Chapter 6

Lecture 4Lecture 4

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND INFORMATION PROCESSING AND COGNITIVE HTEORY OF LEARNINGCOGNITIVE HTEORY OF LEARNING

(Chapter 6)(Chapter 6)

Main Contents

Information-Processing Models Understanding Our Memory Making Information Meaningful （有意义

学习） Helping Students to Learn Well

The information-processing model based on the information-processing theory (The main model we are going to discuss)

Other information-processing models

1.Levels-of-processing theory( 加工水平理论 )

2.Dual code theory( 双重编码理论 )

3.Parallel distributed processing model

( 并行分布加工模型 )

4.Connectionist models （联结主义模型）

Understanding Our Memory

Forgetting and remembering How to committing information to memor

y―PRACTICE( 练习 ) How can memory strategies be taught ？

Verbal learning Paired-associate learning Serial learning Free-recall learning

Factors of making it easier or harder to remember information

INTERFERENCE( 干扰 ) （ Individual difference in resistance to interference ）

RETROACTIVE INHIBITION ( 倒摄抑制 ) PROACTIVE INHIBITION( 前摄抑制 ) FACILITATION( 促进 ) （ Proactive facilitation and retro

active facilitation 前摄促进 和倒摄促进） PRIMACY AND RECENCY EFFECTS ( 首因效应和近因

效应 ) AUTOMATICITY( 自动化 )

MASSED AND DISTRIBUTED

PRACTICE( 集中练习和分散练习 )

ENACTMENT( 亲历 )

Verbal learning

Paired-associate learning

Serial learning

Free-recall learning

How can memory strategies be taught ？

Making Information Meaningful (Ausubel’s approaches of learning)

Rote learning and meaningful learning（机械学习和意义学习）

Schema theory （图式理论） The importance of background knowledge (advanced knowledge 先行组织者 )

Helping Students to Learn Well

Metacogntive skills and students learning

Cognitive teaching strategies and students learning

Part 1 Information-Processing Models

Video Show ： Working in Pair ： Question ？？？

Question

What have you got from the video ？

（ Working in Pairs to write down your answers ）

What is an information processing theory?

Information-processing theory is a cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind.

Figure 6.1

Rehearsal

coding Retrieval

Forgotten

Forgotten

External stimulus

Sensory register Initial processing

Working or short-term

Long-termmemory

Forgotten

Elements of an information-processing model SENSORY REGISTER （ or Sensory Me

mory ）（感觉登记） SHORT-TERM OR WORKING MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY

sensory register （ Sensory memory ）

The first component of the memory system that incoming information meets is the sensory register. Sensory registers receive large amounts of information from each of our senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) and hold it for a very short time, no more than a couple of seconds. If nothing happens to information held in a sensory register, it is rapidly lost.

An experiment

An experiment

Ready one ， two ， three Go

B Y KO

F

P

G

MV

A

S

J

Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory: Capacity ： The capacity of sensory memory is very large, more information that

we can possibly handle at once. But this vast amount of sensory information is fragile in duration.

（ Think about the contents of the video you watched just now ） Duration: The duration of sensory register lasts between one and three seconds. Contents of sensory memory: The content of sensory memory resembles( 类似 ) the sensations fro

m the original stimulus. It can be Visual Sensations, Auditory Sensations and some other sen

sations. Visual Sensations are coded briefly by the sensory register as images,

almost like photographs; Auditory Sensations are coded as sound patterns, similar to echoes

( 回声 )

The existence of sensory registers has two important educational implications. First, people must pay attention to

information if they are to retain it. Second, it takes time to bring all the

information seen in a moment into consciousness.

PERCEPTION ( 感知 )

The process of detecting ( 检测 )a stimulus and assigning meaning to it is called perception. It is a person’s interpretation of stimuli.

Perception of stimuli is not as same as reception of stimuli; rather, it involves mental interpretation and is influenced by our mental state, past experience, knowledge, motivations, and many other factors.

