Complete Grammar Book

NLC INTENSIVE GRAMMAR 1

Intensive Grammar

Course


PRONOUNS WHAT IS A PRONOUN?

A pronoun is used in place of a noun. It refers to a noun. The noun it refers it is called the antecedent. Examples: I read the book. It was good. (The pronoun ït¨ refers to the antecedent noun ¨book¨.) Mary said, I drink tea¨. (The pronoun Ï¨ refers to the speaker, whose name is Mary.)

SINGULAR PLURAL SUBJECT

PRONOUNS I

You He, She, It

We You They

OBJECT

PRONOUNS

Me You

Him, Her, It

Us You

Them

• POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS:

A noun does not follow these possessives immediately; they stand-alone. Example: That book is mine. Those are yours over there

Possessive Adjectives are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand-alone Example: My book is here. Your books are over there

SINGULAR PLURAL

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Mine Yours His, Hers, its

Ours Yours Theirs

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

My name Your name His, Her, Its name

Our names Your names Their names

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Possessive nouns require apostrophes. Ex. That book is Mary’s. Possessive pronouns do not take apostrophes.

Correct: That book is hers, and those books are theirs Incorrect: That book is her´s and those books are theirs Hint: Pronouns that express ownership (yours, his, hers, its, ours, etc ) never require apostrophe.

Hints Don´t confused possessive pronouns with contractions.

Possessive pronouns contractions Its ( belonging to it ) it’s ( it is ) Your ( belonging to you ) you’re ( you are ) Their ( belonging to them ) they’re ( they are )

• REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS:

The following are reflexive pronouns:

Myself Yourself Himself, herself, itself Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

a. He looked at himself in the mirror. b. He himself answered the phone, not his secretary. c. He answered the phone himself. d. She lives by herself.

A reflexive pronoun usually refers to the subject a sentence. In (a) he and himself refer to the same person. Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis, as in (b) and (c). The expressions by + a reflexive pronoun usually means älone¨, as in (d).

NONSPECIFIC OBJECT PRONOUNS: SOME, ANY AND ONE

(a) A: I need some blank tapes, (nonspecific) B: I don’t have any, but Jack has some.

(b) A: Where are the blank tapes that were on my desk? (Specific) B: Rita has them.

Object pronouns for PLURAL COUNT NOUNS: Nonspecific some or any Specific them In (a): The speakers are not talking about specific tapes. In (b): The speakers are talking about specific tapes, the tapes SPEAKER A left on her desk.

(c) A: I need a blank tape, (nonspecific) B: I think you can get one from Jack.

(d) A: Where’s the blank tape that was on my desk? (Specific)

Object pronouns for SINGULAR COUNT NOUS: Nonspecific one Specific it, her, him


B: Rita has it . (e) A: Would you like some coffee?

(Nonspecific) B: No thanks, I just had some. I don’t want any right now.

(f) A: Your cup is empty. What happened to your coffee? (Specific) B: I drank it .

Object pronouns for NONCOUNT NOUS: Nonspecific some or any Specific it

EXERCISE 1 Identify the pronouns and their antecedents in the following sentences. 1. Jack has a part-time job. He works at a fast-food restaurant.

(he = a pronoun ; Jack = the antecedent )

2. Many monkeys don´t like water, but they can swim well when they have to. __________________________________________________________ 3. The teacher graded the student’s papers last night. She returned them during class the next

day. ___________________________________________________________ 4. The cormorant is a diving bird. It can stay under water for a long time. In some countries, it

is used by fishermen to catch fish for them. ___________________________________________________________ 5. Tom took an apple with him to school. He ate it at lunchtime. ___________________________________________________________ EXERCISE 2 Choose the correct word in parentheses 1. This is (my, mine) umbrella. (Your, yours) umbrella is over there

2. This umbrella is (my, mine). The other one is (your, yours)

3. Mary and Bob have (their, theirs) book. In other words, Mary has (her, hers) Bob and has

his.

4. A honeybee has two wings on each side of (its, it’s) body

5. (Its, its) true that a homing pigeon will find (its, it’s) way home even though it begins (its,

it’s) trip in unfamiliar territory.

6. I have a pet. (Its, It’s) name is Squeak. (Its, It is) a turtle. (Its, It’s) been my pet for two

years.

7. With (it’s, its) paw injured, the animal limped down the road.

EXCERSISESEXCERSISESEXCERSISESEXCERSISES


8. It was (they, them) who objected to the decision.

9. I don´t know what would do if I were ( him, he )

10. It must have been (they, them ) who purchased the class gift.

11. Is this term paper (yours, yours) or Helen’s?

EXERCISE 3 Complete the following by using appropriate reflexive pronouns 1. I can’t help you, Bob. You’ll have to solve your problem by yourself.

2. Jane did not join the rest of us. She sat in the back of her room by __________

3. You may think Stan is telling the truth, but I ____________ don’t believe him.

4. It is important for all of us to be honest with _____________________________

5. Now that their children are grown, Mr. And Mrs. Grayson live by _____________

6. You __________ have to make that decision, Ann. No one can make it for you.

7. I don’t know what to tell you, Sue and Jack. You will have to take care or that problem

______________

8. When everybody else forgot his birthday, Ralph decided to give _____________ a birthday present. He bought a new shirt for ____________________________

EXERCISE 4 Agreement of pronouns

Complete the sentences with pronouns. In some of the blanks there is more than one possibility.

1. A student should always hand in his or her work on time.

2. Students should always hand in ____________ work on time.

3. Teachers determine ___________ student’s course of study.

4. Each student is expected to learn ____________ lesson on time.

5. If anyone calls, please ask _____________ to leave a message.

6. Somebody left ______________ raincoat in the classroom.

7. The flight crew on our long plane trip was very attentive. ____________ efforts to make us

feel comfortable were greatly appreciated.

8. My family is wonderful. ____________ have always helped _____________ in anyway

____________ could.

9. The crowd enjoyed the game. _____________ got excited whenever the home team scored.

10. The crowd at the last concert broke attendance records. __________ was the largest audience ever to have been in that stadium for a rock concert.


Exercise 5: find the subject and reflexive pronoun that should be in each sentence.

1. The problem won’t solve _____________________. 2. The repairman couldn’t help me, so I had to fix it____________. 3. We promised _______________ a great vacation after we finish this job. 4. The secretaries told their bosses to make the coffee__________________. 5. The tour guide told us, “ you will have to get to the hotel by________________ 6. The man was terribly fat and I guess he did not want to weigh_______________. 7. If you want it done right, do it__________________. 8. We did not want them to come, but they invited _______________. 9. The famous writer signed the book______________. 10. that door closed by _____________

Exercise 6: substitute a possessive pronoun for the word in parenthesis in each sentence.

1) That book is (my book). That book is mine. 2) Those are (her pictures) those are hers. 3) All of these magazines are (his magazines). 4) Those cigarettes on the table are (my cigarettes). 5) Are all of these papers (your papers)? 6) That newspaper on the desk is (her newspaper). 7) That big house on the corner is (their house) 8) Is this your purse or (miss Brown’s purse)? 9) Are those my overshoes or (his overshoes)? 10) Are these two books (your books) or (my books).

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INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

• Adjective clauses: First, we are going to identify some specific terms we need to understand this subject: a. Clause: A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.

b. Independent clause: Ann independent clause is a complete sentence. It contains the main subject and verb of a sentence. (It is also called the main clause).

c. Dependent clause: A dependent clause is a not a complete sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause.

d. Adjective clause: An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun. (An adjective clause is also called a relative clause).

When we have and adjective clause, we have two clauses joined by a pronoun could be object or subject. a. Using Subject pronouns:

WHO, WHICH, THAT

I thanked the woman. She helped me.

I thanked the woman who helped me I thanked the woman that helped me.

I thanked the woman (an independent clause) Who helped me? (An adjective clause) The adjective clause modifies the noun woman. The book is mine. It is on the table.

The book, which is on the table, is mine The book that is on the table is mine. WHO: Used for people WHICH: Used for things THAT: Used for both people and things.

b. Using Object pronouns:

WHO (M), WHICH, THAT

Here we are talking about pronouns as the object of a verb. Ex:

The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him


The man who (m ) I saw was Mr. Jones.

The man that I saw was Mr. Jones.

The man 0 I saw was Mr. Jones.

Who is usually used instead of whom, especially in speaking. Whom, is generally used only in a very formal English.

