity Average Shareholders’ Equity
This ratio measures the effectiveness at
managing capital provided by the shareholders.
Profitability Ratios
22
Return on Net Income + Interest Expense (1-tax rate)
Assets Average Total Assets
This ratio measures the effectiveness at managing capital
provided by all investors (stockholders and creditors).
Profitability Ratios
23
Profitability Ratios
Return on Net Income + Interest Expense (1-tax rate)
Sales Net Sales
This ratio provides an indication of a company’s ability to
generate and market profitable products and control its
costs; also called the Profit Margin.
24
Leverage Ratios
Leverage refers to using borrowed
funds to generate returns for
stockholders.
Leverage is desirable because it
creates returns for shareholders without
using any of their money.
Leverage increases risk by committing
the company to future cash obligations.
25
Leverage Ratios Common Net Income
Equity Net Income + Interest Expense (1-tax rate)
Leverage
This ratio compares the return available to the
shareholders to returns available to all capital providers.
26
Leverage Ratios
Capital Average Total Assets
Structure Average Stockholders’ Equity
Leverage
This ratio measures the extent to which a company
relies on borrowings (liabilities).
27
Debt to Equity Average Total Liabilities Ratio Average Shareholders’ Equity This ratio compares liabilities to shareholders’ equity and is another measure of capital structure leverage.
Leverage Ratios
28
Leverage Ratios
Long-term Long-Term Debt Debt Ratio Total Assets This ratio measures the importance of long-term debt as a source of asset financing.
29
Solvency Ratios
Solvency refers to a company’s ability to
meet its current debts as they come
due.
There is pressure on companies with
high levels of leverage to manage their
solvency.
30
Solvency Ratios
Current Current Assets
Ratio Current Liabilities
This ratio measures solvency in the sense that current
assets can be used to meet current liabilities.
31
Solvency Ratios
Quick Cash + Marketable Securities + A/R
Ratio Current Liabilities
Similar to the current ratio, this ratio provides a more
stringent test of a company’s solvency.
32
Solvency Ratios
Interest Net Income + Tax Expense + Interest Expense
Coverage Interest Expense
This ratio compares the annual funds available to meet
interest to the annual interest expense.
33
Solvency Ratios
Accounts Cost of Goods Sold
Payable Average Accounts Payable
Turnover
This ratio measures the extent to which accounts
payable is used as a form of financing.
34
Asset Turnover Ratios
Asset turnover ratios are typically
computed for total assets, accounts
receivable, inventory, and fixed assets.
These ratios measure the speed with
which assets move through operations
or reflect the number of times during a
given period that these specific assets
are acquired, used, and replaced.
35
Asset Turnover Ratios
Receivables Net Credit Sales
Turnover Average Accounts Receivable
This ratio reflects the number of times the trade
receivables were recorded, collected, and recorded
again during the period.
36
Asset Turnover Ratios
Inventory Cost of Goods Sold
Turnover Average Inventory
This ratio measures the speed with which
inventories move through operations.
37
Asset Turnover Ratios
Fixed Assets Sales
Turnover Average Fixed Assets
This ratio measures the speed with which fixed assets
are used up.
38
Asset Turnover Ratios
Total Asset Sales
Turnover Average Total Assets
This ratio measures the speed with which all assets
are used up in operations.
39
Market Ratios
These additional ratios are used by the
financial community to assess company
performance.
40
Market Ratios
Earnings Net Income
per Average Number of Common Shares
Share Outstanding
This ratio, according to the financial press, is the
primary measure of a company’s performance. It
calculates the amount of income that is earned for
each shareholder.
41
Market Ratios Price/Earnings Market Price per Share
Ratio Earnings per Share
This ratio is used by many analysts to assess the
investment potential of common stocks.
42
Market Ratios Dividend Yield Dividends per Share
Ratio Market Price per Share
This ratio indicates to cash return on the
shareholders’ investment.
43
Market Ratios
Stock Market Price1 - Market Price0 + Dividends
Price Market Price0
Return
This ratio measures the pretax performance of an
investment in a share of common stock.
44
Comparisons Across Different Countries
Investors interested in comparing the financial performance and condition of companies from different countries often must contend with two difficult issues:
– If the companies use different accounting standards (e.g., U.S. GAAP vs. IFRS), the reported values must be adjusted to a common basis so that reasonable comparisons can be made.
– Adjusting financial statements to a common basis by itself may not be sufficient to achieve meaningful comparisons. In other words, not only must the financial statements of a foreign-based company be adjusted, but the resulting numbers can only be interpreted through an understanding of the foreign environment.
45
Appendix 5A
DuPont (ROE) Model: Return On Equity = Return on Assets X Capital Structure
Leverage X Common Equity Leverage
Return on Assets = Profit margin X Asset Turnover
47
Copyright
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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