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E WO/INF/108 WIPO ORIGINAL:English DATE:December1994
WORLD INTE LLECTUAL PROPERT Y O RGANI ZATION GENEVA
CHARACTERMERCHANDISING
ReportpreparedbytheInternationalBureau1
The1992/1993ProgramandBudgetoftheWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization(document AB/XXII/2)providesinItem04(7)thatTheInternationalBureauwill,onthebasisofthe analysisitwillhavecarriedoutin1991ontheworldsituationinrespectofthelawsapplicable tocharactermerchandising(thatis,theuseofthename,picture,voiceandstatementsofareal orfictitiouspersonalitytopromotethesaleanduseofcertainproductsorservices),prepareand publishareportonthistopic.Thepresentdocumentanditsannexesconstitutethesaidreport.
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................4
I. THENOTIONOFCHARACTER..........................................................................4
(a) Definition.................................................................................................................4 (b) SourcesandPrimaryUseofCharacters ..................................................................4
(i) FictionalCharacters ......................................................................................4 (ii) RealPersons...................................................................................................5
II. THECONCEPTOFCHARACTERMERCHANDISING ....................................6
(a) Definition.................................................................................................................6 (b) ABriefHistoryofCharacterMerchandising ..........................................................6 (c) TypesofCharacterMerchandising..........................................................................8
(i) MerchandisingofFictionalCharacters.........................................................8 (ii) PersonalityMerchandising ............................................................................9 (iii) ImageMerchandising.....................................................................................9
III. THELAWFULMERCHANDISINGOFACHARACTER..........................................10
(a) TheRightsAttachedtoaCharacter.......................................................................10 (b) OwnershipoftheRightsAttachedtoaCharacter .................................................10 (c) MeansofLawfulMerchandisingofaCharacter ...................................................11
(i) FictionalCharacters ....................................................................................11 (ii) RealPersons.................................................................................................13
IV. FORMSOFLEGALPROTECTION....................................................................13
A. INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS.............................................................14
(a) Copyright ...............................................................................................................14 (i) Introduction..................................................................................................14 (ii) Protectability................................................................................................16
FictionalCharacters ....................................................................................16 RealPersons.................................................................................................17
(b) IndustrialDesigns ..................................................................................................18 (i) Introduction..................................................................................................18 (ii) Protectability................................................................................................18
(c) TrademarksandServiceMarks(Marks) ...............................................................19 (i) Introduction..................................................................................................19 (ii) Protectability................................................................................................20
(d) UnfairCompetition................................................................................................22
B. OTHERFORMSOFPROTECTION ...................................................................23
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V. SCOPEOFPROTECTION...................................................................................24
A. RightsConferred....................................................................................................24 (a) Copyright ...............................................................................................................24 (b) IndustrialDesigns ..................................................................................................25 (c) Marks .....................................................................................................................25
B. EnforcementofRights;MeasuresandRemedies .................................................26 (a) Introduction............................................................................................................26 (b) CivilSanctions.......................................................................................................27
(i) Injunctions 27 PreliminaryInjunction .................................................................................27 FinalInjunction............................................................................................27
(ii) AccompanyingMeasures..............................................................................27 (iii) Damages 28 (iv) RectificationandPublicationoftheCourtDecision ...................................28
(c) RighttoSue ...........................................................................................................28 (i) InRespectofIntellectualPropertyRights ...................................................28 (ii) UnfairCompetition(andPassing-Off).........................................................29
(d) MeasurestoSecureEvidence(Discovery) ............................................................30 (i) DescriptiveandPhysicalSeizures ...............................................................30 (ii) AntonPillerOrder .......................................................................................30
(e) AcceleratedProceedings........................................................................................31 (f) CriminalSanctions.................................................................................................31
VI. GENERALCONCLUSION..................................................................................31
ANNEXI
Copyright...........................................................................................................................1 IndustrialDesigns .............................................................................................................6 Trademarks .......................................................................................................................8 UnfairCompetition(IncludingPassing-Off) ..................................................................15 OtherFormsofProtection ..............................................................................................25 Remedies .........................................................................................................................31 RequirementsinRespectofAgreements .........................................................................32
ANNEXII
LegislativeTexts................................................................................................................1
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INTRODUCTION
PurposeoftheStudyandQuestionstobeExamined
Thepresentstudyisintendedtoexaminethequestionofcharactermerchandising, whichcanbeconsideredasoneofthemostmodernmeansofincreasingtheappealofgoods orservicestopotentialcustomers.
Inthatconnection,thefollowingquestionswillbeexamined:
thenotionofcharacter(definition,sourcesandprimaryuse); theconceptofcharactermerchandising(definition,historyandtypes); thelawfulmerchandisingofacharacter; theformsofprotectionavailableforcharacters(relevanceofintellectualproperty
and,incertaincases,ofpersonalityandpublicityrights); thescopeofprotection(rightsconferredandenforcementofthoserights
(measuresandremediesavailable)).
Furthermore,thepresentstudyalsocontains(AnnexI)informationonprovisionsof lawsandjurisprudencerelevanttocharactermerchandisinginanumberofcountries (Australia,Canada,France,Germany,theUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica ontheonehandand,toalesserextent,Chile,India,JapanandNigeria).
I. THENOTIONOFCHARACTER
(a) Definition
Broadlyspeaking,thetermcharactercoversbothfictionalhumans(forexample, TarzanorJamesBond)ornon-humans(forexample,DonaldDuckorBugsBunny)andreal persons(forexample,famouspersonalitiesinthefilmormusicbusiness,sportsmen).
Inthecontextofthemerchandisingofcharacters,itismainlytheessentialpersonality featureseasilyrecognizedbythepublicatlargewhichwillberelevant.Thosepersonality featuresare,forexample,thename,image,appearanceorvoiceofacharacterorsymbols permittingtherecognitionofsuchcharacters.
(b) SourcesandPrimaryUseofCharacters
(i) FictionalCharacters
Themainsourcesoffictionalcharactersare:
literaryworks(suchasPinocchiobyCollodiorTarzanbyE.R.Burroughs); stripcartoons(suchasTintinbyHergorAstrixbyUderzoandGoscinny); artisticworks(suchaspaintings(MonaLisabyLeonardodaVinci))ordrawings
(thepandaoftheWorldWideFundforNature(WWF)ortheyoungboyFido
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DidobyJoanna FerroneandSusanRose); cinematographicworks(suchasCrocodileDundee,KingKong,RamboorE.T.
withrespecttomovies,McGyverorColumbowithrespecttotelevisionseriesor Bambiwithrespecttomotionpicturecartoons).
Itshouldbenotedthat,inthecaseofcinematographicworks,thecharactermay,andin factoftendoesoriginateinaliterarywork(suchasthecharacterOliverTwistby Charles Dickens)orinastripcartoon(suchasthecharacterBatman).
Asregardstheprimaryuseofafictionalcharacter,itcaninmostcasesbereferredtoas anentertainmentfunction.Suchacharactermayappearinanovel,ataleorastripcartoon (forexample,thecharacterTarzaninthenovelentitledTarzan,theLordoftheJungle,the characterMr.BrowninthetaleentitledSquirrelNutkinorthecharactersnamed James BondorTintin),andthesuccessgainedbytheworkdepictingthecharactergenerally leadstonewstories.Suchprimaryusewillbemadebythecreatorofthecharacter,although, whereacharacterhasreachedahighdegreeofreputationandthecreatorhasdied,theheirsif any,ortheholdersofthepublishingrights,mayorganizebymeansofcontractsthesurvival ofthecharacterinnewstories(forexample,thebooksfeaturingJamesBondafterthedeathof lanFleming).Othercreators,onthecontrary,maywishthatthecharacterstheyhavecreated shouldnotbethesubjectofnewstoriesaftertheirdeath(forexample,Herg,thecreatorof Tintin).Thesituationissomewhatdifferentinthecaseofcinematographicworks,whereitis seldomthecreatorofacharacter(themakeroftheoriginaldrawingsorscripts)whomakes theprimaryuse(butexceptionsdoexist,suchasthelittlemancharactercreatedby Charlie Chaplin).
Inothercases,theprimaryusesofafictionalcharactercansometimesbereferredtoas promotional,advertisingandrecognitionfunctions.Thiswillconcern,forexample, characterswhicharecloselylinkedtoacertaincompany(suchastheMichelinMan,the Exxon(Esso)tigerorthePeugeotlion),toacertainproduct(suchasthecharacter Johnnie WalkertoaScotchwhisky)ortoagivenevent(suchasthemascotsusedto personalizeOlympicGamesorWorldCupfootball).Thosecharactersarecreatedwitha viewtopopularizinglegalentities,productsorservices,andactivities.Generally,theprimary usewillnotoriginatefromthecreatorofthecharacter,i.e.,thepersonentrustedwiththetask ofcreatingthecharacter.
(ii) RealPersons
Themainsources,wherethecharacterisarealperson,arethemovieandshow businessesandsportingactivities.Inthecaseofrealpersons,oneshouldspeakofprimary activityinpreferencetoprimaryuse.Thedifficultywithrealpersonsisthatactors,for example,mayenjoyareputationbothaspersonsandasthecharactertheymayhave portrayedinamovieortelevisionseries.Insomecases,therealpersonisonlyreferredto underthenameofthecharacterportrayed(seedevelopmentsbelowonthetypesofcharacter merchandising).
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II. THECONCEPTOFCHARACTERMERCHANDISING
(a) Definition
Charactermerchandisingcanbedefinedastheadaptationorsecondaryexploitation,by thecreatorofafictionalcharacterorbyarealpersonorbyoneorseveralauthorizedthird parties,oftheessentialpersonalityfeatures(suchasthename,imageorappearance)ofa characterinrelationtovariousgoodsand/orserviceswithaviewtocreatinginprospective customersadesiretoacquirethosegoodsand/ortousethoseservicesbecauseofthe customersaffinitywiththatcharacter.
Itshouldalreadybeemphasizedthatthepersonorlegalentitywhichwillorganizethe merchandisingactivity(themerchandiser)willveryseldombethecreatorofthefictional characterortherealpersonconcerned.Thevariouspropertyorpersonalityrightsvestingin thecharacterwillbethesubjectofcontracts(suchastransferorlicenseagreementsorproduct orserviceendorsementagreements)enablingoneorseveralinterestedthirdpartiestobe regardedasauthorizedusersofthecharacter.
Thefollowingexamplesofcharactermerchandisingcanbegiven:
atoyisthethree-dimensionalreproductionofthefictionalcharacter Mickey Mouse;
aT-shirtbearsthenameorimageofthefictionalcharactersNinjaTurtles; thelabelattachedtoaperfumebottlebearsthenameAlainDelon; tennisshoesbearthenameAndrAgassi; anadvertisingmoviecampaignforthedrinkCocaColaLightshowsthepopstar
EltonJohndrinkingCocaColaLight;
(b) ABriefHistoryofCharacterMerchandising
Asanorganizedsystem,charactermerchandisingoriginatedandwasinitiatedinthe UnitedStatesofAmericainthe1930sintheWaltDisneyStudiosinBurbank(California). Whenthiscompanycreateditscartooncharacters(Mickey,Minnie,Donald),oneofits employees,KayKamen,establishedadepartmentspecializedinthesecondarycommercial exploitationofthosecharactersand,tothesurpriseofmost,succeededingrantingan importantnumberoflicensesforthemanufactureanddistributionoflow-pricedmassmarket merchandise(posters,T-shirts,toys,buttons,badges,drinks).