An object pronoun is often omitted from an adjective clause. (A subject pronoun, however, may not be omitted).

c. Pronoun used as the object of a preposition: In very formal English the prepositions comes at the beginning of the adjective clause. Usually, however, in every day usage, the prepositions come after the subject and verb of the adjective clause. If the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only whom or which may be used. A preposition is never immediately followed by that or who. She is the woman. I told you about her.

She is the woman about whom I told you. She is the woman who (m) I told you about. She is the woman that I told you about. She is the woman 0 I told you about.

The music was good. We listened to it last night. The music to which we listened last night was good.

The music, which we listened to last night, was good. The music that we listened to last night was good. The music 0 we listened to last night was good.

a. Using WHERE:

WHERE is used in an adjective clause to modify a place (city, country, room, house, etc)

If WHERE is used, a preposition is not included in the adjective clause. If WHERE is not used, the preposition must be included.

Example.

The building is very old He lives there (in that building)


The building where he lives is very old. The building in which he lives is very old. The building which he lives is very old. The building that he lives is very old. The building 0 he lives is very old.

b. USING WHEN

WHEN is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time (year, day, time, century, etc)

The use of a preposition in an adjective clause that modifies a noun of time is somewhat different from that in other adjective clauses. A preposition is used preceding which. Otherwise, the preposition is omitted.

Example. I’ll never forget the day when I met you I’ll never forget the day on which I met you I’ll never forget the day that I met you I’ll never forget the day 0 I met you EXERCISE 1: Combine the two sentences. Use the second sentence as an adjective clause. 1. I saw the man. He closed the door.

I saw the man who closed the door.

That

2. The girl is happy. She won the race. 3. The student is from China. He sits next to me. 4. The students are from China. They sit in the front row. 5. We are studying sentences. They stand for unknown numbers. 6. The taxi driver was friendly. He took me to the airport.

EXERCISE 2: Combine the sentences, using the second sentence as an adjective clause. Give all the possible patterns. 1. The book was good. I read it.


2. I liked the woman. I met her at the party last night. 3. I liked the composition. You wrote it. 4. The people were very nice. We visited them yesterday. EXERCISE 3: Combine the sentences, using the second sentence as an adjective clause. Give all the possible patterns.

1. The meeting was interesting. I went to it.

2. The man was very kind. I talked to him yesterday.

3. I must thank the people. I got a present from them.

4. The picture was beautiful. She was looking at it.

5. The man is standing over there. I was telling you about him.

EXERCISE 5: Combine the sentences, using the second sentence as an adjective clause:

1. The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there (in that city) 2. That is the restaurant. We will meet you there (at the restaurant) 3. The town is small. I grew up there (in that town) 4. That is the drawer. I keep my jewelry there (in that drawer) EXERCISE 6: Combine the sentences, using the second sentence as an adjective clause. 1. Monday is the day. We will come then (on that day)


2. 7:05 is the time. My plane arrives then (at that time) 3. 1960 is the year. The revolution took place then (in that year) 4. July is the month. The weather is usually the hottest then (in that month)

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NOUNS

Definition: A noun names a person, a place, a thing or an idea. 1. Count nouns: Count nouns are items that can be counted. Example: I bought a chair. Sam bought three chairs

SINGULAR

A chair One chair

A count noun: 1. May be preceded by a / an in the

singular.

PLURAL

Chairs Two chairs Some chairs

A lot of chairs Many chairs

2. It takes a final –s /-es in the plural

2. No count nouns:

No count nouns refer to a ¨whole that is made up of different parts. Example.

I bought some chairs, tables, and desks. In other words, I bought some furniture.

• Furniture represented a whole group of things that is made up of similar but separate items.

I put some sugar in my coffee.

• Sugar and coffee represent whole masses made up of individual particles or elements. To express a particular quantity, some count nouns may be preceded by unit expressions. Ex: A spoonful of sugar A cup of coffee A quart of milk A loaf of bread A grain of rice A bowl of soup

A bag of flour A pound of meat A piece of furniture A piece of paper

A piece of jewelry I wish you luck

• Luck is an abstract concept, an abstract ¨whole¨. It has no physical form; you can’t touch it. You can’t count it.

Sunshine is warm and cheerful

• Phenomena of nature, such as sunshine, are frequently used as No count nouns.


Many nouns can be used as either No count or count nouns, but the meaning is different. Ex:

a. Hair: . No count: Ann has brown hair . Count: Tom has a hair on his jacket

b. Light:

. No count: I opened the curtains to let in some light . Count: Don’t forget to turn off the lights before you go to bed

SINGULAR

Furniture Some furniture A lot of furniture Much furniture

A No count nouns: 1. It is not immediately preceded by a / an. 2. It has no plural form; it does not take a final –s / -

es

3. Some common No count nouns:

The following are typical of nouns that are commonly used as No count noun. Many others nouns can be used as No count nouns. This list serves only as a sample.

1. Whole groups made up of similar items: Baggage, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, garbage, hardware, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinery, mail, make up, money / cash / change, postage, scenery, traffic.

2. Fluids: Water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, gasoline, blood, etc. 3. Solids: Ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool,

etc.

4. Gases: Steam, air, oxygen, nitrogen, smoke, smog, pollution, etc. 5. Particles: Rice, chalk, corn, dirt, dust, flour, glass, hair, pepper, salt, sand, sugar, wheat, etc.

6. Abstractions: Beauty, confidence, courage, education, enjoyment, fun, happiness, health, help, honesty, hospitality, importance, intelligence, justice, knowledge, laughter, luck, music, patience, peace, pride, progress, recreation, significance, sleep, truth, violence, wealth, Advice, information, news, evidence, proof, Time, space, energy, Homework, work, Grammar, slang; vocabulary.

7. Languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish, etc.

8. Fields of study: Chemistry, engineering, history, literature, mathematics, psychology, etc.

9. Recreation: Baseball, soccer, tennis, chess, bridge, poker, etc.

10. General activities: Driving, studying, swimming, traveling, walking, (and other gerunds).

11. Natural phenomena: Weather, dew, fog, hail, humidity, heat, lightning rain, sleet, snow, thunder, wind, darkness, light, sunshine, electricity, fire, gravity.

4. Expressions of Quantity:


An expression of quantity may precede a noun. Some expressions of quantity are used only with count nouns, some only with No count nouns; some with both, count and No count nouns.

EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

USED WITH COUNT NOUNS

USED WITH NONCOUNT

NOUNS One Each Every

One apple Each apple Every apple

0 0 0

Two Both A couple of Three, etc A few Several Many A number of

Two apples Both apples A couple of apples Three apples A few apples Several apples Many apples A number of apples

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A little Much A great deal of

0 0 0

A little rice Much rice A great deal of rice

Not any / no Some A lot of Lots of Plenty of Most All

Not any / no apples Some apples A lot of apples Lots of apples Plenty of apples Most apples All apples

Not any / no rice Some rice A lot of rice Lots of rice Plenty of rice Most rice All rice

0 == ¨Not Used . For example, you can say Ï ate one apple ¨but NOT Ï ate One rice”

5.Noun as a subject and as an object:

We could have two nouns in one sentence, playing different roles like subject or object. Ex: I love you

I is the subject You is the object Jack put the letter

Jack is the subject Letter is the object

EXCERSISEEXCERSISEEXCERSISEEXCERSISE


EXERCISE 1 Look at the italicized nouns in the following sentences. Write C¨ under the count nouns and ¨NC¨ under the No count nouns. Example. 1. I bought some chairs, tables and desks. In other words, I bought some furniture. C C C NC 2. I have some pennies, nickels and dimes in my pocket. In other words, I have Some money in my pocket. 3. Ann likes to wear jewelry. Today she is wearing four rings, six bracelets, and a Necklace. 4. We saw beautiful mountains, fields, and lakes on our trip. In other words, we saw Beautiful scenery. 5. Would you like some food? How about a sandwich and an apple? 6. We had meat, rice, bread, butter, cheese, fruit, vegetables and tea for dinner. 7. Gold and iron are metals. 8. I used an iron to press my shirt because it was wrinkled. 9. I wish you happiness, health and luck in your life. 10.Tom is studying Chemistry, History and English. 11.In the United States, baseball is called the national pastime. To play it, you need A baseball and a bat. 12.My hometown has rain, thunder, fog, sleet and snow in the winter months. In Other words, it has bad weather. 13.Tom has black hair and brown eyes. EXERCISE 2 Complete the sentences with the given nouns. Add final –s / -es if necessary. Use each noun once. Advice Information Screwdriver


Change City Garbage Hardware Homework

Junk Luggage / baggage Music Progress River

Stuff Thunder Traffic Traveling Trip

Ex: 1. I have some coins in my pocket. In other words, I have some change in my pocket.