For example ，

consider this mark “I3”

You would say…..

For example

AITENIION

Attention is a limited resource We can only pay one or several cognitively

demanding tasks at time. So we usually select from all the possible information by pay attention to certain stimuli and ignoring others.

Educational Implications The first step in learning is paying attention.

Students cannot process something that they do not recognize or perceive.

Brainstorming:

How does a teacher gains students attention in the classroom?

“That is important” increasing the emotional content of material. Unusual, inconsistent, or surprising stimuli also

attract attention. Finally, informing students that what follows is im

portant to them will catch their attention.

Work after the class

Interview 10 students to collect the

Methods of obtaining students attention

in class

SHORT-TERM OR WORKING MEMORY

Short-term memory is a storage system that can hold a limited amount of information for a few seconds.

Another term for short-term memory is working memory

Working-memory tests

Fast naming Span-task Re-order task

1 2

16 ） 5 8 4 6 1 17 ） 7 3 8 2 5 18 ） 9 6 1 4 8 19 ） 4 7 3 9 5 2

20 ） 2 5 1 6 3 7

21 ） 4 9 5 8 6 2

22 ） 1 7 2 4 9 3

23 ） 5 8 7 3 6 1 8

24 ） 8 5 7 1 6 3 9

25 ） 2 7 4 8 1 3 6

26 ） 5 2 9 6 3 8 1

27 ） 4 1 7 3 8 6 9

28 ） 5 9 7 2 6 4 1

29 ） 8 5 1 4 9 6 2 7

30 ） 9 6 1 3 7 4 5 2

Number span test

Sentence span test A)1 、蝴蝶花真漂亮。 2 、老师说她做得对。 3 、青蛙坐在井里看天。 问题：人们常用井底之蛙比喻什么？ B) 1. 人民大会堂在北京。 2. 弟弟喜欢冷饮。 3. 海底世界真迷人。 4. 明天我们去春游。 问题： 海底有什么？ 1. 妈妈端来了一盘饼。 2. 画鸡蛋是为了锻炼眼力。

燕子的尾巴像剪刀。 张爷爷给我们讲故事。 为民做了一个小木船。

问题：画鸡蛋的故事讲的是谁？

Re-order test

13) 奶牛 1 蛋糕 3 衬衫 6 13) 奶牛 蛋糕 衬衫 1 3 6 14) 7 蛇 肥皂 2 9 手套 14) 蛇 肥皂 手套 7 2 9 15) 8 裤子 3 老鼠 1 鸡蛋 15) 裤子 ; 老鼠 鸡蛋 8 3 1 请记住，先说出词语，再说出数字。 16) 椅子 4 7 帽子 糖 6 5 16) 椅子 帽子 糖 4 7 6 5 17) 2 蜘蛛 9 床 3 衬衫 1 17) 蜘蛛 床 衬衫 2 9 3 1 18) 饼干 5 8 猪 门 6 钮扣 18) 饼干 猪 门 钮扣 5 8 6 19) 4 盐 狐狸 7 炉子 2 9 鞋 19) 盐 狐狸 炉子 鞋 4 7 2 9 20) 面包 1 乌龟 5 桌子 6 球 3 20) 面包 乌龟 桌子 球 1 5 6 3 21) 萝卜 8 钟表 4 9 玉米 鸟 2 21) 萝卜 钟表 玉米 鸟 8 4 9 2

Capacity, Duration and Contents of working memory Capacity 7+(-)2 items

particular item may itself contain a great deal of information.

experiment

Keep this shopping list in your mind

橘子汁 芹菜 莴笋 热狗 黄桃 蛋糕 洋葱 苹果 鸡蛋 面条 辣椒 香蕉 牛奶 馒头 土豆 包子 黄瓜 汽水 矿

泉水

早餐 午餐 晚餐主食 牛奶 面条 包子

蛋糕 热狗 馒头

鸡蛋 洋葱 黄瓜 饼干 土豆 莴笋 辣椒 芹菜

饮品 橘子汁 汽水 矿泉水

水果 苹果 香蕉 黄桃

Duration:

Duration of information in working memory is very short, about 5-20 seconds. This is why working memory is called short-term memory.