Ofcourse,theideaofsecondaryexploitationofthereputationofacharacterexisted beforethetwentiethcentury,butthereasonswerenotdirectlycommercial.InSouthEast Asia,forexample,thereligiouscharactersofRamayana,suchasPrinceRama,Vishnuand Sita,haveforcenturiesbeenrepresentedintheformofsculptures,puppetsortoys. Furthermore,inmorerecenttimes(late19thcentury),someindustrialists,withaviewto popularizingthegoodstheymanufactured,decidedtocreatefictionalcharacterswhichwould berepresentedonthegoods,thepackagingoranydocumentsandwouldbeusedtogenerate secondaryexploitationforfunctionalorornamentalgoodssuchasdecorativeplates,articles ofclothing,clocks,puppets,etc.(forexample,inFrance,thecharacterPierrotGourmand(a famousmarkforlollipops)ortheMichelinManofthetiremanufacturer.Furthermore,the
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exploitationofliterarycharactersprobablystartedwiththeworksofBeatrixPotter(thebooks PeterRabbitandSquirrelNutkinwiththeanimalcharacterswhichbecameandstillare representedintheformofsofttoysorotherarticlesforchildren)orwiththeworkof Lewis Carroll(AliceinWonderland),thecharactersofwhichalsobecamesofttoysandwere lateradaptedintoamotionpicturecartoon.
Thisphenomenondevelopedrapidlyduringthe20thcentury.Inthe1950s,political, movieandshow-businesspersonalitiesauthorized,forexample,thereproductionoftheir namesorimagesonarticlesofclothing(so-calledtie-inadvertising).Inthe1970sandthe 1980s,merchandisingprogramsweresetuponthebasisoffamouscharactersfromfilms (forexample.StarWars,E.T.orRambo).Thefinancialconsequencesareverysignificant since,forexample,theWaltDisneyMerchandisingDivisionin1978soldover$27millionin merchandisedgoodsbearingthenamesorimagesofthefamouscharacterscreatedintheir studios,andin1979KennerProductssoldover$100millioninmerchandisedgoodsrelating tothecharactersdepictedinthemovieStarWars.
Furthermore,therangeofgoodsorservicescoveredbymerchandisingexpanded considerablysince,forexample,intheUnitedStatesofAmerica,itconcerns*atleast29of the42classesoftheInternationalClassificationofGoodsandServicesestablishedbythe NiceAgreement.
Today,merchandisingprograms(whetherornottheyincludetheuseoftheessential personalityfeaturesofacharacter)mayconcern
universities(intheUnitedStatesofAmerica,merchandisingoftheUniversityof CaliforniainLosAngeleswithitssymbolU.C.L.A.);
organizations(advertisingcampaignforAmnestyInternationalinFrancewiththe participationoffamousfilmactors,ormerchandisingoftherepresentationofa pandabytheWorldWideFundforNature(WWF));
sportsevents(merchandisingofthemascotsofthe1992OlympicGamesin Albertville(France)andBarcelona(Spain));
socialevents(weddingofPrinceCharlesandLadyDianaintheUnited Kingdom);
artexhibitions(merchandisingoftheimagesofVanGoghorToulouse-Lautrec); naturalevents(merchandisinginconnectionwithHalleysComet),scientific
events(thecomicstripcharacterSnoopywasthemascotofthefirstAmerican astronauts);
personalitiesinmanyfieldsofactivity(actors,popstars,sportsmen,etc.,whose namesandimagesarereproducedonvariousgoods,packaging,documentsor othermaterial).
Thishistoricalintroductioncanbeconcludedwithfourexamplesshowingtheimpact andimportanceofcharactermerchandising.Firstly,intheUnitedStatesofAmerica,afterthe wideadvertisingcampaignmadebytheIBMCompanyforitscomputers,usingalook-alike ofCharlieChaplin,thecharacterwhoappearedwassometimesreferredtonolongeras CharlieChaplinbutastheIBMGuy.Secondly,inthecaseoftheEuroDisneyParkwhich wasinauguratedinApril1992nearParis,acompanyobtained,forthewholeofEurope,the exclusiverighttoreproducetheWaltDisneycharacters.Thirdly,theprofitsmadeinFrance fromtherecentToulouse-Lautrecretrospectiveexhibition(mainlybythesalesof merchandisedproductsrelatingtotheimageofthepainter)enabledtheLouvreMuseumto purchaseanimportantpaintingforitscollection.Finally,theSonyCorporationhasrecently
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formedacharactermerchandisingunitthatwillsellproductsbasedonitsmusic,filmand videobusinesses.
(c) TypesofCharacterMerchandising
Fromacommercialormarketingpointofview,charactermerchandisingcanprobably bedealtwithinasinglecategory.However,fromthelegalpointofviewitisimportantto differentiatebetweenthevarioussubjectsofmerchandising,sincethescopeanddurationof legalprotectionmayvaryaccordingtothesubjectinvolved.
Twomaincategoriesexistdependingonwhetherthemerchandisinginvolvestheuseof fictionalcharactersorofrealpersonalities(generallyreferredtoaspersonality merchandising).Betweenthosetwocategories,athirdhybridcategoryexistswhichis generallyreferredtoasimagemerchandising.
(i) MerchandisingofFictionalCharacters
Thisistheoldestandthebestknownformofmerchandising.Itinvolvestheuseofthe essentialpersonalityfeatures(name,image,etc.)offictionalcharactersinthemarketing and/oradvertisingofgoodsorservices.
Originally,thepracticeofcharactermerchandising,asanorganizedsystemof promotion,developedasameansofexploitingthepopularityofcartooncharacters,drawings ofattractivefiguresandthelike.Suchcartooncharactersoriginated:
inaliteraryworkbeingadaptedtothecartoonform(forthepurposeofamovieor acomicstrip)suchasthecharactersPinocchioorAliceinWonderland;
inaworkcreatedasacartooncharacter,originallyforfilms(MickeyMouse, DonaldDuck,Pluto)orforcomicstrips(Tintin,Snoopy,Astrix,Batman);
inafilmcharacter,laterreproducedoradaptedasacartoonforadvertisingand merchandisingpurposes(thecharacterZorroorevenarealcreaturesuchasthe sharkinthefilmJaws);
inacartooncharactercreatedmainlyforthepurposeofmerchandisingandnot, originally,intendedforamovieorcomicstrip(forexample,thecharacterFido Dido,exploitedbyFidoDido,Inc.foranumberofgoodsincludingthedrink Seven-Upwhichwasthesubjectofaworldwideadvertisingcampaign,orthe numerousmascotscreatedandusedinrespectofvariousevents,suchassports competitions);
inapuppetordollcharacterdesignedforafilmoratelevisionshow(forexample, thecharacterE.T.,theGremlinsortheMuppets).
Charactermerchandisingwithcartooncharactersinvolvesmainlytheuseofthename, imageandappearanceofthecharacter.Theappearancemayinvolvetwo-dimensional reproduction(drawings,stickers,etc.)orthree-dimensionalreproduction(dolls,keyrings, etc.).
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(ii) PersonalityMerchandising
Thismorerecentformofmerchandisinginvolvestheuseoftheessentialattributes (name,image,voiceandotherpersonalityfeatures)ofrealpersons(inotherwords,thetrue identityofanindividual)inthemarketingand/oradvertisingofgoodsandservices.In general,therealpersonwhoseattributesarecommercializediswellknowntothepublicat large;thisisthereasonwhythisformofmerchandisinghassometimesbeenreferredtoas reputationmerchandising.Infact,fromacommercialpointofview,merchandisersbelieve thatthemainreasonforapersontobuylow-pricedmassgoods(mugs,scarves,badges,Tshirts,etc.)isnotbecauseoftheproductitselfbutbecausethenameorimageofacelebrity appealingtothatpersonisreproducedontheproduct.
Thiscategorycanbesubdividedintotwoforms.Thefirstformconsistsintheuseof thename,image(intwoorthreedimensions)orsymbolofarealperson.Thisformrelates mainlytofamouspersonsinthefilmormusicindustries.However,personsconnectedwith otherfieldsofactivitymaybeconcerned(forexample,membersofaroyalfamily).As indicatedabove,itisnotsomuchtheproductwhichisofprincipalimportancetothe consumer,butratherthenameorimagethatitbearsisthemainmarketingandadvertising vehicle.Thesecondformoccurswherespecialistsincertainfields,suchasfamoussportsor musicpersonalities,appearinadvertisingcampaignsinrelationtogoodsorservices.The appealforthepotentialconsumeristhatthepersonalityrepresentedendorsestheproductor serviceconcernedandisregardedasanexpert.Ofcourse,themoretheproductorservice advertisedislinkedwiththeactivityofthepersonality,themorethepotentialconsumerwill considerthatthesaidproductorserviceisendorsedandapprovedbythatpersonality (advertisingfortennisshoesorracketsbyatennischampion,advertisingforanenergydrink byacross-countryrunneroradvertisingforhigh-fidelityequipmentormusicalinstrumentsby apopstar).
(iii) ImageMerchandising
Thisisthemostrecentformofmerchandising.Itinvolvestheuseoffictionalfilmor televisioncharacters,playedbyrealactors,inthemarketingandadvertisingofgoodsor services.Inthosecases,thepublicsometimesfindsitdifficulttodifferentiatetheactor(real person)fromtheroleheplays(characterportrayed).Sometimes,however,thereisa completeassociationandtherealpersonisreferredtoandknownbythenameofthe character.Thefollowingexamplescanbegiventoillustratethisnotion:fromthefilm industries,LaurelandHardy,theMarxBrothers,CrocodileDundee,JamesBond007played bySeanConneryandRogerMoore,FrankensteinsmonsterbyBorisKarloffandTarzanby JohnnyWeissmuller;fromtelevisionseries,ColumboplayedbyPeterFalk,thecharacterJ.R. inDallas,playedbyLarryHagman,orthecharacterMcGyverplayedbyRichardDean Anderson.Inthecaseofthelatter,aT-shirtbearingtheimageofR.D.Andersonwouldbe referredtoasaMcGyverT-shirt,whilepacksofdairyproductsreproducingtheimageof R.D.Anderson.wouldmentionthenameMcGyver,thepurchasingofsuchproductgivingthe possibilityofwinningsecondaryMcGyverproductssuchasT-shirtsortravelbags.
Inthecaseofimagemerchandising,goodsorserviceswillbemarketedwiththe merchandisingofdistinctiveelementsofafilmorseries(appearanceanddressoftheactor whenplayingthecharactercoupledwithmemorableaspectsofascene(forexample, introductoryscenesoftheJamesBondfilms,theappearanceandweaponsofRamboorthe
WO/INF/108 page10
knifesceneinCrocodileDundee)).
III. THELAWFULMERCHANDISINGOFACHARACTER
Twoofthemostimportantquestionstobestudiedrelatetotheownershipoftherights attachedtoacharacterandtotheconditionsunderwhichthemerchandisingoftheessential featuresofacharactercanberegardedaslawful.
(a) TheRightsAttachedtoaCharacter
Therightsattachedtoafictionalcharactercangenerallybereferredtoasproperty rights,whichincludeeconomicandexploitationrights.Asisthecasewithmostproperty, thoserightsincludetherighttouseafictionalcharacter(ormorepreciselyhisname,image, appearance,etc.),therighttoreceivethebenefitsresultingfromitsuseandtherightto disposeofit.
Withrespecttorealpersons,therightsattachedto,interalia,thename,imageor appearanceofarealpersonmaybereferredtoaspersonalityrightsorpublicityrights. Thoserightsincludetherighttousetheessentialpersonalityfeaturesandtoreceivethe benefitsresultingfromsuchuse.Furthermore,whereacertainformoflegalprotection(for example,trademarkprotection)isapplicabletosomeofthosefeatures,thesaidformmay, undercertainconditions,betransferred.
Inprinciple,onlythepersonorlegalentitythatownstherightsinacharacterisentitled toexercisetherighttouseit,includingthesettingupofamerchandisingprogram.Iftheuser orthemerchandiserisnottheowneroftherights,hewillberegardedasalawfuluseror merchandiserifhehasrequestedandobtainedthepreliminaryauthorization(or,ifpossible, acquiredtherights)fromthesaidowner.