2. The Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Nile are well-known __________ in the world.

3. I like to listen to operas, symphonies and folk songs. I enjoy ________________

4. Since I came to the United States, I have visited Chicago, New York and Miami. I want to

visit other _______________ before I return to my country.

5. The street is full of cars, trucks and busses. This street always has heavy ______________,

especially during rush hour.

6. In the last couple of years, I’ve gone to France, India, and the Soviet Union. I like to take

____________. In other words _____________ is one of my favorite activities.

7. I put some banana peels, rotten food, and broken bottles in the waste can. The can is full of

______________.

8. They have a rusty car without an engine, broken chairs, and an old refrigerator in their front

yard. Their yard is full of ____________.

9. Paul has books, pens, papers, notebooks, a clock, scissors, a tape recorder and some other

things on his desk. He has a lot of ____________ on his desk.

10. The children got scared when they heard ______________ during the storm.

11. Tools that are used to fasten screws into wood are called _____________.

12. I went to the store to get some nails, hammers, and screws. In other words, I bought some

_________________.


13. Tonight I have to read 20 pages in my history book, do 30 problems in algebra, and write a

composition for my English teacher. In other words, I have a lot of ____________ to do

tonight.

14. Ann took three suitcases, a shoulder bag, and a cosmetic case. In other words, she took a lot

of _______________ on her trip.

15. Toronto is 356 ft. / 109m above sea level. The average annual precipitation in Toronto is 32

in. / 81cm. The population of the metropolitan area is over 3.000.000. I found (this, these)

_______________ in the encyclopedia.

16. I didn’t feel good. Ann said, ÿou should see a Doctor¨. Tom said, you should go home and

go to bed¨. Martha said, you should drink fruit juice and rest¨. I got _____________ from

tree people.

17. My English is slowly getting better. My vocabulary is increasing. It’s getting easier from me

to write and I make fewer mistakes. I can often understand people even when they talk fast.

I’m satisfied with the _____________ I have made in learning English.

EXERCISE 3 Add final –s / -es to the nouns in italics if necessary. Do not add or change any other words. Ex: eggs chickens 1. Mary Always has fresh egg available because she raises chicken in her yard. 2. I had chicken and rice for dinner last night.

(No changes) 3. Outside my window, I can see a lot of tree, bush, grass, dirt, and flower. 4. Tom gave me some advice. Millie also gave me some good suggestion. 5. Yoko learned several new word today. She increased her vocabulary today. 6. I drank two glass of water. 7. Windows are made of glass. 8. Jack wears glass because he has poor eyesight.


EXERCISE 4 Draw a line through the expressions that can’t be used to complete the sentence correctly. Ex:

1. I bought ____________ furniture. a. Some b. A couple of c. Several d. Too much e. Too many

2. Isabel has________ assignments.

a. Three b. Several c. Some d. A lot of e. Too much f. Too many g. A few h. A little i. A number of j. A great deal of k. Hardly any l. No

3. Sue is wearing ________ jewelry. a. Four b. Several c. Some d. Lots of e. Too many f. Too much g. A few h. A little i. Hardly any j. No

EXERCISE 5 Use many or much with the following nouns, changing the nouns to plural if necessary 1. Furniture 2. Desk 3. Equipment 4. Machinery 5. Machine 6. Branch 7. Woman 8. Piece 9. Mouse 10. Advice 11. Prize 12. Goose 13. Music 14. Progress

15.Tooth 16.Race 17.Knowledge 18.Marriage 19.Information 20.Luck 21.Hypothesis 22.Mail 23.Office 24.Slang 25.Phenomenon 26.Human being 27.Roof 28.Shelf


ARTICLES

Basic Article Usage

1. Using A or 0 : GENERIC NOUNS

A speaker uses generic nouns to make generalizations. A generic noun represents a whole class of things; it is not a specific, real concrete thing but rather a symbol of a whole group.

SINGULAR COUNT NOUN A banana is yellow

PLURAL COUNT NOUN 1. Bananas are yellow.

In these two examples the speaker is talking about any bananas, all bananas, bananas in general.

NONCOUNT NOUN 2. Fruit is good for you.

In this example, the speaker is talking about any and all fruit, fruit in general.

Notice that no article (0) is used to make generalizations whit plural count nouns and No count nouns as in the example 2 and 3.

2. Using A or Some: INDEFINITE NOUNS

Indefinite nouns are actual things (not symbols), but they are not specifically identified. SINGULAR COUN NOUN I ate a banana. In this example, the speaker is not referring to ¨this banana¨ or ¨that banana¨ or ¨that banana you gave me¨ the speaker is simply saying that he/she ate one banana. The listener doesn’t know or need to know which banana was eaten; it was simply one banana out of that whole group of things called bananas.

PLURAL COUNT NOUN I ate some bananas.



NONCOUNT NOUN I ate some fruit.

In these two examples we see that SOME is often used with definite plural count nouns and indefinite No count nouns. In addition to some, a speaker might use two, a few, several, a lot of. Etc. With No count nouns.

3. Using THE: DEFINITE NOUNS

A noun is definitive when both the speaker and the listener are thinking about the same specific thing.

SINGULAR COUNT NOUN Thank you for the banana.

In this example the speaker uses ¨THE¨ because the listener knows which specific banana the speaker is talking about. Ex. That particular banana that the listener gave to the speaker.

PLURAL COUNT NOUN Thank you for the bananas.

NONCOUNT NOUN Thank you for the fruit

Notice that ¨THE¨ is used with both singular and plural count nouns and with No count nouns.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ARTICLE USAGE

THE: • Use it when you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and thinking about the

same specific thing or person you are talking about. Ex. The sun is bright today. Please hand this book to the teacher. Please open the door. Jack is in the kitchen. • Use THE for the second mention of an indefinite noun. Ex. Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse. The mouse ran into a hole. The hole was very small. First mention: some dogs, a cat, a mouse, a hole. Second mention: the dogs, the cat, the mouse, and the hole.

THE is not used for the second mention of a generic noun. Compare:

a. What color is a banana (generic noun)? A banana (generic noun) is yellow. b. Tom offered me a banana (indefinite noun) or an apple. I chose the banana (definite noun).


• Do not use THE with a plural count noun (ex. Apples) or a No count noun (ex. Gold) when

you are making a generalization. Ex.

INCORRECT: The apples are my favorite fruit. CORRECT: Apples are my favorite fruit.

INCORRECT: The gold is a metal. CORRECT: Gold is a metal.

• Do not use a singular count noun (ex. Car) without: an article (a, an, the) or (this, that) or a possessive pronoun.

Ex.

INCORRECT: I drove car. CORRECT: I drove a car. I drove the car. I drove that car. I drove his car.

EXERCISE 1 : In the following sentences, try to decide whether the speakers would probably use a/an or the. 1. I have an idea. Let’s go on __a____ picnic on Saturday. 2. Did you have fun at ________ picnic yesterday? 3. You’d better have ________ good reason for being late! 4. Did you think ________ reason Jack gave for being late was believable? 5. Your blue shirt is on ________ washing machine. You will have to wear ________ different

shirt. 6. I wish we had ________ washing machine. 7. What happened to your bicycle? ________ Front wheel is bent. 8. I ran into ________ parked car when I swerved to avoid ________ truck. 9. I wrote ________ apology for Mary. 10. __________ Radiator has __________ leak, and one of ________ windshield wipers doesn’t

work. 11. Can you show me where ________ leak is? 12. ________ Beef is a kind of meat.



CONJUNCTIONS

One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions is called parallel structure. The conjunctions used in this pattern are:

AND, BUT, OR, NOR. (More specifically are called coordinating conjunctions).

EXAMPLE PATTERN a. Steve and his friend are coming to dinner. b. Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers. c. He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us. d. These shoes are old but comfortable. e. He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some

music.

Noun + and + Noun

Verb + and + verb

Verb + and + verb In this case the second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the same as the first auxiliary.

Adjective + but + Adjective

Infinitive + or + Infinitive In this case the second TO may be omitted.

f. Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner. g. Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and

asked a question. h. The colors in that fabric are red, gold, black, and

green.

A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In this case, commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional but is customarily used. (No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure).

USING PARIED CONJUNCTIONS

a. Two subjects connected by both…and take a plural verb.