You may think that that a memory system with a 20 second time limit is not very useful, but without this system, you cannot go through next processing.

Contents of working memory

two working memory systems: language-based information nonverbal, spatial visual information

(Baddeley, 1986,1998)

Creatively Thinking

How can we hold the information in working memory?

Answer: Rehearsal ( 复述 )

Educational application

cannot present students with many ideas at once

the idea needs so well organized and well connected to information already in the student long-term memories (with assistance from the long-term memories)

LONG-TERM MEMORY

Capacity and Duration Contents of long-term memory

Long-term memory Long-term memory is that part of our memory

system where we keep information for long periods of time.

Long-term memory is thought to be a very large-capacity, very long-term memory store.

Some theorists believe that we may never forget information in long-term memory; rather, we might just lose the ability to find the information within our memory. For this reason, some theorists use the term permanent memory (Byrnes, 1996).

Contents of Long-term memory

episodic memory( 情境记忆 ) ， semantic （语义记忆） memory, procedural memory （程序记忆） (Squire

et al., 1993 )

Episodic memory is our memory of personal experiences, a mental movie of things we saw or heard. ( 情境记忆是关于个体经历的记忆，是对我们看到或者听到的事情的心理再现 )

Some examples

Answer my question: Experience of remembering somebody’s image

without knowing his or her name. When you took an exam, you said to yourself “I

should know the answer, I remember this section, it is just on the left corner of the page of my textbook”.

……..

Semantic memory （语义记忆） Semantic memory is mentally organize

d in networks of connected ideas or relationships called schemata( 图式 )

语义记忆由相互关联的概念和图式组织起来的网络结构） p181

Procedural memory （程序记忆）

Procedural memory is the ability to recall how to do something, especially a physical task （程序记忆是回忆如何做某事的能力，主要是动作记忆的能力）

Your home work:

1. Comparison among sensory ， working ， and Long-term memory

2.Share your good experience with your classmates of how to enhance long-term memory

Type of Memory Input Capacity Duration Contents Retrieval

Sensory

Working

Long-Term

Comparison among sensory ， working ， and Long-term memory

Type of Memory Input Capacity Duration Contents Retrieval

Sensory very fast limited 250msc-4 sensory feature immediate

Working Very fast limited Very brief Words, images, Immediate

. 5-20sec ideas, sentences Long-Term Relatively Practically Practically episodic, semantic,

Slow unlimited unlimited procedural, Depends on repensentation, organization

Other information-processing models 1 ． Levels-of-processing theory( 加工水平

理论 ) 2 ． Dual code theory( 双重编码理论 ) 3. Parallel distributed processing model

( 并行分布加工模型 ) Connectionist models （联结主义模型）

1.LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY( 加工水平理论 ) levels-of-processing theory (Craik, 2000;

Craik & Lockhart,1972), which holds that people subject stimuli to different levels of mental processing and retain only the information that has been subjected to the most thorough processing.

According to levels-of-processing theory, the more you attend to the details of a stimulus, the more mental processing you must do with a stimulus and the more likely you are to remember it.

classic study by Bower and Karlin (1974) p182

Kaput’s (1994) study:

2.DUAL CODE THEORY ( 双重编码理论 ) information is retained in long-term memory in tw

o forms: visual and verbal (corresponding to episodic and semantic memory, respectively) (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Mayer &Moreno, 1998; Sadoski, Goetz, 8* Fritz, 1993),

This theory predicts that information represented both visually and verbally is recalled better than information represented only one way.