Itisimportanttonotethattherightsattachedtoacharactermayenjoylegalprotection inanumberofformsavailableeitherautomatically,undercertainconditions(forexample, copyright,personalityorpublicityrights),orfollowinganactbeforeacompetentauthority (forexample,trademarkorindustrialdesignprotection).Thequestionsrelatingtolegalforms ofprotectionwillbedevelopedinPartIVofthisstudy.
(b) OwnershipoftheRightsAttachedtoaCharacter
Therightsattachedtoacharacter(beingafictionalcharacterassuchorthefictional characterportrayedbyarealpersoninconnectionwithimagemerchandising)areinprinciple ownedbythecreatorofthatcharacter,unlessthecreatorhastransferredhisrights,was commissionedtocreate,createdinthecourseofhisprofessionalactivityforhisemployeror hasdied(seedevelopmentsbelow).
Inthecaseofpersonalitymerchandising,therightsattachedtotherealperson concernedare,inprinciple,ownedbythesaidperson.
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(c) MeansofLawfulMerchandisingofaCharacter
(i) FictionalCharacters
Thelawfulmerchandisingoftheessentialpersonalityfeatures(suchasthename, pseudonym,image,appearanceorsymbol)ofafictionalcharactermaybemadeinrespectof one,severalorallofthosefeatures,by:
thecreatorhimselfasowneroftherights;
theholderoftherights(notbeingthecreator)pursuanttoacontract (transferagreement);
theholderoftherights(notbeingthecreator)byoperationoflaw;
anauthorizeduser(notbeingholderoftherights)pursuanttoalicense agreement.
Generally,thecreatorassuchofafictionalcharacter,whowilloftenbeanindividualor agroupofpersons,willnotsetupamerchandisingprogram.Thecreator(forexample,the authorofasuccessfulnovel)mayenvisage,inexchangeforalumpsum,transferringtoone orseveralpersonstherightsattachedtotheessentialpersonalityfeaturesofthecharacters portrayedinhiswork(rightofcinematographicadaptation,righttoreproducethenameor appearanceofacharacteroncertaingoods,etc.).Insomecases,thenewholderoftherights mayhavetomaketheprimaryuseofthecharacter(forexample,wheredrawingsare transferredtoafilmcompanyforthepurposeofamotionpicturecartoon)beforeenvisaging thesettingupofamerchandisingprogram.Theamountofthelumpsumwhichwillbe allocatedtothecreatorwilldependonseveralfactors,suchas:
whetherthenewholderhasnolinkswiththecreatororwassetupandis controlledbythecreator;
whetherthetransferisgeneralorlimitedinsomeways(withrespecttofieldsof activity,territorialscope,etc.);
whetherthetransferincludestheassignmentoflegalformsofprotectionsuchas trademarksorindustrialdesigns;
whethertheessentialpersonalityfeaturesofthecharacterenjoyed,atthetimeof thetransfer,areputationand,ifso,theextentofsuchreputation.
Itshouldbenotedthat,whereatransferincludestheassignmentofsomelegalformsof protection(forexample,trademarks),somespecificconditionsmayexistinsomecountries (seeAnnexI).
Theremaybecaseswhereaperson,notbeingthecreatorofafictionalcharacter,holds eitherinwholeorinparttherightsattachedtoitwithouthavingacquiredthesaidrightsby contractbutratherbyoperationoflaw.Twoexamplescanbegiven,namely:
where,followingthedeathofthecreator,theheirshaveinheritedtherights attachedtoafictionalcharacter;
insomecases,wherethecreatorhadbeencommissionedorentrustedtocreatea fictionalcharacterorwherethecharacterwascreatedinthecourseofthenormal
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professionalactivitiesofthecreator.
Inpractice,theholdersoftherightsattachedtoafictionalcharacterwhohaveno intentionofbeingdirectlyinvolvedinamerchandisingactivitywillnottransfertheirrights butwill,bywayoflicenseagreements,authorizetheuseofone,severaloralltheessential personalityfeaturesofafictionalcharacter.Theholderoftherightsmayeitherdirectly negotiatewithpotentiallicensees,orsub-licenseoneofitssubsidiarycompanieswhichwill negotiateorarrangeforamerchandisingagencytonegotiate.
Theholderoftherightmayconcludeseverallicenseagreementswithdifferentlicensees accordingtothelattersactivities(forexample,alicenselimitedtothereproductionofthe nameandimageofacharacteronT-shirtsandanotherlicenseagreementlimitedtofoodstuffs and/orbeverages).Thelicensemaybeexclusiveornon-exclusiveinrespectofcertaingoods andwithinthesameterritory(onecountry).
Itshouldfurtherbenotedthatmostoftheimportantlicensingagreementsinthecontext ofthemerchandisingalsoincludetherightforthelicenseetouseone,severalorallofthe essentialpersonalityfeaturesofthecharacterforpromotionalpurposes(suchastheuseof thelicenseescompanynameinassociationwiththenameorimageofthecharacters concerned).
Amerchandisingagreementintheformofalicenseagreementwillgenerallycontain thefollowingprovisions:
theindicationthatthelicenseisexclusiveornon-exclusive; thedefinitionofthesubjectmatteroftheagreement,includingthedescriptionof
thefeatures(name,pseudonym,image,appearance,voice,etc.)relatingtothe characterwhichcanbemerchandisedbythelicensee;
theindication,ifapplicable,thattheagreementincludesthelicensing,withinthe territorycoveredbyit,ofintellectualpropertyrightsrelatingtothecharacter (copyright,trademarksorindustrialdesigns);
theindicationoftheproductsofthelicenseecoveredbytheagreement,andthe informationonwhethertheagreementextendstothemanufactureand/or distributionandsaleofthoseproductsandtothecorrespondingpackagingand advertisingmaterials;
theindicationoftheperiodduringwhichtheagreementapplies,andthe informationonwhethertheagreementcanbeprolongedafterthatperiodor,on thecontrary,terminatedbeforethatperiodundercertainconditions(suchas failuretomanufactureand/ordistribute,defaultsinpaymentsand,ingeneral,any breachoftheconditionsoftheagreement),includingtheconsequencesofsuch earlytermination;
theindicationoftheterritorialscopeoftheagreement; thefinancialtermsoftheagreement,suchasthepaymentofalumpsumorofa
minimumguaranteesumplusroyaltiesatregularintervals,withanindicationof themeansofcalculationofthoseroyalties;
theconditionsrelatingtothepriorapprovalthelicensorshouldgivethelicensee withrespecttothemannerinwhichthefeaturesofthecharacterareusedonorin connectionwiththeproducts(includingthepreliminaryfurnishingofsamples);
theindicationthatthelicenseeshouldinformthelicensorofanyunauthorizeduse ofthecharacterbythirdpartieswithintheterritorycoveredbytheagreementand cooperatewiththelicensorinanyproceedingsinitiatedagainstsuchthirdparties;
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theindicationthatthelicenseemaynotgrantanysub-licensesor,onthecontrary, theconditionsunderwhichmanufacturingand/ordistributionsub-licensesmaybe grantedbythelicensee.
Merchandisingagreementsmaybelimitedtoatrademarklicenseagreementauthorizing thenon-exclusiveuseofthenameofafictionalcharacteronT-shirtsinonecountryormay covertheexclusiveuse(includingmanufactureanddistribution)ofalltheessentialfeaturesof severalfictionalcharactersforawiderangeofproductsandinalargenumberofcountries (suchasthelicenseagreementsconcludedbytheWaltDisneyCompany).
Aswasmentionedinthecaseoftransfers,wherealicenseagreementincludesthe licensingofintellectualpropertyrights,someconditionsmaybeimposedbythelawsofsome countries(seeAnnexI).
(ii) RealPersons
Themeansoflawfulmerchandisingofafictionalcharactermentionedinparagraph35 ofthepresentreportare,inprinciple,applicableinthecaseofpersonalitymerchandising(for example,wherethenameofafamousactoriswrittenonthelabelofaperfumebottleorhis imageappearsonthepackagingofdairyproduct,orwheretheimageofafamoussportsman appearsonadvertisementsforasoftdrink).
Generallyarealpersonwillnothimselfexploittheessentialfeaturesofhispersonality (suchashisnameorimage)directly.Hewilleitherentrustanagentor,ifhewantsto participatemoreactively,setupacompany.
Themainagreementswhichwillbenegotiatedwillbelicenseagreementsorproductor serviceendorsementagreements.AsshowninPartIVofthisreport,arealpersonismainly protectedagainstunauthorizedcommercialexploitationofhisnameorimagebypersonality orpublicityrightswhich,inprinciple,cannotbethesubjectofatransferbutonlyofan authorizationofuse.Thesamegenerallyappliesifthenameofarealpersonisregisteredasa trademark.
Itshouldbementionedthatinnegotiatingagreementswithindividuals,suchasartists, particularcareshouldbetakeninmostcountries,evenwheretheindividualislegally represented(byanagent),toeliminatethepossibilityofanagreementbeingunenforceableby reasonofitsbeingenteredintoasaresultofundueinfluenceorduress.
IV. FORMSOFLEGALPROTECTION
Apparently,nocountryhasenactedsuigenerislegislationontheprotectionofcharacter merchandising.Furthermore,thereexistsnointernationaltreatydealingspecificallywiththat topic.Therefore,anypersonorentitymustrelyondifferentformsofprotectionand, consequently,differentlegaltexts.
Oneofthemostimportantareasoflawinvolvedinthelegalprotectionofcharacter merchandisingisintellectualpropertylaw.Alistofwhatconstitutesthevarioussubjectsof intellectualpropertywillbefoundinArticle2(viii)oftheConventionEstablishingtheWorld
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IntellectualPropertyOrganization(comprising150memberStates).Thisprovisionreadsas follows:
Intellectualpropertyshallincludetherightsrelatingto:
literary,artisticandscientificworks, performancesofperformingartists,phonograms,andbroadcasts, inventionsinallfieldsofhumanendeavor, scientificdiscoveries, industrialdesigns, trademarks,servicemarks,andcommercialnamesanddesignations, protectionagainstunfaircompetition,
andallotherrightsresultingfromintellectualactivityintheindustrial,scientific, literaryorartisticfields.
Onlysomeoftheintellectualpropertyrightsmentionedabovearerelevanttosomeor alltypesofcharactermerchandising.Furthermore,otherformsofprotectionareapplicableto sometypesofcharactermerchandising.
Basically,thelegislationoncopyright,trademarksandindustrialdesigns,togetherwith theprotectionagainstunfaircompetition(includingpassing-off),mayberelevantinthe contextofthemerchandisingoffictionalcharactersandofimagemerchandisingwhile,toa lesserextent,thelegislationontrademarksandindustrialdesignsandtheprotectionagainst unfaircompetitionmayberelevantinthecontextofpersonalitymerchandising.
Furthermore,withrespecttopersonalitymerchandising,otherareasoflaw(suchas personalityorpublicityrights)mayberelevant.
A. INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS
(a) Copyright
(i) Introduction
Article2(1)oftheBerneConventionofSeptember9,1886,fortheProtectionof LiteraryandArtisticWorks(applicableto110memberStates)readsasfollows:
Theexpressionliteraryandartisticworksshallincludeeveryproductioninthe literary,scientificandartisticdomain,whatevermaybethemodeorformofitsexpression, suchasbooks,pamphlets,andotherwritings;lectures,addresses,sermonsandotherworksof thesamenature;dramaticordramatico-musicalworks;choreographicworksand entertainmentsindumbshow;musicalcompositionswithorwithoutwords; cinematographicworkstowhichareassimilatedworksexpressedbyaprocessanalogousto cinematography;worksofdrawing,painting,architecture,sculpture,engravingand lithography;photographicworkstowhichareassimilatedworksexpressedbyaprocess analogoustophotography;worksofappliedart;illustrations,maps,plans,sketchesand three-dimensionalworksrelativetogeography,topography,architectureorscience.