Both my mother and my sister are here.

b. When two subjects are connected by (not only…but also), (either…or), or (neither…nor), the subject that is closer to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

Not only my mother but also my sister is here.



Neither my mother nor my sister is here.

Neither my sister nor my parents are here.

c. Notice the parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical form should follow each word of the pair.

The research project will take both time and money. Yesterday it not only rained but also snowed I’ll take either chemistry or physics next quarter. That book is neither interesting nor accurate.

Both + noun + and + noun Not only + verb + but also + verb. Either + noun + or + noun. Neither + adjective + nor + adjective.

USING AND + TOO, SO, EITHER, NEITHER

AND …… TOO AND SO.

A - Sue likes milk,

AND + S + aux + TOO And Tom does too.

B- Sue likes milk, AND + SO + aux + S

And so does Tom

(a) And (b) have the same meaning. Notice in (b): After and so… the auxiliary verb (aux) comes before the subject (S).

AND …… EITHER AND NEITHER.

C - Mary doesn’t like milk,

AND +S+ aux + EITHER And John doesn’t either. D - Mary doesn’t like milk,

AND +NEITHER + aux + S And neither does John.

C And d have the same meaning. Notice in (d): After and neither, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject. Notice in (c): A negative auxiliary verb is used with and … either. In (d): An affirmative auxiliary verb is used with and neither …

E – A1: I’m hungry.

B1: I am too.

G – A1: I don’t like hot Dogs.

B1: I don’t either.

F – A1: I’m hungry.

B1: So am I. H – A1: I don’t like hot dogs.

B1: Neither do I.

And is usually not used when there are two speakers. E And F have the same meaning. G GAnd H have the same meaning

I - A1:I’m hungry.

B1: Me too. . (Informal)

J - A1: I don’t like hot dogs. B1: Me neither. (Informal)

Me too and me neither are often used in informal spoken English.


CONNECTING IDEAS WITH BECAUSE

(a) He drank water because ha was thirsty.

Because expresses a cause; it gives a reason. Why did he drink water? Reason: he was thirsty.

(b) MAIN CLAUSE: He drank water.

A main clause is a complete sentence: He drank water. = A complete sentence.

C - ADVERB CLAUSE: because he was thirsty.

An adverb clause is NOT a complete sentence: because he was thirsty =NOT a complete sentence. Because introduces an adverb clause: Because + subject + verb = an adverb clause.

Main clause adverb clause D - He drank water because he was thirsty. (No comma) Adverb clause main clause E - Because he was thirsty, he drank water. (Comma)

An adverb clause is connected to a main clause, as in (d) and (e). * In (d): main clause + no comma + adverb clause. In (e): adverb clause + comma + main clause. (d) And (e) have exactly the same meaning.

F - INCORRECT:

He drank water. Because he was thirsty.

(f) Is incorrect: because he was thirsty cannot stand alone as a sentence that starts with a capital letter and ends with a period. It has to be connected to a main clause as in (d) and (e).

CONNECTING IDEAS WITH SO (a) The room was dark, so I turned on a

So can be used as a conjunction. It is precedes by a comma.


light. (b) I didn’t study, so I failed the exam.

It connects the ideas in two independent clauses. So expresses results: Cause: the room was dark Result: I turned on a light

USING AUXILIARY VERBS AFTER BUT AND AND

(a) I don’t like coffee, but my husband

does. (b) (b) I like tea, but my husband

doesn’t. (c) I won’t be here tomorrow, but Sue

will . (d) I’ve seen that movie, but Joe

hasn’t. (e) He isn’t here, but she is. *

After but and, often a main verb is not repeated. Instead, only an auxiliary verb is used. The auxiliary is a substitute for the main verb phrase. The auxiliary after but and has the same tense or modal as the main verb. In (a): does = likes coffee. The auxiliary does (simple present) is the substitute for the main verb phrase (simple present).

(f) I don’t like coffee, and Ed doesn’t either.

(g) I like tea, and Kate does too. (h) I won’t be here, and he won’t

either. (i) I’ve seen that movie, and Pat has

too. (j) He isn’t here, and Anna isn’t either.

Notice in the examples: Negative + but + affirmative Affirmative + but + negative Negative + and + negative Affirmative + and + affirmative

*A verb is not contracted with a pronoun at the end of a sentence after but and:

CORRECT: but she is. INCORRECT: ………… but she’s.

CONNECTING IDEAS WITH EVEN THOUGH / ALTHOUGH

(a) Even though I was hungry, I did not eat. I did not eat even though I was hungry.

(b) Although I was hungry, I did not eat. I did not eat although I was hungry.

Even though and although introduce an adverb clause. (a) And (b) have the same meaning. They mean: I was hungry, but I did not eat.

COMPARE: (c) Because I was hungry, I ate. (d) Even though I was hungry, I did not eat.

Because expresses an expected result. Even though/although expresses an unexpected or opposite result.



EXERCISE 1: Parallel structure makes repeating the same words unnecessary. Combine the given sentences into one concise sentence that contains parallel structure. 1. Mary opened the door. Mary greeted her guests. Mary opened the door and greeted her guests. 2. Mary is opening the door. Mary is greeting her guests.

3. Mary will open the door. Mary will greet her guests.

4. Alice is kind. Alice is generous. Alice is trustworthy. 5. Please try to speak more loudly. Please try to speak more clearly.

6. He gave her flowers on Sunday. He gave her candies on Monday. He gave her a ring on Tuesday.

7. While we were in NY, we attended an opera. While we were in NY, we ate at marvelous

restaurants. While we were in NY we visited some friends.

8. He decided to quit school. He decided to go to California. He decided to find a job.

9. I am looking forward to going to Italy. I am looking forward to eating wonderful spaghetti

every day.

10. I should have finished my homework. I should have cleaned up my room.

11. The boy was old enough to work. The boy was old enough to earn some money.

12. He preferred to play baseball. Or he preferred to spend his time in the streets with other toys. 13. I like coffee. I do not like tea. I like coffee but not tea. 14. I have met his mother. I have not met his father. 15. Jake would like to live in Puerto Rico. He would not like to live in Iceland. EXERCISE 2: Supply the correct present tense form of the verb in parentheses

1. (Know) Neither the students nor the teacher__________ the answer.


2. (Hear) Neither the teacher nor the students__________ the answer. 3. (Play) Not only the girl but also the boy __________ tennis. 4. (Watch) Both the carpenter and the man__________ the game. 5. (Want) Neither Carol nor Alan__________ to go skiing this weekend. 6. (Like) Both John and Ted___________ to go skiing. 7. (Have) Either Jack or Alice__________ the information you need. 8. (Agree) Neither my parents nor my brother ___________ with my decision. 9. (Be) Both intelligence and skill ___________ essential to good teaching. 10. (Think) Not only Laura’s husband but also her children___________ she should return to

school and finish her graduate degree. EXERCISE 3: Complete the sentences by using even though or because.

1. ______Even though_____ the weather is cold, Rick isn’t.

2. ______ _____ the weather is cold, Ben is wearing a coat.

3. ______ ___ Tim is fairly tall, he can’t reach the ceiling.

4. ______ ____Matt is very tall, he can reach the ceiling.

5. ______ ____Dan isn’t as tall as Matt, he can’t reach the ceiling.

6. ______ ___ Nick isn’t tall; he can reach the ceiling by standing on a chair.

EXERCISE 4 : Complete the sentences by using the word in italics and an appropriate auxiliary. 1. Tom Jack has a mustache, and so ________does Tom ______.

Jack has a mustache, and ___________Tom does too.

2. Brian Alex doesn’t have a mustache, and neither __________________.

Alex doesn’t have a mustache, and ___________________ ,either.

3. I Sara was at home last night, and so _______________________.

Sara was at home last night, and ___________, too

4. Oregon California is on the West Coast, and so _____________________.

California is on the West Coast, and ____________________ , too.

5. Jean I went to a movie last night, and so _________________________.


I went to a movie last night, and ________________________, too.

6. Jason I didn’t study last night, and neither _________________________.

I didn’t study last night, and __________________________, either.

7. Dick Jim can’t speak Arabic, and neither _________________________.

Jim can’t speak Arabic, and ___________________________, either.

8. Laura I like to go to science fiction movies, and so ___________________.

I like to go to science fiction movies, and __________________, too.

9. Alice I don’t like horror movies, and neither ________________________.

I don’t like horror movies, and _________________________ , either.

10.Porpoises Whales are mammals, and so ______________________________.