3.PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING MODEL( 并行分布加工模型 )

information is processed simultaneously in the three parts of the memory system, each part operating on the same information at the same time.

4.CONNECTIONIST MODELS（联结主义模型） It emphasizes the idea that knowledge is

stored in the brain in a network of connections, not in a system of rules or in storage of individual bits of information.

Part 2 Understanding Our Memory

What Causes People to Remember or Forget?

Over the years, researchers have identified several factors that make it easier or harder to remember information.

Factors of making it easier or harder to remember information INTERFERENCE( 干扰 ) RETROACTIVE INHIBITION ( 倒摄抑制 ) PROACTIVE INHIBITION( 前摄抑制 ) FACILITATION( 促进 ) Proactive facilitation( 前摄促进 ) Retroactive facilitation ( 倒摄促进） PRIMACY AND RECENCY EFFECTS ( 首因效应和近因

效应 ) AUTOMATICITY( 自动化 ) MASSED AND DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE ENACTMENT （亲历）

Interference( 干扰 )

One important reason people forget is interference [Anderson, 1905; Dempster & Corkill, 1999).

Interference happens when information gets mixed up with, or pushed aside by other information.

One form of interference occurs when people are prevented from mentally rehearsing newly learned information.

Peterson’s experiment

In one classic experiment, Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave subjects a simple task: the memorization of sets of three nonsense letters [such as FQB). The subjects were then immediately asked to count backward by 3s from a three-digit number [e.g., 287, 284, 281, etc.) for up to 18 seconds. At the end of that time the subjects were asked to recall the letters. They had forgotten far more of them than had subjects who had learned the letters and then simply waited for 18 seconds to repeat them.

Repeating Peterson’s experiment

D T G X A K H F Y

Retroactive Inhibition （倒摄抑制）

This occurs when previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information.

Creative Thinking:How can we refuse the inhibition? The first is by not teaching similar and

confusing concepts too closely in time. The second is to use different methods to

teach similar concepts.

Proactive Inhibition （前摄抑制）

Proactive inhibition occurs when learning one set of information interferes with learning later information.

FACILITATION （促进） Learning one thing can often help a perso

n learn similar information.

Facilitation can be proactive facilitation and retroactive facilitation.

Primacy and Recency Effects （首因效应和近因效应） when people are given a list of words to learn a

nd then tested immediately afterward, they tend to learn the first few and last few items much better than those in the middle of the list (Stifler, 1978).

The tendency to learn the first things presented is called the primacy effect; the tendency to learn the last things is called the recency effect.

Educational application

Teachers should consider primacy and recency effects, which imply that information taught at the beginning or the end of the period is more likely to be retained than other information.

Automaticity( 自动化 )

A level of rapidity and ease such that a task or skill involves little or no mental effort.

Automaticity is gained though practice.

Practice

Massed and Distributed Practice Massed Practice Technique in which facts

and skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.

Distributed Practice Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.

Enactment （亲历） A learning process in which individuals

physically carry out tasks.

Learning by doing.

3.How Can Memory Strategies Be Taught? Verbal learning : Learning of the words or

facts expressed by words. Three types of verb learning in the

classroom:

Paired-associate learning

Serial learning

Free-recall learning p195

What Makes Information Meaningful?

Which one is easy to remember?

1. Enso firs hmen matu snoi taha erso iakt siae otin tnes esna nme.

2. Easier that nonsense information to makes than sense is learn.

3. Information that makes sense is easier to learn than nonsense.

What Makes Information Meaningful?

Rote learning versus Meaningful learning Schema theory Hierarchies ( 层级 )of knowledge The importance of background knowledge

(Advance Organizers)

How Do Meta-cognitive Skills Help Students Learn?

Meta-cogntive skills and students learningP204

Note-makingUnderliningSummarizingWriting to LearnOutlining and MappingThe PQ4R Method

Cognitive teaching strategies and students learning

Making learning relevant and activating prior knowledge

Organizing Information