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Generallyspeaking,itistheexpressionoftheauthorsideasthatisprotectedratherthan theideasthemselves.Ideas,assuch,arenotprotectedbycopyright.Apersonwhohasmade hisideapublic,forexampleinanoralpresentation,hasnomeansofpreventingothersfrom usingit.Butoncethatideahasbeenexpressedintangibleform,copyrightprotectionexists forthewords,drawings,photographs,etc.,inwhichitispresented.
Aworkenjoyscopyrightprotectioniftheforminwhichitisexpressedconstitutesan originalcreationoftheauthor.Furthermore,somecountriesrequire,mainlyforreasonsof proof,somefixationoftheworkbeforeprotectioncanbeenforced.Finally,protectionis independentofthequalityortheaestheticvalueattachingtothework,andevenofthe purposeforwhichitisintended.
Forthecreatorofaworkofauthorship,copyrightisbasicallytherighttorespectforhis creationandtherighttoderiveprofitfromhisworkbycollecting,foralimitedperiod,the revenuegeneratedbytheuseofhiscreativeeffort.Copyrightprotectiongenerallymeansthat certainusesofworksorcertainrelatedactsareunlawful,exceptwheretheauthoror copyrightownerhasauthorizedthem.Theseusesmay,forexample,includethecopyingor reproducing,inanymannerorform,ofanykindofworkandtheadaptationoftheworkto anothermediumofexpression.Anyunauthorizeduseofworksprotectedbycopyright,where authorizationisrequired,constitutesacopyrightinfringementandtheprejudicecausedmay beremedied.
Therightsinaliteraryorartisticworkconsistofeconomicorexploitationrightsonthe onehandandofmoralrightsontheother.Themaineconomicrightsaretherightsof adaptation,reproductionorcommunicationofaworktothepublic,includingbroadcasting andpublicperformance.Thoserights,whichwillnecessarilybeexercisedinthecaseof merchandising,areusuallytransferredbytheauthoroftheworkor,inthecaseofawork madeforanemployer,generallybelongtothatemployer.Moralrights,onthecontrary,are non-assignableandinalienable.TheyarerecognizedinArticle6bis(l)oftheBerne Conventionastherightsoftheauthororcreatortoclaimauthorshipoftheworkandtoobject toanydistortion,mutilationorothermodificationof,orotherderogatoryactioninrelationto, thesaidwork,whichwouldbeprejudicialtohishonororreputation.Somecountriesprovide forawiderdefinitionofmoralrightsincluding,forexample,therighttodisclosetheworkor therighttodisavoworwithdrawit.
Itisgenerallyacceptedthatthewholesetofprerogativesthatconstitutecopyrightmust berecognizedandprotectedatleastthroughoutthelifeoftheauthor.Afterhisdeath,his workcontinuesinprincipletobeprotectedforacertaintime.Thespecificcharacterof literaryandartisticproperty,whichstemsfromthevocationofintellectualcreation,led nationallegislatorstomoderatetheexclusivenatureoftherightstobeconferredonthe authorsdescendantsfortheexploitationofhiswork.UnderArticle7(1)oftheBerne Convention,theperiodofprotectionisgenerally50yearsafterthedeathoftheauthor.This isregardedasafairbalancebetweenthepreservationoftheeconomicrightsconferredonthe authorandsocietysneedforaccesstoculturalexpression,whoseessentialaspectswillhavea morelastingeffectthantransitorysuccesses.
Uponexpiryofthetermofprotection,theworkfallsintothepublicdomain.Itisno longerprotectedbycopyrightandcanbeusedbyanyonewithoutauthorization.Itshould howeverbenotedthat,throughotherformsoflegalprotection(forexample,trademark protection),someworksmaycontinuetobeprotectedagainstunauthorizeduse.
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Inthecontextofthemerchandisingoffictionalcharactersandofimagemerchandising themostrelevantaspectsofcopyrightarebooks,pamphletsandotherwritings, cinematographicworks,worksofdrawingandphotographicworks.Asregardspersonality merchandising,therelevanceofcopyrightisprimarilyinthesphereofphotographicworks.
Furthermore,thenotionofadaptationisveryimportant.Article2(3)oftheBerne Conventionreadsasfollows:
Translations,adaptations,arrangementsofmusicandotheralterationsofaliteraryor artisticworkshallbeprotectedasoriginalworkswithoutprejudicetothecopyrightinthe originalwork.
Themultiplicityofcommunicationmediaoffer,atthepresenttime,agreatnumberof possibilitiesforthecreationofadaptations(derivativeworks).Manyfilmadaptationsare probablymorewellknownthanthenovelorshortstoryonwhichtheywerebased(for example,thePinocchioandCinderellacartoonsbytheWaltDisneyStudiosareprobably betterknowntochildrenthantheoriginalstories,writtenbyCollodiandCharlesPerrault respectively).Somefamousartisticfigureshavebeenwidelymerchandisedoncetheyhave fallenintothepublicdomain.Forsomegoodsorservicesafictionalcharactermaybethe subjectofamonopoly(throughtrademarkprotection),butgenerallyitmaybeexploitedby anybody.Forexample,thefamousMonaLisa(LaGioconda)byLeonardodaVincihasbeen, andstillis,usedonvariousgoodsortheirpackaging(postcards,cardgames,dolls,alcoholic beverages,chocolateorfruitboxes,mineralwater,diaries);ithasalsobeenthesubjectof multipletransformations(cartoons,caricatures,fancyphotographs;etc.).
(ii) Protectability
FictionalCharacters
Inprinciple,copyrightprotectionisnotsubjecttoformalities,suchasthefilingofan application,asisthecaseforotherformsofindustrialproperty(industrialdesignsor trademarks)(seethedevelopmentsinAnnexI).Often,itiswhenthecreatorofthework decidestoexercisehisright,forexample,toprohibitwhatheconsiderstobeanunlawfuluse ofhiswork,thatthecourtswilldecidewhethertheworkconcernedisanoriginalcreation eligibleforcopyrightprotection.
However,insomecountries,copyrightprotectionmaybedeniedorcurtailedwherea workiscreatedwiththeintentionofbeingexploitedindustriallyandembodiedinmassproducedarticles,whichisaninherentqualityofworks(drawings,dolls,puppets,robots, etc.)designedformerchandising.Thisresultsfromtheoverlapbetweenthenotionsofartistic worksandindustrialdesigns,wherethetwoformsofprotectionaregenerallynotavailable cumulativelyatthesametime.
Asregardsliteraryworks,themainquestioniswhetherthenameofafictionalcharacter (whichmayalsobethetitleofthework)canbeprotectedundercopyrightperse, independentlyoftheworkasawhole.Theanswerisgenerallynegative,althoughcopyright protectionmayberecognizedifthefictionalcharacterissufficientlyclearlydelineatedand hasacquiredsuchdistinctivenessandnotorietyastoberecognizedbythepublicseparately
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fromtheworkinwhichheappears(forexample,thecharacterTarzanintheworksof E.R. Burroughs).
Drawingsorcartoons(two-dimensionalworks)maybeprotectedindependentlyifthey meetthesubstantiverequirementsofcopyrightprotection.Inthatrespect,itshouldbe emphasizedthataworkwhichisoriginalisnotnecessarilynew,sinceagraphicadaptationof analreadyexistingliterarycharacter(whetherornothehasfalleninthepublicdomain)may qualifyforcopyrightprotection(forexample,theliterarycharactersPinocchioorCinderella adaptedtothecartoonformbytheWaltDisneyCompany).Thesamewillapplytothe drawingofacommoncreature(forexample,thecartooncharacterDonaldDuck). Furthermore,itshouldbenotedthat,mainlyinthecaseofcartoonstripsandanimated cartoons,copyrightprotectseachdifferentoriginalposeadoptedbythecharacter.
Three-dimensionalworks(mainlysculptures,dolls,puppetsorrobots),whichmaybe originalworksororiginaladaptationsoftwo-dimensionaloraudiovisualfictionalcharacters, willgenerallyenjoycopyrightprotectionindependentlyoftheworkinwhichtheyappearif theymeettherequiredcriteria.
Audiovisualworksincludingfictionalcharacters(films,videogames,photographs,film framesorstills)will,asawhole(imageandsoundtrack),generallyenjoycopyrightprotection iftheymeettherequiredcriteria.Thiswillbeallthemoreprobablesinceaudiovisual fictionalcharacterswilloftenhavestartedlifeasdrawings(storyboardsorstripcartoons)or beendescribedinaliterarywork.Copyrightprotectionmayextendtotheindividualvisual attributesortothephysicalorpictorialappearances(costumes,disguisesormasks)ofa fictionalcharacter.
RealPersons
Therelevanceofcopyrightprotectioninthecaseofpersonalitymerchandisingis limited,becausecopyrightdoesnotvestintherealpersonconcernedbutinthepersonwho createdtheworkinwhichtheessentialpersonalityfeaturesofarealpersonappear(for example,inthecaseofabiography,copyrightbelongstotheauthor;inthecaseofa sculpture,drawingorpaintingrepresentingarealperson,thecopyrightbelongstotheartist; inthecaseofafilmortelevisionseries,thecopyrightintheworkbelongstothepersonwho madeitpossiblefortheworktobemadeandwhosupervisedanddirectedtheworkofthe actors(authororfilmproducer)).However,inthelatterexample,asaperformer,anactorhas somerightsifthelawofthecountryofwhichheisanationalprovidesforperformersrights, orifthatcountryispartytotheRomeConventionofOctober26,1961,fortheProtectionof Performers,ProducersofPhonogramsandBroadcastingOrganizations.
Thequestionisprobablymoredebatableinrespectofphotographicworks.Thereply willdependonwhoownsthecopyright.Inmostcasestheauthorofthephotographs(ormore accuratelyofthenegatives)willownthecopyright.Ifaphotographiscommissionedfor privateanddomesticpurposes,thecommissioningpartyhasusuallyarighttopreventthe makingofcopiesofthephotographoritsbeingshowninpublic.Afinalproblemrelatesto thecasewherethepartycommissioningtheworkisnotthepersonwhoisthesubjectofthe photograph.Inanycase,formsofprotectionotherthancopyrightareavailableforthecontrol ofthecommercialuseofphotographicworks.
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(b) IndustrialDesigns
(i) Introduction
Industrialdesignsbelongtotheaestheticfield,butareatthesametimeintendedto serveaspatternsforthemanufactureofproductsofindustryorhandicraft.Anindustrial designcanbedefinedastheornamentaloraestheticaspectofausefularticle.The ornamentalaspectmayconsistoftheshapeand/orpatternand/orcolorofthearticle.The ornamentaloraestheticaspectmustappealtothesenseofsight.Thearticlemustbe reproduciblebyindustrialmeans,whichiswhythedesigniscalledindustrial.Ifthislatter elementismissing,thecreationwillrathercomeintothecategoryofaworkofart,the protectionofwhichisaffordedbycopyrightlawratherthanbyalawonindustrialdesigns.
Inordertobeprotectable,anindustrialdesignmust,accordingtosomelaws,benew and,accordingtootherlaws,originalinthesensethatithasnotbeencopied.Industrial designsareusuallyprotectedagainstunauthorizedcopyingorimitationandtheprotection basedonregistrationlasts,inmostcountries,forfive,10or15years.