Whales are mammals, and _____________________________, too EXERCISE 4: Combine each pair of sentences in two different orders. Use because

1. We didn’t have class. The teacher was absent.

- We didn’t have class because the teacher was absent. - Because the teacher was absent, we didn’t have class.

2. The children were hungry. There was no food in the house.

3. The bridge is closed. We can’t drive to the other side of the river.

4. My car didn’t start. The battery was dead.

5. Debbie woke up in morning with a sore throat. She had cheered loudly at the basketball

game.

ADJECTIVES



WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE?

Adjectives describe nouns. In grammar we say that adjectives modify nouns. The word modifies means ¨change a little¨. Adjectives give a little different meaning to a noun. Ex: Intelligent student

Lazy student Good student

1. Mary is an intelligent student. ( Adj ) (Noun) 2. The hungry children ate fruit. (Adj ) (Noun)

An adjective is neither singular nor plural. A final –s is never added to an adjective.

CORRECT: I saw some beautiful pictures. INCORRECT: I saw some beautifuls pictures. *exercise 1

• Adjectives followed by infinitives:

Certain adjectives can be immediately followed by infinitives. In general, these adjectives describe a person or people, not a thing. Many of these adjectives describe a person’s feelings or attitudes.

Common adjectives that can be followed by the infinite

Glad to Happy to Pleased to

Delighted to Content to Relieved to Alarmed to

Encouraged to

Sorry to* Sad to*

Upset to* Disappointed to*

Proud to Ashamed to Curious to

Embarrassed to

Ready to Prepared to Anxious to Eager to

Willing to Motivated to Depressed to

Excited to

Careful to Hesitant to Reluctant to

Afraid to Determined to

Lucky to Distressed to Fortunate to

Surprised to* Amazed to*

Astonished to* Shocked to* Stunned to* Fortunate to Disturbed to Touched to

*The expressions with an * are usually followed by infinitive phrases with verbs such as: See learn Discover Find out Hear • ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION :

NUMERALS CALIFICATIVES POSSESIVES First Tall Short My

Second Pretty Ugly Your

Third Tired Excited His

Good Bad Her

Hungry Full Its


Exhausted Relax Our

Nice Rude Your

Outgoing Shy Their

Polite Impolite

Colors are also classified as adjectives. Because in certain moment they are modifying a noun. Ex. I like the blue coat (Adj) (Noun) Some colors are: Black Orange Blue White Brown Yellow Purple Pink Red Green Gray Beige

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS OF ADJECTIVES

Comparatives Comparatives are used to show the difference between two objects. Let’s say that I have two cars. I have a little Toyota and a big Ford. A comparative is used to show the difference between the two. The Ford is big so we can say “the Ford is bigger than the Toyota”. Because the Toyota is small, we can say “The Toyota is smaller than the Ford”. To learn to use these we need to learn five basic rules.

1. If an adjective has 1 syllable we add the ending – er to the adjective. Small + er = smaller than Hard + er = harder than

2. If a one syllable adjective ends with a consonant + a vowel + a consonant you must

double the last consonant and then add –er. Big + er = bigger than Fat + er = fatter than

3. If an adjective ends with a “y”, remove the “y” and add –ier. Happy –y +ier = happier than Funny –y +ier = funnier than

4. If an adjective has two syllables or more without a “y” then add the word “more” before

the word. If the adjective ends with a “y” you will only add the word “more” if it has two syllables or more.

Beautiful + more = more beautiful than Expensive + more = more expensive than Satisfactory + more = more satisfactory than


5. There are a few exceptions.

Good = better than Bad = worse than Far = farther than

• Remember, when using a comparative you must always follow it with the word “than”.

o The Toyota is smaller than the Ford o The Ford is bigger than the Toyota o Britney Spears is more beautiful than Janet Jackson o The airplane is more expensive than the car. o Jim Carrey is funnier than George Bush.

Superlatives Superlatives are used to show the difference between more than two objects. Let’s say that I have three cars. I have a little Toyota, a medium size Jeep and a big Ford. A superlative is used to show the difference between in the group. The Ford is big so we can say “the Ford is the biggest”. Because the Toyota is small, we can say “The Toyota is the smallest”. To learn to use these we need to learn five basic rules.

6. If an adjective has 1 syllable we add the ending –est to the adjective. Small + est = the smallest Hard + est = the hardest

7. If one syllable adjective ends with a consonant + a vowel + a consonant you must double

the last consonant and ad –est. Big + est = the biggest Fat + est = the fattest

8. If an adjective ends with a “y”, remove the “y” and add –iest.

Happy –y + iest = the happiest Funny –y + iest = the funniest

9. If an adjective has two syllables or more without a “y” then add the word “more” before

the word. If the adjective ends with a “y” you will only add the word “most” if it has two syllables or more.

Beautiful + most = the most beautiful Expensive + most = the most expensive Satisfactory + most = the most satisfactory

10. There are a few exceptions.

Good = the best Bad = the worst Far = the farthest


• Remember, when using a superlative you must always precede it with the word “the”. o The Toyota is the smallest. o The Ford is the biggest. o Britney Spears is the most beautiful. o That airplane is the most expensive. o Jim Carrey is the funniest.

SOME ADJETIVES THAT FORM THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE IN TWO WAYS. ADJETIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE Common Commoner/more common Commonest/most common Cruel Crueler/more cruel Cruelest/most cruel Deadly Deadlier/more deadly Deadliest/most deadly Friendly Friendlier/more friendly Friendliest/most friendly Handsome Handsomer/more handsome Handsomest/most handsome Happy Happier/more happy Happiest/most happy Likely Likelier/more likely Likeliest/most likely Lively Livelier/more lively Liveliest/most lively Lonely Lonelier/more lonely Loneliest/most lonely Lovely Lovelier/more lovely Loveliest/most lovely Narrow Narrower/more marrow Narrowest/most narrow Pleasant Pleasanter/more pleasant Pleasantest/most pleasant Polite Politer/more polite Politest/most polite Quiet Quieter/more quiet Quietest/most quieter Shallow Shallower/more shallow Shallowest/most shallow Sincere Sincerer/more sincere Sincerest/most sincere Stupid Stupider/more stupid Stupidest/most stupid true Truer/more true Truest/most true

COMMON PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES People situation people situation

Alarmed Alarming Fascinated Fascinating Amazed Amazing Frightened Frightening Amused Amusing Horrified Horrifying Annoyed Annoying Inspired Inspiring

Astonished Astonishing Interested Interesting Bored Boring Irritated Irritating

Confused Confusing Moved Moving Depressed Depressing Paralyzed Paralyzing

Disappointed Disappointing Pleased Pleasing Disgusted Disgusting Relaxed Relaxing


Distressed Distressing Satisfied Satisfying Disturbed Disturbing Shocked Shocking

Embarrassed Embarrassing Surprised Surprising Entertained Entertaining Terrified Terrifying

Excited Exciting Tired Tiring Exhausted Exhausting Touched Touching

COMMON ADJETIVES WITH ALLIED PREPOSITIONS

A great deal of Excited about Responsible for Afraid of Famous for Similar to

Absent from Fed up with Suspicious of Amazed at/by Fond of Sad about

Angry at Glad about/to Safe from Ashamed of Good at/to Satisfied with Aware of Happy about Shocked at/by Awful at Interested in Sick of Bad at Jealous of Slow at

Bored with/by Mad at/about Sorry for/about Capable of Nervous about Surprised at/about/by

Careful of/with Opposed to Suitable for Content with Perfect for Terrible at

Curious about Pleased with/about Tired of Depend on Plenty of Used to

Different from Prepared for Worried about Equal to Polite to Work for

Ready for Proud of

You’re Not My Type Exercise 1 : Which of the following do you think are good or bad personality characteristics .