Industrialdesignprotectionismainlyrelevantforcartooncharactersrepresentedinthe formofaestheticdesignsforthree-dimensionalarticleswhichmainlybelongtothetoyor costumejewelryareas(dolls,robots,puppets,actionfigures,brooches,pins)which generallyoriginateincartoons,butwhichmaysometimesrepresentrealpersons.The relevanceofdesignprotectionwillbeofimportancenotablywhencopyrightprotectionis excludedorreduced,mainlywhenacharacterhasbeencreatedwiththeintentionofbeing industriallyexploited.Furthermore,sincedesignprotectionisoftensubjecttoregistration,a designapplicationwillbehelpfultoestablishprimafacieevidenceofownershipasfromthe dateoftheapplication,althougheffectiveprotectionwillonlycommenceonthedateof registrationofthedesign.
(ii) Protectability
Whilemanycountriesprovideforasystemofregistrationofindustrialdesigns,notall provideforthesubstantiveexaminationofthedesign(noveltyand/ororiginality);therefore, thequestionwhetheraregistereddesigneffectivelymeetsthesubstantiverequirementswill bedecidedbythecourtswhentheholderoftheregistrationexerciseshisexclusiverightin ordertostoptheunauthorizedcopyingofthedesign.That,ofcourse,leavesanuncertaintyas totheeffectivevalueofaregistereddesignwhichcancauseproblemswhen,inthecaseofa character,itisintendedtohavethesaiddesignexploitedonalargescale.Potentiallicensees mayhesitatetonegotiateanagreementinrespectofadesigntheregistrationofwhichcanbe cancelledatanytimefollowingacourtactioninitiatedbytheownerofapreviousidenticalor similardesign.
Inmostcountries,designswhichdonotcreateanaestheticimpressionbutwhichcan onlybedescribedaspurelytechnicalorfunctionalinnovationswillnotbeeligiblefor registrationasdesigns.Iftheyfulfilltherequiredconditions,theymayqualifyforutility modelsprotection,ifavailable,orforpatents.
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(c) TrademarksandServiceMarks(Marks)
(i) Introduction
Since1945,theunprecedenteddevelopmentofinternationaltradehasledtoeven greateruseofmarksinallcountriesandinallfieldsofactivity.Althoughoneisnotalways awareofthefact,markstodayassumeaconstantlyincreasingplaceinday-to-daylife,since oneentersintocontactwithahostofmarks,notonlyinsupermarketsandpublicplaceswhere oneisfacedwithposters,butalsointhepress,onradioandontelevision,mediathatactually enterthehome.
Amarkisasymbolwhichisintendedtoindicatewhoisresponsibleforthegoods placedbeforethepublic.Theremaybemanymakersorsellersofthesamegoods,andthey mayallusedifferentmarks.Marksenabletheconsumertochoosebetweengoodswithout actuallyknowingwhoholdsthemark.Theconsumerswilldistinguishbetweenthegoodsof competingtraderssolelybymeansoftheirmarks.Forthattobepossible,themarksshould notonlybedifferentfromeachother,butalsobeclearlyrecognizable.Inotherwords,marks shouldbedistinctive.
Marksmaytakemanyforms.Theymayconsistofasingleletterornumeral,usually presentedinsomefancifulororiginalmanner.Attheotherextreme,awholesentence,or slogan,maybeusedasamark.Manymarksconsistofpictorialdevices,withoutanywords atall.Quiteafewmarksconsistofacombinationofwordsanddevices,perhapsonalabel attachedtothegoods.Somemarksaremadeanintegralpartofthegoods(forexample,the specialformofabottle,oraspecialmoldingaroundtheneckofabottle),whichmeansthat marksmaybethree-dimensional.
Marksarenotlimitedtocoveringgoodsbutmayalsocoverservices,inwhichcasethey arereferredtoasservicemarks.Thelatterareused,forexample,byhotels,restaurants, airlines,touristagencies,carrentalagencies,laundriesandcleaners.
Amarkservesseveralpurposes.Fromtheviewpointofthepersonwhoisinterestedin buyinggoodsorusingservices,itservesthepurposeofguidinghiminhisdecision.Sucha decisionisbasedontheexpectedpropertiesofthegoodsorservices.Inotherwords,oneof thefunctionsofamarkistoconveyafeelingofacertainquality.Asecondfunctionisto allowthemanufacturerofthegoodstoidentifythemoncetheyarenolongerinitsorhis possessionbutalreadyinthehandsofothers,suchasdistributors.Athirdfunctionofthe markistoenabletheauthoritiesresponsibleforcontrollingthequalityofthegoodssoldor theservicesrenderedunderit,aswellasanyotherentityorperson,toidentifytheholderof themark,sincemostcountrieskeeparegisterinwhichallregisteredmarksarerecorded. Lastly,itisoftensaidthatthemainfunctionofamarkistodistinguishthegoodsorservices ofoneentityfromthegoodsorservicesofanothersimilarkindofentity.
Incomparisonwithotherintellectualpropertyrights,oneofthemainadvantagesof marksisthattheownerofamarkmayenjoyanexclusiverightforanunlimitedperiodof time.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatthereisnorestrictiononthecumulationofrightsinrespect ofbothtrademarksandworkswhichmaybeprotectedbycopyright.Evenifacopyrighthas expired,theownersofcopyrightinawork(orholdersofaneconomicrightfollowinga
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transfer)can,formerchandisingpurposes,ensurethatseparateelementsofawork,suchasits title(whichmayatthesametimebethenameofafictionalcharacter)ortheappearanceor imageofcharacters(which,assuch,mayormaynotbeprotectedbycopyright),arethe subjectofanapplicationforgoodsand/orforservices.Asfortherelationsbetweenindustrial designsandtrademarks,theremaybepossiblelimitationsresultingfromthedoctrineof aestheticfunctionality.
Traditionally,anapplicationtoregisteramarkwilleitherbedeclaratoryorattributiveof rights.Incountrieswhereanapplicationisdeclaratoryofrights,itmayservetoreinforcean alreadyexistingprotectionofthemarkbasedonitseffectivecommercialuse.Incountries whereanapplicationisattributiveofrightsandwhere,inprinciple,prioruseofamarkhasno effect,theapplicationservestoestablishtherightinthemark.
Aslongasamarkfulfillsthevariousconditionsforregistration,mostoftheimportant essentialpersonalityfeaturesofafictionalcharacterorofarealpersoncanberegisteredasa mark.Forexample,thenameofafictionalcharacter(Snoopy,theGremlins,JamesBond, Tarzan)orthenameandsignatureofarealperson(CatherineDeneuve,ZinoDavidoff)orthe appearance,whetherintheformofadrawingorphotograph,ofafictionalcharacterorreal person.
Itshouldfinallybeemphasizedthatamarkdoesnotprotecttherightsinthefictional characterorthepersonalityperse,butonlytheirembodimentinadistinctivemark,usuallyin relationtothegoodsorservicesforwhichthemarkisregistered.
(ii) Protectability
Theessentialpersonalityfeaturesofafictionalcharactermay,undercertainconditions (mainlyofasubstantivenature)beregisteredasmarks.Asregardstheessentialpersonality featuresofarealperson,thequestionseemsmoredebatable,mainlywithrespecttotheimage (portrait).Inthecontextofmerchandising,thetrendhasbeentoadoptstagenamesand personalizedlogoswhichmaybemoreeasilyregistrable(forexample,inthepopmusicarea, suchstagenamesastheBeatlesandtheRollingStoneswiththeirrespectiveAppleand TongueandLiplogos).Anotherwayforarealpersontoprotecthisnameistoobtain registrationofthenicknamebywhichheisknown(forexample,intheUnitedStatesof America,thefamousfootballplayerElroyHirsch,knownasCrazyLegs).
Incountrieswhererightsonlyresultfromregistration,themainimpedimenthoweveris thetimeneededtoobtainregistrationbecause,inthecontextofmerchandising,delaysshould beasshortaspossiblesincethepublicsrecognitionofmanycharacters(suchasE.T., Dick TracyorBatman)andtheirpopularityareoflimitedduration.However,therearesome exceptionssuchasthecartooncharactersofWaltDisneyortheliterarycharactersof Beatrix Potter.
Someoftheconditionsofformtobemetbyamarkwhichisthesubjectofan applicationwillhaveanimportantimpactinthecontextofmerchandising.Oneofthose conditionswhichexistsinafewcountriesconcernstherelationwhichshouldexistbetween thegoodsorservicestowhichthemarkappliesandthebusinessoftheownerofthemark. Generally,neitheramerchandisingagencynorthecreatorofacharacterwillthemselvesbe engagedinthemanufactureormarketingofsecondaryproducts,anditwillthereforebe
http:beasshortaspossiblesincethepublicsrecognitionofmanycharacters(suchasE.T.,
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difficultforthemtoacquiretrademarkrightsinafictionalcharacterbecausetheywillnot themselvesbedealingwiththegoodsorservices.Furthermore,theactivitycarriedoutbya licenseewillnotbeconsideredasbusinessgeneratedbythelicensor,unlessthelatter becomesjointownerofthelicenseesbusiness.
Themoderntrendismorefavorablehowever,sinceitismoreandmorewidely recognizedthatamarkcanbeappliedtoanunlimitednumberofgoodsorservices, independentlyofthetrueactivityoftheapplicantbutnotwithstandingtheprovisionswhich mayexistwithrespecttothenon-useofaregisteredmark.
Inviewoftheaestheticfunctionalitydoctrine(mainlyinthetoyordollarea)orthe primarilyfunctionalexternalappearanceofgoods,three-dimensionalconfigurationsof goods(appliedforintheformoftwo-dimensionalgraphicrepresentations)areinprinciplenot acceptedforregistrationastrademarksinmanycountries,exceptwherethetrademarkhas acquiredsecondarymeaninginconnectionwiththegoods.
Furtherconditionsareofasubstantivenature.Oneofthemainconditionsisthatamark shouldbedistinctive,inotherwords,neithergenericnordescriptiveinrespectofthegoodsor servicescovered.Furthermore,amarkshouldnotbemisleading(capableofdeceivingthe public)orcontrarytopublicorderormorality.
Insomecountries,however,distinctivenessaloneisnotsufficientandthepersonality featuresofafictionalcharacterwillberegistrableasmarksonlyiftheyhaveacquireda secondarymeaning.Inothercountries,theacquisitionofasecondarymeaningcanremedy theinherentlackofdistinctivenessoftheessentialfeaturesofafictionalcharacter.
Anumberofcountrieshaveamorefavorableapproach,andmostnamesand appearancesoffictionalcharactersareconsideredfancifulandthereforesufficiently distinctive.
Asregardstheessentialfeaturesofarealperson,thelatter,orthepersonorentity entitledtoactinhisname,mayobtaintheregistrationofhisnameorappearanceasamarkin somecountries.However,whereasurname(whichcanalsobeatradename)isregisteredas amark,theexclusiverightoftheholdermaybelimited,sinceotherpersonsbearingthesame namemay,undercertainconditions,continuetousetheirnames,unlesstheregisteredmark concernsawell-knownpersonalityand/ortradenameandtheotherpersonsintendtotake advantageofthereputationoftheregisteredmarkbyparasiticmeans.
Afurthersubstantiveconditionrelatestoexistingpriorrights.Theapplicablelawsdo notgenerallyprovideforanobligationonthepartoftheapplicanttocheckwhetherthemarks appliedforpossiblyconflictwithpriormarks,registeredorappliedfor,orotherunregistered priorrights.
Thesafeguardingofholdersofconflictingpriorrightsisdealtwithinvariousways whichcanbecombined;attheapplicationstage,thecompetentauthoritymaycheckwhether themarkappliedforisidenticalorsimilar(inrespectofthegoodsorservicescovered)to priorregisteredrights(ingeneral,marks);oncetheapplicationhasbeenpublishedor registered,acertainperiodmaybeallowedduringwhichanypersonmayopposethe registrationofamarkonthebasisofpriorrights(registeredorunregistered);finally,oncea markhasbeenregistered,invalidationproceedingsmaybebroughtbeforeacompetentcourt.
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Mostlegislationwillcontainprovisionsrelatingtotheeffectiveuseofamark.Itmay sometimesbeprovidedthatanapplicantoraholdershould,bymeansofastatementor declaration,provetothecompetentauthoritythatthemarkisbeingused(excludingtokenor ornamentaluse)atthetimeoftheapplication(asaconditionforregistration),atregular intervalsafterregistrationandatthetimeofrenewal.Furthermore,mostcountriesprovide thatanypersonmayrequest,beforethecourt,thatagivenregisteredmarkshouldbetotallyor partiallyinvalidatedandremovedbecauseofnon-use.Invalidationofaregistrationwillonly bedeclarediftherehasbeennouseduringacertainperiod(generally,fiveyearsafterthe completionoftheregistrationprocedureorduringanuninterruptedperiodoffiveyears). Generally,thenon-useofthemarkwillnothavetobeprovedbythepersonwhorequested invalidationbutbytheholderoftheregistration.Furthermore,theholdermayestablishthat becauseofforcemajeure,hehasbeenunabletousethemark.Theuseshouldingeneralbe genuineandshouldnotmerelyconsistinpromotionaluseonancillarygoodsordecorative use.Finally,theusemadebyauthorizeduserssuchaslicenseesormerchandisersis consideredasuseofthemarkmadebyitsholder,aprovisionwhichismostrelevantto holdersengagedinmerchandisingprograms.
(d) UnfairCompetition
Article10bisoftheParisConventionfortheProtectionofIndustrialProperty (applicableto127memberStates)readsasfollows:
(a) ThecountriesoftheUnionareboundtoassuretonationalsofsuchcountries effectiveprotectionagainstunfaircompetition.
(b) Anyactofcompetitioncontrarytohonestpracticesinindustrialorcommercial mattersconstitutesanactofunfaircompetition.
(c) Thefollowinginparticularshallbeprohibited:
(i) allactsofsuchanatureastocreateconfusionbyanymeanswhateverwith theestablishment,thegoods,ortheindustrialorcommercialactivities,ofa competitor;
(ii) falseallegationsinthecourseoftradeofsuchanatureastodiscreditthe establishment,thegoods,ortheindustrialorcommercialactivities,ofa competitor;
(iii) indicationsorallegationstheuseofwhichinthecourseoftradeisliableto misleadthepublicastothenature,themanufacturingprocess,thecharacteristics, thesuitabilityfortheirpurpose,orthequantity,ofthegoods.
Atfirstglance,thereseemtobebasicdifferencesbetweentheprotectionofindustrial propertyrights,suchasregisteredindustrialdesigns,registeredmarks,etc.,ontheonehand, andprotectionagainstactsofunfaircompetitionontheother.Whereastitlesofindustrial propertysuchasmarksaregrantedonapplicationbyindustrialpropertyofficesandconfer exclusiverightsinrespectofthesubjectmatterconcerned,protectionagainstunfair competitionisbasednotonsuchtitlesbutontheconsiderationeitherstatedinlegislative provisionsorrecognizedasageneralprincipleoflawthatactscontrarytohonestbusiness
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practicesaretobeprohibited.Nevertheless,thelinkbetweenthetwokindsofprotectionis clearwhencertaincasesofunfaircompetitionareconsidered.Forexample,inmany countries,unauthorizeduseofamarkthathasnotbeenregisteredisillegalonthebasisof generalprincipleswhichbelongtothefieldofprotectionagainstunfaircompetition(in severalcommonlawcountriessuchunauthorizeduseiscalledpassing-off).
Theaboveexampleshowsthatprotectionagainstunfaircompetitioneffectively supplementstheprotectionofindustrialpropertytitles,suchasregisteredindustrialdesigns andregisteredmarks,incaseswhereadesignorasignisnotprotectedbysuchatitle.There are,ofcourse,othercasesofunfaircompetition,suchasthefalseallegationsinthecourseof tradeofsuchanatureastodiscreditacompetitor,referredtoinArticle10bis(3)2oftheParis Convention,inwhichprotectionagainstunfaircompetitiondoesnotperformsucha supplementaryfunction.Thisisduetothefactthatthenotionofunfaircompetitioncoversa widevarietyofacts.
Thelegalbasisfortherepressionofunfaircompetitioncanrangefromasuccinct generaltortprovisiontodetailedregulationinaspecialstatute.Insomecountrieswitha civil-lawtradition,whichfollowtheapproachconsistingintheprotectionofthehonest businessman,suchprotectionisusuallytobefoundinthegeneraltortprovisions.Inother countrieswithcommonlawtraditions,theactionforpassing-offdevelopedbythecourts(at leastoriginally)remainsthemainbasisfortheprotectionofcompetitors.Asforthe protectionofconsumers,anumberofcountrieshave,inaddition,enactedseparatesetsof lawsregulatingspecificcasesofundesirablemarketbehavior,suchasmisleadingadvertising, thoselawsbeingessentiallyindependentoftheprotectionofcompetitorsundercivilor commonlawprinciples.Severalcountrieshaveenactedspecialstatutesorspecificprovisions withinbroaderstatutes,dealingwiththeprotectionagainstunfaircompetition.Thesestatutes provideforcivilorcriminalsanctionsandcontainabroadgeneralprovision(oftenmodeled onArticle10bis(2)oftheParisConvention)whichissupplementedbydetailedprovisionson specificformsofunfairtradepractice.Althoughmanyofthesecountrieshavealsopassed additionallegislationconcerningactsrelatingtocertainproducts(food,drugs,etc.),themedia (television)ormarketingpractices(gifts,bonuses),thestatuteagainstunfaircompetition remainsthemainbasisforprotection.Oftenitsscopeismadeevenbroaderbythe assumptionthattheviolationofanyotherlawcanbeanunfairtradepracticebecauseitgives anundueadvantageincompetitionagainstthelaw-abidingcompetitor.Insomecountries, moreover,theconceptofaspeciallawoncompetitionhasevolvedtowardstheadoptionofa moregenerallawonmarketbehavior,orthelinkwithantitrustlawisstressedbythe enactmentofstatutesthatdealwiththeinstitutionofcompetitionitselfaswellaswith fairnessincompetition.
B. OTHERFORMSOFPROTECTION
Manycountrieshaveenactedprovisions,eitherundergenerallaw(Constitution,Civil Code,etc.)orunderspecificstatutes,whichenablearealpersonassuchtobeprotected againsttheunauthorizedcommercialoradvertisinguseoftheessentialfeaturesofhisorher personality(name,pseudonymornickname,image,symbols,etc.)orarealrecognizable personportrayingacharacteragainsttheunauthorizedcommercialoradvertisinguseofthe essentialfeaturesofthecharacterportrayed.Thoserightswill,ingeneral,supplementthe protectionwhichmaybeavailablewithinthescopeofintellectualpropertyinitsbroadest sense(includingmarks,industrialdesigns,copyright,unfaircompetition).Suchprotection
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maybeachievedthroughthenotionsofdefamationorlibel,privacyrightsandpersonalityor publicityrights.
V. SCOPEOFPROTECTION
A. RIGHTSCONFERRED
(a) Copyright
Itshouldfirstbenotedthatthedateofeffectivecommencementofprotectionwillnot resultfromanofficialdocumentasisthecaseinotherfieldsofintellectualproperty,butwill havetobeprovedbythepersonorentityinvokingcopyrightprotectionofawork.Generally, copyrightprotectionstartsonthedateofcreationofthework,theconceptofcreation meaningthattheworkshouldnotbeatthestageofamereideabutshouldbeexpressedina materialform(writings,drawings,etc.)or,inotherwords,shouldhavefoundsufficient expression.
Afurthercharacteristicofcopyrightprotectionisthat,contrarytoindustrialproperty rightssuchasmarksorindustrialdesigns,aworkenjoyingcopyrightprotectionisprotected againstallunauthorizeduses,irrespectiveofthegoodsorservicescoveredbyeachuse.
Generally,noonemay,withouttheauthorizationoftheownerofthecopyrightina work,exercisetheeconomicorexploitationrightsinthatworkorinrespectofaworkwhich issubstantiallysimilartothecopyrightedworkorwhichcontainstheessentialcharacteristics ofsuchawork.Themaineconomicrightsrelevanttothemerchandisingofcharactersarethe rightsofreproduction,adaptationandcommunicationtothepublic(includingbroadcasting andpublicperformance),inanymannerorform.Inthatrespect,protectionmayextendtothe useoftheworkinadifferentmediumorinadifferentdimensionortopromotionaluse.
Eveniftheauthororcreatorofaworkprotectedbycopyrighthastransferredhis economicorexploitationrights,hewillalwaysbeentitledtoexercisehismoralrights,which arenon-assignableandinalienable.However,insomecountriesmoralrightscanbewaived bytheauthor,allowingactswhich,otherwise,wouldconstituteinfringement.Asregardsthe durationofprotectioninrespectofmoralrights,thelawsofsomecountriesprovidethatthey willnotbemaintainedafterthedeathoftheauthororcreator,whileotherlawsprovidethat theywillenjoythesamedurationofprotectionastheeconomicorexploitationrights,andstill otherlawsprovidethatthedurationofmoralrightsisunlimitedintime.
Oneofthemostimportantmoralrightsrelatestorespectfortheintegrityofawork. Thecourtshaveoftenconsideredthat,inthecaseofadaptationofaworkorinthecaseof reproduction,thehonororreputationoftheauthororcreatorcouldbeprejudicedifthe originalworkweredistorted,mutilatedorotherwisemodifiedoraltered.Inthecaseof adaptation(forexample,fromanovelorshortstorytoamovieortelevisionseries),whilea certainfreedomshouldbeauthorized,theauthororcreatoroftheoriginalworkshouldbeable torecognizeinthescriptofthemovie or televisionseriesresultingfromtheadaptationthe essentialpersonalityfeaturesofthefictionalcharactershehascreated.However,whereno authorizationofadaptationhasbeengivenbytheoriginalcreator,therightofintegritymay notberecognizedinthecaseofparodiesorsatiresonawork(forexample,thecaseofa
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cartoonfilmentitledTarzoon,theShameoftheJungle).
(b) IndustrialDesigns
Theeffectiveprotectionofanindustrialdesigngenerallystartsonitsregistrationdate. Furthermore,aregisteredindustrialdesignwillenjoyprotectionforalimitedperiodoftime (theaverageperiodbeing15years).Oncethatperiodhaselapsedtheindustrialdesignwill fallinthepublicdomainandmaybeusedbyanybodywithoutauthorization,unlesstheowner ofthedesigncan,forthesamearticle,availhimselfofalongerformof protection(copyright orregisteredmark).
Aproductincorporatingadesignwillconstituteaninfringementifitisidenticalor similartoaproductincorporatingaregistereddesign.Thecourtsofmostcountrieswill examinewhetherinfringementexistsonthebasisoftheordinaryperson(averagepotential customer)testandofacomparisonoftheoverallappearanceoftheproductcoveredbythe registereddesignandoftheallegedinfringingproduct.
(c) Marks
Theownerofaregisteredmarkwillbeentitledtopreventallthirdpartiesnothavinghis consentfromcarryingout,generallyinthecourseoftrade,anumberofacts(usinganother markoranothersign)whichareconsideredinfringementsoftheregisteredmark.Therightto preventunauthorizeduseofaregisteredmarkisdeterminedbythegoodsand/orservicesfor whichitisregistered(principleofspecificity).Insomecountries,theserightsofownership extendtomarkswhichareusedalthoughnotregistered.