Shy (timid – introverted- bashful- inhibited)

Outgoing (sociable- extrovert- friendly) Easygoing (tolerant- relaxed- calm- lenient) Obnoxious (intolerable- hateful- detestable)

Trustworthy (reliable- honest-trustful - upright) Funny (humorous- amusing- hilarious) Messy (untidy- disordered- disorganized) Picky (hard to please- fastidious- demanding)



Whiney (someone who complains a lot) Irritable (bad-tempered- touchy- petulant) Neat (tidy- orderly- careful) Talkative (chatty) Well-read (educated- cultured) Stubborn (obstinate- inflexible) Irrational (illogical- ridiculous- absurd) Rational (lucid- coherent) Emotional (moving- touching) Obsessive (compulsive- neurotic) Aggressive (violent- hostile) Bossy (domineering- dominant) Thoughtful (considerate) Affectionate (loving- friendly) Shallow (superficial- small-minded) Romantic (idealistic- impractical- loving) Honest (sincere- truthful- frank) Hard-working (careful- painstaking) Perverted (distorted- tainted- changed) Cold-hearted (cruel- pitiless- ruthless) Capable (competent- talented- skilled) Caring (kind- thoughtful- considerate) Fascinating (charming- interesting- absorbing) Well-spoken (articulate- eloquent- refined) High-strung (nervous- edgy- energetic) Moody (temperamental- grumpy-changeable) Mischievous (naughty- bad- playful) Sloppy (slack – careless) Brave (fearless – valiant - courageous) Outstanding (exceptional – wonderful) Audacious (daring – bold) Aloof (unfriendly – cold) Depressed (miserable- unhappy- down in the dumps) Humble (modest- meek- poor) Sadistic (cruel- vicious) Down-to-earth ( practical- realistic- with both feet on the ground- straight thinking) Cruel (unkind- mean- nasty- malicious) Generous ( kind- bighearted- giving) Clever (bright- intelligent- smart) Kind (nice- gentle) Malicious (hateful- malevolent) Strict (severe- austere- firm) Conservative (traditional- conventional) Naughty (disobedient- mischievous- wayward)

Wishy-washy (weak- indecisive- watery) Zany (crazy- wacky- madcap) Jittery (nervous- nervy- jumpy) Skittish (playful- lively- restless) Meek (submissive- humble- timid) Smug (arrogant- full of yourself- conceited) Haughty (proud- arrogant- snooty- stuck-up)

Witty (sarcastic) Snobbish (arrogant) Punctual (on time) Willful (headstrong- pigheaded) Finicky (fastidious) Conceited (arrogant- smug- snobbish) phony (fake- not genuine- snake oil) Hooked (enthusiastic - wholehearted) Roguish (wicked – malicious) Wicked (evil – bad) Keen (dedicated – devoted) Wholehearted (enthusiastic – unconditional - heartfelt) Stingy (miserly – grudging – tightfisted) Bold (intrepid – audacious) Remarkable (extraordinary – amazing) Perky (lively – frisky – animated) Sleazy (seedy – sordid – squalid)

N.L.C INTENSIVE GRAMMAR 35

EXERCISE 2: Complete the sentences with infinitives.

1. I was glad to get a letter from you. 2. I was relieved to find out that I had passed the exam. 3. Sue is lucky __________alive after the accident. 4. The soldiers were prepared ____________. 5. The children are anxious____________ to the circus. 6. Dick didn’t feel like going anywhere. He was content____________ at home and read a book. 7. The teacher is always willing____________ us. 8. The students are motivated_________________ English. 9. Be careful not____________ on the icy sidewalks. 10. Tom was hesitant ____________home alone on the dark street. 11. Sally is afraid____________ home alone. 12. Ann is proud____________ the top student in her class. 13. I was surprised____________ Mr. Yamamoto at the meeting. 14. We were sorry____________ the bad news. Exercise 3: ADJETIVES WITH ALLIED PREPOSITIONS Select the correct prepositions for the blank space in each sentence.

1) Are you ready __________ the English examination? 2) Mr. And Mrs. Brown are proud ___________ their new house. 3) Why those girls were mad ___________ Frank and you. 4) John is more interested __________ History than English. 5) Everyone feels very sorry ____________ that poor old man. 6) I think that young girl is afraid___________ cats and dogs 7) I’m getting tired _______ that student’s constant excuses. 8) My friend Roger is very excited _____________ his new job. 9) We have plenty ________ time ahead. 10) Daniel Soto and his wife are quite fond ___________ strong coffee. 11) I hope you are prepared ________ a great deal _________ criticism. 12) I think I’m not good __________ remembering people’s names. 13) Smith’s a good person to work________ 14) The group was very polite____________ our guests.


ADVERBS

Definition Adverbs modify verbs. Often they answer the question how? Adverbs are often formed by adding- ly to an adjective. Adjective: quick Adverb: quickly He walks quickly (Adv.) She opened the door quietly. (Adv.)

Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives, to give information about adjectives. I am extremely happy. (Adv) Adverbs are also used to express time or frequency. Examples: Tomorrow, today, yesterday, soon, never, usually, always, yet. Ann will come tomorrow. (Adv.) Some adverbs may occur in the middle of a sentence. Midsentence adverbs have usual positions; they • Come in front of simple present and simple past verbs (except in be): Ann always comes on time. (Adv.) • Follow be (simple present and simple past): Ann is always on time. (Adv.)



• Come between a helping verb and a main verb: Ann has always come on time. • In a question, a Midsentence • adverb comes directly after the subject: Does she always come on time? (Adj.) Common Midsentence Adverbs: Ever / always / usually / often Frequently / generally / sometimes / occasionally Seldom / rarely / hardly never Not ever / already / finally / just Probably LY ADVERBS

Carefully Slowly

More carefully More slowly

The most carefully The most slowly

More and most are used with adverbs that end in –Iy. *

ONE SYLLABLE ADVERBS

Fast Hard

Faster Harder

The fastest The hardest

The –er and –est. forms are used with one – syllable adverbs.

IRREGULAR ADVERBS

Well Badly Far

Better Worse Farther / further**

The best The worst The farthest / furthest

*Exception: early are both an adjective and an adverb. Forms: earlier, earliest. **Both farther and further are used to compare physical distances: I walked farther/further than my friend did. Further (but not farther) can also mean ädditional¨: I need further information.


VERB TENSES

1. DEFINITION A verb expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. Ex. Run, speak, become, be, etc. Almost all English sentences contain a subject (S) and a verb (V). The verb may or not may be followed by an object (O). (s) (v) a. Birds fly (Noun) (Verb) (s) (v) b. The baby cried. (Noun) (Verb) (s) (v) (o) c. The student needs a pen. (Noun) (Verb) (Noun) (s) (v) (o) d. My friends enjoyed the party. (Noun) (Verb) (Noun)

The Subjects and Objects of verbs are nouns (or pronouns).

2. Progressive Verbs :

These verbs are making reference to an activity in progress.

The verb BE + an adjective is used in the progressive to describe a temporary characteristic. Very few adjectives are used with BE in the progressive; some of the most common are: Foolish careful polite rude Nice patient impolite Kind silly lazy Example:

Kim is reading about this grammar Marie is running in the park

CHAPTER 7


3. NON-PROGRESIVE OR NON-ACTION (STATIC) VERBS: They are not used in any of the progressive tenses. These verbs describe states, conditions that exist. They do not describe activities that are in progress. Ex: Ali knows this grammar • In this sentence, KNOW describe a mental state that exists.

Common Non-progressive verbs

MENTAL STATE

Know Realize See (Understand) Recognize Agree Guess Hesitate suppose

Believe Feel ( believe ) Suppose Think*( believe) Assume Find Hope wonder

Imagine Doubt Remember Forget Consider Expect mind

Want Need Prefer Mean Disagree Estimate Presume

EMOTIONAL STATE

Love Like Appreciate adore

Hate Dislike Detest doubt

Fear Envy Hope regret

Mind Care Respect

POSSESSION AND RELATIONSHIP

Possess Contain

Have Own Belong

SENSES AND PERCEPTIONS

Taste* Smell*

Hear Feel*

See* Notice

Observe Perceive

WANTS AND PREFERESNCE

Desire wish

Need Prefer Want

APPEARANCES AND VALUE

Appear Be Cost Equal

• Verbs with an asterisk are also commonly used as progressive verbs, with a difference in meaning,

as in the following examples:


NON-PROGRESSIVE (existing state)

PROGRESSIVE (activity in progress)

Think I think he is a kind man I am thinking about this grammar.

Have He has a car I am having trouble. She’s having a good time.

Taste This food tastes good The chef is tasting the sauce

Smell These flowers smell good Don is smelling the roses

See I see a butterfly. Do you see it? The Doctor is seeing a patient.

Feel The cat’s fur feels soft. Sue is feeling the cat’s fur.

Look She looks cold. I’ll lend her my coat.

I’m looking out the window.

Appear He appears to be asleep. The actor is appearing on the stage.

Weigh A piano is heavy. It weighs a lot. The grocer is weighing the bananas.

Be I am hungry Tom is being foolish.

*Compare: a. Bob is foolish: Foolishness is one of Bob’s usual characteristics. b. Tom is being foolish: Right now, at the moment of speaking, Tom is doing something that the speaker considers foolish.