Thegeneralscopeofprotectionofaregisteredmark(whichisnotconsideredfamousor well-known)coverstheunauthorizeduseofasign(mark,tradenameorother)whichis identicalorsimilartotheregisteredtrademarkinrespectofidenticalorrelatedgoodsand/or services.Wheretheuseconcernsasignwhichisidenticaltotheregisteredmarkandcovers thesamegoodsorservices,thecourtswillconsiderthatinfringementexistswithout examiningwhetherthereisalikelihoodofconfusion,which,onthecontrary,willberelevant inthecaseofsimilarmarksforrelatedgoodsorservices.Extendedprotectionmaybe availableincasesofdilution,inparticular,whereamarkhasgainedahighreputation.
Generally,inaninfringementcase,itisnotthedifferencesbetweentwotrademarksbut theirsimilaritieswhichhavetobetakenintoaccount.Moreover,itisconsideredthatthere maybeavisiblesimilarityoranaudiblesimilarityinthelanguageofthecountrywherethe markistobeprotected.Asregardssimilarityinrespectofthemeaning(intellectual similarity)possibilitiesofconfusionhavebeenrecognized(forexample,betweenanemblem representingajaguarandthenamejaguar,betweenthewordsCogitoergosumandthe marksCogitoandCogitumorthewordsTheseriouscowwitharepresentationofthe animalbeingseriousandthemarkThelaughingcowwiththerepresentationofalaughing cow).Finally,thestrengthordegreeofdistinctivenessoftheregisteredmarkwillalsobe takenintoaccount.
Withrespecttothesimilarityofgoodsorservices,severalconceptsareapplied,suchas thenotionofequivalenceinthenatureandpurposeofthegoodsorservicesconcernedor
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thequestionwhethertheaverageconsumerwouldassumethesamesourceororiginforthe goodsorservices.Manycountriesrecognizethatthescopeofprotectioncoversgoodsor serviceswhicharenotlistedintheregistration,providedthattheyaresocloselyrelatedtothe listedgoodsorservicesthatconfusionmayarise.Intheapplicationofthisrule,many countriestakeintoaccounttheextentoftheuseoftheprotectedmarkandthesizeofthe enterpriseoftheownerorholderofthemark:thebiggertheenterpriseandthemore extensivetheuseofthemark,thelargerthescopeofprotectionasregardsthegoodsor services.
Asregardstheconceptofuseofamark,useforcommercialpurposeswillmeanthatat leastthefollowingactswillbeprohibited:affixingthesigntothegoodsortothepackaging thereof;offeringthegoods,orputtingthemonthemarketorstockingthemforthose purposesunderthatsign,orofferingorsupplyingservicesthereunder;importingorexporting thegoodsunderthesignandusingthesignonbusinesspapers.
However,limitationsorexceptionstothescopeofprotectionofaregisteredmarkmay exist.Threedifferenttypesoflimitationcanbementioned,namely,theuseofonesown nameandothernecessaryindications,theexhaustionoftrademarkrightsandthe consequencesoftolerance.
Therearecaseswherethescopeofprotectionofaregisteredmarkmayextendto differentgoodsorservices,goingbeyondwhatisrequiredinArticle6bisoftheParis Conventionwhichisapplicabletoidenticalorsimilargoods.Theextendedprotectionis generallyrecognizedwhentheuseofasignonnon-similargoodsorservicescausesprejudice totheownerofthemarkortakesunfairadvantageofthereputationofthemark.Thepurpose istoaffordprotectiontomarkswhichhavereachedauniquedistinctivenessandreputation andthereforeadvertisingforceagainstthedilutionoftheircommercialmagnetismthrough theuseofidenticalorsimilarsignsormarksondissimilargoodsorservices.
B. ENFORCEMENTOFRIGHTS;MEASURESANDREMEDIES
(a) Introduction
Inthecontextofthemerchandisingoftheessentialpersonalityfeaturesoffictional charactersandrealpersons,anylegalformofprotectionwouldremainfutileifappropriate measuresfortheenforcementoftheprotectionwerenotavailable,notonlyfortheoriginal ownerofarightbutalso,inmostcases,fortheassigneeorlicenseewhoisactuallyengaged inthemerchandisingactivity.Merchandisingwouldnothavegrownsorapidlyinrecent decadesifnoeffectiveremedieshadbeenavailabletobartheunlawfulcirculationofgoods bearing,forexample,thereproductionofthemostfamouscartooncharactersofWaltDisney.
Inmostcountriesthereexist,dependingontheformofprotectionandthelegaltradition ofeachcountry,civilsanctionssuchasmeasuresinvitingthepotentialinfringertorestrain frominfringingacts(injunctions)ormeasurespermittingtherecoveryofcompensationfor damages,criminalsanctionsandmeasuresallowingevidenceofunfairactstobeobtained (discoveries).
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(b) CivilSanctions
(i) Injunctions
Inpractice,mainlyincommonlawcountries,themostimportantsanctionisinjunctive relief,whichcanbefinalbutfrequentlytakestheformofapreliminary(orinterlocutoryor interim)injunction.Thiscivilremedywillbeavailableirrespectiveoftheformoflegal protectionofthecharacter.
PreliminaryInjunction
Thisformofremedy,whichwillbeavailabletoaplaintiffifhehasnotdelayed requestingitafterhavingdiscoveredaninfringingorunfairact,allowstheacttobestopped, althoughitmaynotbeeasyatthattimetoproveactualdamage.Generally,apreliminary injunctionrestrainingthedefendantfromimmediatelyperformingacertainactwillbegranted totheplaintiffifthecourtconsiders,withouthavingtoassessthemeritsofeachpartys respectivecase,thatthereisaseriousquestiontobetried.Theadvantageofapreliminary injunctionisthatitmaybesoughtforinfringingorunfairactsthatarelikelytobecommitted orcontinuedandthatitrequiresnoproofofeitherintentionorbadfaith.Themeritsofacase willbeexaminedinordertodecidewhetherapreliminaryinjunctionshouldbegrantedor whetherdamageswouldbeconsideredasconstitutingmoreappropriatecompensationifthe defendantiscapableofpayingthem(aninjunctionbeingrefusedwhereitisconsidered adequatetocompensatetheplaintiffthroughthepaymentofdamages).
Inthecontextofmerchandising,thegrantofapreliminaryinjunctionwilleffectively determinethefinaloutcomeofacase,asthedefendantwillnotbeinterestedin recommencingtradingunderstyleshehashadtodiscontinueusingformanymonths.
FinalInjunction
Acourtisfreetodecidetograntafinalinjunctionbut,generally,wheretheinfringing actisproved,itwillbegrantedunlessitisdecidedtoawarddamages.Furthermore,afinal injunctionmayberefusedifthedefendantcansatisfythecourtthatthereisnochanceofthe tortbeingrepeated.
(ii) AccompanyingMeasures
Thosemeasuresmaybeavailablebothincountrieswhichgrantinjunctionsassuchand inthosewhichdonot.Inanycase,acourtorderprohibitingthecontinuationofaninfringing actmaybeaccompaniedbysomeorallofthefollowingmeasures:ifapplicable,anorderto cancelapplicationsorregistrationsinrespectofcopyright,industrialdesigns,marksortrade names;anordertoerasemisleadingorconfusingindicationsfromlabels,packaging, advertising,businessorpromotionpapers,etc.;anordertowithdrawtheinfringinggoods fromthemarketorstoprenderingtheinfringingservicesinthemarket;anordertodeliverup and/ordestroyunlawfulgoodsoradvertisingorpromotionalmaterial;anordertodisclosethe sourceofsupplyoralistofcustomers;insomecountries,anordertodestroythetoolsused tomanufacturetheinfringinggoods.
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Allthoseaccompanyingmeasuresareusuallylefttothecourtsdiscretion,sincethey havetobecommensuratewiththeextentoftheinfringingactineachgivencase.
(iii) Damages
Compensationfordamages(inthesenseofdetrimentorinjury)isavailableinevery countryand,inthecontextofmerchandising,whetheritrelatestoafictionalcharacterora realperson.
Ingeneral,themostcommonlyclaimeddamagesarelostprofitsandthedamagedone bydisordercausedontheplaintiffsmarket.Inthecaseoftheviolationofanintellectual propertyright(copyright,markorindustrialdesign)andindirectcasesofpassing-off, damagesshouldbeassessedtocompensatetheplaintiffforthedirectandnatural consequencesofeachinfringingsale.Afictitiouslicensefeemaybepaidbythedefendant, whichshouldbeequivalenttowhatalawfullicenseewouldpay.
Inothercases,suchasthoseinvolvingsomeactsofunfaircompetitionortheviolation ofapersonalityright,damagesmayincludeasumforinjurytotheplaintiffsfeelingsor reputation.Itshouldhoweverbenotedthatinthecaseofanunfaircompetition(orpassingoff)action,acommonrequirementdeterminingcompensationfordamagesisproofoffaultor intentoratleastnegligenceorrecklessnessonthepartofthedefendant.
Asregardstheamountofthedamagesawardedbythecourts,thiswilllargelydepend onanumberofelementssuchasthereputationofthesignusedbytheplaintiff,thefactthat theinfringingactswereparticularlymaliciousorthenumberofinfringingsales.Ifthelatter isverygreatthecourtmayconsiderthatitcannotfixtheamountofthedamageswithouta preliminaryexpertopinion.Insomecountries,itcanbesaidthattheeffectivenessofthe remedieshasgrownconsiderablysincethecourtsarereadytoawardquitegenerousfinancial compensation.
(iv) RectificationandPublicationoftheCourtDecision
Thesecivilremediesareavailableinmostcountriesattheexpenseofthedefendant(for example,correctiveadvertisingorpublicationofthedecisioninanumberofnewspapersand magazines).Theymaybeclaimedinadditiontorestraininginjunctionsand,inmost countries,independentlyofcompensationforactualdamages.
(c) RighttoSue
(i) InRespectofIntellectualPropertyRights
Generally,legalproceedingstopreventthefurtherviolationofarightrelatingtoa literaryorartisticwork,amarkoranindustrialdesignwillbeinstitutedbytheholderofthe right(whetherthatholderistheoriginalowneroftherightorholdstherightfollowing transferorassignment).
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Inthecaseofalicenseagreement,unlesstheagreementprovidesspecificallytothe contrary,anyactionrelatingtotheviolationoftherightwhichhasbeenthesubjectofthe licenseisinstitutedbytheholderoftherightwhilethelicenseeorlicenseesmayjointhe proceedingswithaviewtoobtainingremediesforhisortheirownprejudice(oftenbasedon unfaircompetition).However,insomecountries,licenseesmayinstituteinfringementactions intheirownname(forexample,iftheholderoftherightfailstodoso,notwithstandinga requestfromthelicensee).Furthermore,insomecountries,anexclusivelicenseewillonlybe abletoinstituteproceedingsortojoinanactioniftheagreementhasbeenproperlyrecorded bythecompetentauthorityintherelevantregistersothatthirdpartiesmaybeinformedofits existence.Inotherwords,onlyrecordaloftheagreementwillmakeitenforceable.
(ii) UnfairCompetition(andPassing-Off)
Unfaircompetitionshouldalwaysbeconsidered,notwithstandinganyotherformof legalprotectionwhichmayexist.Protectionagainstunfaircompetitionservesnotonlythe interestsofcompetitors,butalsothoseofconsumersandthepublicinterest.Itisthereforeof vitalimportancetotheeffectiveoperationofunfaircompetitionlawthattherighttosue shouldnotberestrictedtocompetitors,althoughtheymaybethemostpowerfulgroupto invokethelaw.However,notallmarketparticipantsneedanindividualrighttobringan actionbeforeacivilcourt.Asanyactofcompetitionhasadirectinfluenceonthemarket situationofindividualcompetitors,atleastthatgroupcannotreasonablybedeprivedoftheir fundamentalrighttosuetheunfaircompetitor.However,inmanycountries,direct competitiverelationsarenotnecessarytobeabletosueiftheindirectconsequencesofthe unfairactwouldseriouslyaffectthepositionofotherparticipants,forinstanceonparallelor subsidiarymarkets.Thusinmostcountriesmerelypotentialcompetitiverelationswill suffice.Furthermore,whereprotectionagainstunfaircompetitionismainlybasedontortlaw, everypersonwhoseinterestsarelikelytobeharmed,andthismayincludeindividual consumers,canusuallybringanaction.Inthosecountriesnotevenapotentialcompetitive relationshipisrequired.Recentlegislationalsogivesindividualconsumersarighttosue. Still,theriskofconsiderablecostsmayoftendeterthemfromexercisingthatright.Most individualconsumeractionsarethereforebroughtunderavailableself-regulatory proceedings,forwhichthestandingrules,costsandtermsarelessdaunting.
Alongwiththegrowingtendencyduringthepasttwodecadestoconsiderconsumer interestspartofthegoalsofprotectionagainstunfaircompetition,recentlegislationinthis fieldhasprovidedconsumerorganizationswithaseparaterighttohaveunfairactsstopped. Forexample,underArticle10teroftheParisConventionthememberStatesmustprovide measurestopermitfederationsandassociationsrepresentinginterestedindustrialists, producersormerchantstotakeactioninthecourtswhenactsofunfaircompetitionare committed,insofarasthelawofthecountryinwhichprotectionissoughtallowssuch actions.Withtheinclusionofcertainareasofconsumerprotectioninunfaircompetitionlaw, itshouldalsobepossibleforconsumerorganizationstoclaimlegalremediesagainst violationsinthoseareas.
Thereareseveralalternativewaysofintroducingtherighttoinitiatecivilactions.For example,topreventapossiblemisuseofsuchrights,somecountrieshaverestrictedtheright tobringacivilsuittoorganizationsthatcanclaimtheprotectionoftheirmembersagainst unfaircompetitionastheirstatutoryaim,orareofficiallyauthorizedasconsumer organizations.Althoughactualdamagetoindividualmembersisusuallynotrequired,most
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countrieshaverestrictedtheclaimsavailabletoconsumerorganizationstoaninjunction and/orrectificationintheareaofmisleadingadvertising.Onlyinexceptionalcasesmay organizationsclaimdamagesonbehalfoftheirmembers.
Thepositionofotherorganizations,suchastradersinacertainbranchofindustryor professionalgroups,isfarlessuniform.Insomecountries,suchorganizationsmayhavea righttosueinsofarastheirstatutorypurposeisbeingseriouslyjeopardizedbytheunfairact concerned.Inothercountries,actualinjurytosomeofthemembersandthetransferoftheir rightstotheorganizationmightberequired,whereaselsewheresuchorganizationshaveno separaterighttosueatall.So-calledclassactions(actiopopularis)arenotpossibleinmany countries.Finally,civilcourtactionscanoccasionallybeinitiatedbyauthoritiesresponsible forthecontrolofcompetitiveacts,eitherassemi-publicorgovernmentalauthoritiesorby virtueofself-regulation.
(d) MeasurestoSecureEvidence(Discovery)
(i) DescriptiveandPhysicalSeizures
Thesemeasureswillbeavailableinanumberofcivil-lawcountries,especiallywhere thepersonrequestingtherighttoproceedwithanexparte seizureclaimsviolationofan intellectualpropertyright.Inthecaseofpersonalityrights,thejudgemayordertheseizureof itemstopreventortostoppublicationwhichinvadetheprivacyofanindividual.
Thesemeasureswillbemostrelevanttomerchandiserssince,inpractice,theseizureof, forexample,T-shirtsunlawfullyreproducingWaltDisneycharacterswilltakeplaceonthe premisesofaretailshop,andtheretailerwilloftengiveinformationonthewholesalerofthe goodswhomhewillfrequentlycallinasguarantortobejointdefendantintheproceedings. Inmostinstances,atleastinthefieldofmarks,samplesoftheallegedinfringinggoodswill betaken.Physicalseizuresmaysometimesoccurwheretheallegedinfringingarticleisa magazineornewspaperabouttobepublished,whosetitleisidenticaltoamarkalreadyused forthesamegoods.
(ii) AntonPillerOrder
InmostCommonwealthcountriestheequitableremedyofdiscoveryisofgreat importanceespeciallyintheformknownasanAntonPillerorder.Thisorderismade ex parte,thatis,withoutnoticetothedefendant,andpossiblyin camera.Thisenablesa plaintifftoseizetheevidenceofinfringementbeforethedefendanthashadanopportunityto disposeofit.Discoverycanalsobeused,whetherornotinconjunctionwithanAntonPiller order,tomakeapersoncurrentlyinpossessionofinfringinggoods,disclosehissupplier,or discloseinformationleadingtotheidentificationofthetortfeasor.
TheAntonPillerorderasissuedbythecourtcanincludeprovisionsagainsttradingin certaingoods,preventthedestructionordisposalofgoods,requirethedefendanttoallowthe plaintiffslawyerandalimitednumberofotherpersonstoenterandsearchthebusiness premisesoreventheprivatehouseofthedefendant,causedocumentsorgoodstobe delivereduptothepersonsservingtheorderorthenamesandaddressesofthesuppliersof
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thegoodsinvolvedtobedisclosed,andpreventthedefendantfrominformingthirdpartiesof theexistenceoftheproceedings.Inordertoobtainthisrelief,theplaintiffmustshowthathe hasanextremelystrongcase,andthatthepotentialdamagesclaimislikelytobevery substantial.Further,clearevidenceofthedefendantspossessionoftheinfringinggoods mustbeproducedbeforethecourt,anditmustbeshownthatthereisarealpossibilityofthe goodsbeingdestroyedordisappearingbeforeacourtaction(withbothpartiesinvolved)can bebrought.Fulldisclosureofallfactsknowntotheplaintiffisrequired,andalsosecurityfor damagesthatmighthavetobepaidtothedefendant.Ontheotherhand,astheAntonPiller ordercaneasilybeabused,therearestrictrequirementsforitsissue.Forexample,thenature oftheordermustbeexplainedtothepersononwhomitisserved,itmustcontainonlythe minimumprovisionsnecessarytoachieveitspurpose,andadetailedreportofthematerial takenshouldbemadebythelawyersexecutingit.
TheadvantageoftheAntonPillerorder,incomparisonwiththeseizuresexistingin civil-lawcountries,isthatitisavailableeveninthecaseofanunfaircompetitionorpassingoffaction.Thedisadvantagehoweveristhattheplaintiffshouldhaveastrongcasetobeable toobtainthatrelief.
(e) AcceleratedProceedings
Insomecountriesthereexistprocedureswherebyadisputebetweenpartiesmaybe expeditiouslyledtoadecision(suchasaprocedureforobtaininganinterlocutoryinjunction ortheactionenrfr).Ingeneral,thoseformsofprocedureareonlyappropriatewherethe factssupportingtheplaintiffscomplaintareveryclearandthereisaneedforanurgent decisionbecauseoflikelihoodofirreparabledamage.
(f) CriminalSanctions
Inthecontextofmerchandisingandinadditiontocivilactionsandremedies,therealso existcriminalactionsandsanctions(usuallyfinesand/orimprisonment),whichinsome countrieswillbeavailablealongsidecivilremedies.However,criminalactionsandsanctions willbeimportantonlyincaseswherecopyright,trademarkorindustrialdesignprotectionis unavailable,forexample,wherepersonalitieswishtoenforcetheirpersonalityorpublicity rights.
VI. GENERALCONCLUSION
Notwithstandingtheavailabilityandextentofexistingformsoflegalprotection,the practiceofmerchandisingtheessentialpersonalityfeatures(mainlythenameandtheimage) ofafictionalcharacterorofarealpersonhasrapidlyevolvedinsomecountriesfroma subordinateactivityintoanimportantindependentsourceofrevenueandeven,insomecases, intoacivilizingforceifoneconsidersitsimpactonthepublicatlarge(andmainlyonthe youngergenerations).
Suchoverwhelmingdevelopmentandsuccessentailsacorrespondingdegreeofpiracy, infringementandunfairpractice.Inessence,itshouldbeconsideredthat,forwell-recognized
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fictionalcharactersorrealpersonsthatarethesubjectofimportantmerchandisingprograms andhavethereforegeneratedsubstantialgoodwill,thepossibleavenuesofreliefare reasonablyvaluable.Thesameisprobablynottrueoffictionalcharactersorrealpersonsthat havenotyetreachedpublicrecognition.
[AnnexIfollows]
WO/INF/108
ANNEX
InrelationtoAustralia,Canada,France,Germany,theUnitedKingdomandtheUnited StatesofAmericaontheonehandand,toalesserextent,Chile,India,JapanandNigeria,this annexfocusesonsomeaspectsofthelegalformsofprotectionwhichmayberelevantto charactersandreferstosomeimportantcourtdecisions.
Copyright
1. Recognitionofmoralrights(seereport,paragraph58)
Australia(recognitionofamoralrightintheformofarighttoobjecttofalse attribution),Canada,France,Germany,Japan,United Kingdom,United States of America (recognitionofmoralrightsunderthe1990VisualArtistsRightsAct(includingpaintings, drawingsandprints)).
2. Consequenceoftheindustrialexploitationofawork(seereport,paragraph65)
IntheUnited Kingdom,underthe1988Act,theperiodofprotectionwillbereduced (from50yearsfromtheendofthecalendaryearinwhichtheauthordies)to25yearsfrom theendofthecalendaryearinwhichthearticlesembodyingtheindustriallyexploitedwork arefirstmarketed;however,articlesofaprimarilyliteraryorartisticcharactermaybe excluded.
InCanada,nosuitmaybebroughtforcopyrightormoralrightinfringementwherea designinwhichcopyrightsubsistsisappliedtomorethan50usefularticles.Thisapplies onlytoarticlesinrelationtowhichthedesignisactuallyused.Ausefularticleisanarticle havingafunctionotherthanbeingamerevehicleforanartisticmaterial.
InIndia,copyrightprotectiondoesnotapplytoanydesignregisteredundertheDesigns Act(1911)andthereisnocopyrightinanydesignwhichiscapableofbeingregistered,but hasnotinfactbeenregistered,thislatterrestrictionarisingonlywhenanarticletowhichthe designhasbeenappliedhasbeenreproducedmorethan50timesbyanindustrialprocess. Thenotionofdesignincludesthree-dimensionalfiguressuchasdolls.
InJapan,althoughthecourtshavegrantedcopyrightprotectiontodesigns,sketchesor modelsdevisedforthepurposeofmass-producingpracticalgoods,ithassometimesbeen questionedwhetherthosedesigns,sketchesormodelsdonotfallwithintheDesignAct.
InNigeria,copyrightprotectiondoesnotapplytoartisticworksif,atthetimetheywere made,theauthorintendedtousetheworkasamodelorpatterntobemultipliedbyan industrialprocess.Suchworksshouldbeprotectedunderindustrialdesignlaw.
IntheUnited States of America,althoughinprincipleanycopyrightableworkisnot affectedbyitsprotectionunderotherlaws,inpractice,ifadesignpatentregistrationhadbeen obtainedinrespectofagivenarticle,thesamearticlewouldnotbethesubjectofacopyright
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registration.However,theoppositesituationwillnotleadtothesamesolutionand,therefore, adesignregisteredundercopyrightcanbethesubjectofadesignregistration.
InAustralia,undertheCopyrightAmendmentAct1989,figuressuchascartoon charactersusedastwo-dimensionalsurfacepatternsorornamentswillenjoyfullcopyright protection,whetherthearticlesareindustriallyexploitedornot.Theycanalsoberegistered asdesignstobenefitfromcumulativeprotection.Forworksofartisticcraftsmanshipsuchas toysordolls,industrialapplicationwillnotres