Regular and irregular Verbs: English verbs have four principal parts: Simple Form Simple Past Past Participle Present Participle


Regular Verbs: As it name indicates, they have a regular form, to form the simple past and the past participle these verbs must end in – Ed. Examples SIMPLE FORM SIMPLE PAST PAST

PARTICIPLE PRESENT

PARTICIPLE hope hoped hoped hoping stop stopped stopped stopping listen listened Listened Listening Study Studied Studied Studying Start Started Started Starting

Irregular Verbs: As it name indicates, these verbs have irregular past and past participles forms, (they do not end in –ed) or they are the same. Example: SIMPLE FORM SIMPLE PAST PAST

PARTICIPLE PRESENT

PARTICIPLE Break Broke Broken Breaking Come Came Come Coming Find Found Found Finding Hit Hit Hit Hitting

Swim Swam Swum Swimming

Spelling of – ing and – Ed forms: VERBS THAT END IN - E

Hope hoping hoped Date dating dated Injure injuring injured

ING- form: If the word ends in –e, drop the –e and add ing. -ED form: If the word ends in-e, just add –d.

VERBS THAT END IN A VOWEL AND A CONSONANT

ONE – SYLLABE VERBS Stop stopping stopped Rob robbing robbed Beg begging begged

One vowel: 2 consonants 2

TWO – SYLLABLE VERBS

Listen listening listened Offer offering offered Open opening opened Begin beginning (began) Prefer preferring preferred Control controlling controlled

First syllable stressed: 1 consonant Second syllable: 2 consonants


VERBS THAT END IN TWO CONSONANTS

Start starting started Fold folding folded Demand demanding demanded

If the word ends in two consonants, just add the ending.

VERBS THAT END IN –Y

Enjoy enjoying enjoyed Pray praying prayed Buy buying (bought) Study studying studied Try trying tried Reply replying replied

If –y is preceded by a vowel, keep the –y. If –y is preceded by a consonant: -ING form: Keep the –Y, add –in. -ED form: Change –Y, to –I, add –ed

VERBS THAT END IN –IE.

Die dying died Lie lying lied Tie tying tied

-ING form: Change –i.e. to, add –in -ED form: Add –d

1 Exception: If a verb ends in EE, the final e is not dropped: seeing, agreeing, freeing.

2 Exception: -W and –X are not doubled: plow – plowed, fix – fixed.

Verbs Tenses

The Present Tense The minimum you need to create a sentence in English is a noun (person, place, or thing) and a verb (the action of the sentence). Prepared below is all you need to create a simple sentence in English.

Subject Pronoun + Verb Base + Verb Ending

1. Subject Pronouns are I, You, He, She, It, We, You (plural), and They.

2. The verb base is “to” followed by the simple present tense verb. For example: To Eat.

3. The verb ending is the change that is made to the verb. For example: He + To Eat = He Eats.

Present Tense Conjugation Chart (To Eat) (I) Eat (We) Eat (You) Eat (You plural) Eat (He, She, It) Eats (They) Eat We use the present tense to discuss things that are happening today or that you do commonly now. If a person says: “I eat spaghetti” it will be understood as I eat spaghetti often. Eating spaghetti is understood to be a common action that we do.


When using the present tense we will remove the “to” from the verb base “to eat” and place it after the pronouns I, You, We, and They.

I eat You eat We eat They eat

When the verb follows the third person (He, She, It) we will remove the “to” and add an s to the verb. He (to eat) > He eats If the verb ends with a “y” and follows two consonants (cry) we will remove the y and add -ies (cries). Examples of these words are dry, try, fly, and comply. The simple present is used to express habitual or everyday activities. . I study for two hours every night. . My class begins at nine. . He always eats a sandwich for lunch.

The Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense is used to talk about a specific action that happened in the past. The simple past tense has a few simple rules. A simple past tense verb will have one of three endings: -d, -ed, or –ied. All past tense verbs except for the past of “to be” will be used for all persons. If a verb ends with an “e” we will add “d” to the word. Example = Taste becomes Tasted

Smile becomes smiled If a verb ends with a “y” and has a consonant before it we will remove the “y” and add ied”

Example = Cry becomes Cried Reply becomes replied

If a verb ends with a “y” but has a vowel before it, we will add –Ed to the y.

Example = Play becomes Played Spray becomes Sprayed

If a verb ends with any other letters then add –Ed.

Example = Climb becomes Climbed Argue becomes Argued


If a verb ends with a consonant + vowel + consonant we must double the last consonant unless it has more than one syllable and the first syllable is stressed. (Never double x, w, or y)

Example = Strap becomes Strapped Tan becomes Tanned Refer becomes Referred Enter becomes Entered (first syllable is stressed) At one particular time in the past, this happened. It began and ended in the past. a. It snowed yesterday. b. I watched television last night If a sentence contains when and has the simple past in both clauses, the action in the ¨when clause happens first. . She got up to investigate when she heard a strange noise. . The coffee spilled on my lap when I dropped my cup.

Simple Past Tense Pronunciation

Although all simple past tense verbs end with an –ed, they can have three different pronunciations. Each of these pronunciations is decided by the sound (not the letter) that comes before the -ed. /Id/ is the sound that the "ed" makes in the words bed, credit, and medicine. /d/ is the common sound for the letter “d”. We hear it in the words door, dog, and doctor. /t/ is the common sound of the letter “t”. We hear it in the words talk, take, and not.

/Id/ /d/ /t/ /t/ tasted /b/ rubbed /f/ laughed /d/ padded /g/ bugged /k/ kicked /d/ ended /dg/ judged /p/ stopped /d/ needed /l/ pulled /s/ passed /t/ invited /m/ hummed /sh/ pushed /t/ wanted /n/ fanned /ch/ punched /t/ patted /r/ tired / x/ fixed /t/ waited /v/ lived /z/ buzzed


Simple Future At one particular time in the future, this will happen. Be going to and will are used to express future time.

A. I am going to leave at nine tomorrow morning. B. I will leave at nine tomorrow morning C. Marie is going to be at the meeting tonight D. Marie will be at the meeting tonight

(a) and (b) have the same meaning (c) and (d) have the same meaning *

E. I shall leave at night tomorrow morning F. We shall leave at night tomorrow morning**

* will and be going to usually give the same meaning, but sometimes express different meanings. ** the use of shall ( with I or we ) to express future time is infrequent and formal.

FORMS WITH WILL

STATEMENT ( I, you, he, she, it, we, they ) will come tomorrow NEGATIVE ( I, you, he, she, it, we, they ) will not ( won´t ) come tomorrow QUESTION Will ( I, you, he, she, it, we, they ) come tomorrow SHORT ANSWERS Yes, ( I, you, he, she, it, we, they )will

No, ( I, you, he, she, it, we, they )won´t CONTRACTIONS ( I’ll, you’ll, he’ll, she’ll, it’ll, we’ll, they’l l ) will is usually contracted

with pronouns in both speech and informal writing.

BE GOING TO vs. WILL (a) She is going to succeed because she works hard (b) she will succeed because she works hard.

Be going to and will are the same when they are used to make predictions about the future.(a) and (b) have the same meaning.

(c) I bought some wood because I am going to build a bookcase for my apartment

Be going to (but not will) is used to express a preconceived plan .in ( c) : the speaker is planning to build a bookcase .

(d) this chair is too heavy for you to carry alone I’ll help you

Will ( but not be going to ) is used to volunteer or express willingness . in (d) : the speaker is happy to help.

Situation 1: c. Are you busy this evening? d. Yes, I’m going to meet Jack at the library at seven. We’re going to study together. In this situation, only be going to is possible. The speaker has a prior plan, so he uses be going to.


Situation 2: a. Are you busy this evening? b. Well, I really haven’t made any plans. I’m going to eat dinner, of course. And then I will probably

watch / I’m probably going to watch TV for a little while. c. A: Why did you buy this paint?

b. I’m going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. d. I talked to Bob yesterday. He is tired of taking the bus to work. He’s going to buy a car. That’s

what he told me. 3. To express Willingness: Only will use. In this case we are not trying to make a prediction. When you don’t have a prior plan. It is instead when you are volunteering to answer the phone and uses will to show his willingness. e. A: The phone’s is ringing.

b. I will get it. f. A. I don’t understand this problem. e. Ask your teacher about it. She will help you.

• THE PROGRESSIVE TENSES

The progressive tenses are also called the continuous tenses: present continuous, past continuous and future continuous.

Form: to be + ing Meaning: The progressive tenses give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. The tenses say that an action begins before, is in progress during and continues after another time or action. 1. Present Progressive: He went to sleep at 10:00 tonight. It is now 11:00 and he is still asleep. His sleep began in the past, is in progress at the present time, and probably will continue. a. He is sleeping right now. Then, the present progressive expresses an activity that is in progress at the moment of speaking. It began in the recent past, is continuing at present, and will probably end at some point in the future. I need an umbrella because it is raining. John and Mary are talking on the phone.


Often the activity is of a general nature: something generally in progress this week, this month, this year. I am taking five courses this semester. John is trying to improve his work habits. She is writing another book this year* * the sentence means that writing a book is a general activity she is engaged in at present, but it does not mean that at the moment of speaking she is sitting at her desk with pen in hand. 2. Past progressive: He went to sleep at 10:00 last night. I arrived at 11:00. He was still asleep. His sleep began before and was in progress at a particular time in the past. It probably continued. b. He was sleeping when I arrived. The past progressive describes a situation in the past parallel to another prior activity in the past, too. Examples: I was reading a book when they came in. We were eating breakfast when he arrived. When they arrived. I was making a phone call. When the phone rang, I was taking a shower. Besides, the past progressive could make reference to projects or plans that were not done. I was trying to get in touch with you, but I couldn’t. We were planning to leave earlier, but there was a lot of work to do. 1. Future Progressive: He will go to sleep at 10:00 tomorrow night. We will arrive at 11:00. The action of sleeping will begin before we arrive and it will be in progress at a particular time in the future. Probably his sleep will continue. c. He will be sleeping when we arrive.


EXERCISE 1: Find the subject (s), verb (v) and object (o) of the verb in each sentence. 1. The politician supported new taxes. 2. The mechanic repaired the engine. 3. Those boxes contained old photographs. EXERCISE 2: Change the verb to fit in the following sentences:

1. I (to sit) _______ on the couch.

2. My brother (to light) ____________ the fire in the fireplace.

3. My sister (to use) _______________ the telephone.

4. We (to put) _____________ drinks on the coffee table.

5. They (to cover) ____________ our floor with carpet.

6. She (to play) _______________ the guitar.

7. I (to turn on) _____________ the VCR to watch the movie.

8. He (to look) ___________ at the picture on the wall.

9. We (to play) _____________ on the computer all night.

10. You (to search) _______________ the phone book for Johns phone number. EXERCISE 3 Use either the simple present or the present progressive of the verbs in parentheses. 1. I can’t afford that ring. It (to cost)______Too much. 2. Look. It (to begin)____________to rain. Unfortunately, I (to have, not)___________ my umbrella with me . Tom is lucky. He (to wear)_____________ a rain coat. 3. I (to own, not )____________ an umbrella. I (to wear)_____________ a waterproof hat on rainy days.



4.Right now I (to look) ____________around the classroom. Yoko (to write)__________ in her book. Carlos (to bite)__________ his pencil. Wan-Ning (to scratch)_________ his head. Ahmed (to stare) ___________out the window. He (to seem) _____________ to be daydreaming. 5. There’s a book on my desk, but it (to belong, not) ____________ to me. 6. Dennis (to fix) ___________the roof of his house today. 7. This box (to weigh) _____________ a lot. It’s too heavy for me to lift. 8. I (to do) _______ this practice at the moment. It (to consist) _________Of some Mathematics problems. 9. Mrs. Edward’s is at the market. Right now. She (to look) _____________ at the apples. They (to look) _____________ fresh. 10. My sister (to sing) ____________ at the church chorus. She (to go) ____________ On Saturdays.

EXERCISE 4: Write the answers to the following questions: What do you do at work? I write stories. What is your teacher doing right now? What are you doing right now? What do you do at school? What do you do with a sandwich? What do you do with a radio? What do you do with a video? What do you do with money? EXERCISE 5 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE & SIMPLE PRESENT Use either the simple present or the present progressive of the verb in parenthesis: 1. Diane cannot come to the phone because she (to wash) ____________ her hair. 2. Diana ( to wash) ____________her hair every other day or so.


3. Please be quiet. I ( to try) ____________to concentrate. 4. Every morning, the sun (to shine) ____________in my bedroom window and (To wake)____________ me up. 5. After three days of rain, I’m glad that the sun (to shine)____________again today. EXERCISE 6 PAST PROGRESSIVE & SIMPLE PAST Complete in the spaces with the Past Progressive or Simple Past if is necessary. 1. What (to go)_____________on in your house when I ( to call) ______________last night?

2. The two men ( to drink)________________together when the fight ( to start)__________

3. What_________ you (to do) __________last night when the light ( to go) __________out?

4. When the police (to arrive)___________, the situation (get) ___________worse.

5. When they (to arrive)____________, my wife ( to make) ___________________tea.

6. Someone (to talk)______________________in the room next to mine.

7. They ( to play)___________________chess all day yesterday.

8. I ( to write)___________________my report while they ( to watch)________

9. When I (to leave)__________home this morning, my brother was still ( to sleep)____________. EXERCISE 7: fill in the blanks with either the simple past or past continuous. On July 11, 1991, the most spectacular total eclipse in seven centuries____________(take)place. Little by little, the sky_________________(turn) dark until the moon________________(cover)the sun completely. The actual phenomenon_________________(not, last) very long, but both people and animals_____________________ (react) to its effects. The reactions of the people at the time of the eclipse______________(be) diverse. Some ___________________(kneel) and__________________(pray), while others____________(shout) and _____________(applaud) in euphoria. The reaction of the animals______________(be) basically instinctive. Chickens, cows, and dogs, that ___________________(wander)freely, _______________(run) to their shelter when the brief night________________(fall). Five minutes later, the sun___________(again, shine) brightly. EXERCISE 7: Do the following exercise. Make a schedule of your day starting with 6:00am until you go to bed. What do you do each hour? 6:00 am I wake up 7:00 am I go to school


THE PERFECT TENSES

We compose the present perfect tense with the auxiliary have plus the past participle of the main verb. Form: have + past participle Meaning: The perfect tenses all give the idea that one thing happen before Another time or event.

1. Present perfect:

The present perfect expresses the idea that something happened (or never happened) before now, at an unspecified time in the past. The exact time it happened is not important. . If there is a specific mention of time, the simple past is used. (I saw that movie last night)

1. To describe an action that took place in the past (remote or recent ) but that still has relevance in

the present. He has already seen the movie. The mail has just arrived.

I have flown on an airplane many times. We have had four tests so far this semester.

2. to show that an activity began in the past and still continues in the present. The most common prepositional phrases used with this tense are the ones introduced by the prepositions “for” and “since”

I have worked there for three years. (I began to work there three years ago, and I still work there) Kate has known Paul since 1990. (Kate and Paul met in 1990, and they are still friends) He has been a lawyer since last year. (He became a lawyer last year, and he is still practicing law)



Other adverbial of time that are often used with the present perfect are the following; a few times, already, ever, finally, lately, many times, not yet, so far, up to now, up to the present, yet, during the past ( days, months, years, seasons ), and all the adverbs of frequency.

. They have moved into a new apartment. . Have you ever been to England? . I have already seen snow. . The boy has coughed many times today. . We have gone on several outings during this summer. 2. Past Perfect: The past perfect tense is a structure made up of the past tense of the auxiliary have (had) and the past participle of the main verb. The past perfect tense describes an activity that was completed at or before some definite plan in the past, that is, before some other action in the past. The store had closed when the fire broke out. (The store closed first and then the fire started) Sharon said that she had lied during the trial. (Sharon lied first and then she confessed to it) We also use the past perfect tense in the subjunctive mood to express contrary-to-fact situations. For further reference. I wish you had visited us when you were in town. If I had known the news, I would have told you about it. 2. Future Perfect: The future perfect tense is a structure made up of the modal auxiliary will plus have plus the past participle of the main verb. This tense describes an action that will take place or will finish before another event or time in the future. Some expressions that we usually use with this tense are the following: by that time, by (seven) o’clock, in (three) hours, in (two) years (time), by this time next (year). By seven o’clock, I will have worked for five hours. (I began at two o’clock, and I am still working) I will have finished my studies in three years. (I still need to study three years before graduating) by this time next year, he will have completed his mission in Central America. (His mission finishes next year on exactly the same day and month as today)


THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES

The present perfect continuous is a construction made up of the auxiliaries have and been plus the –ing form of the main verb. This tense emphasizes the duration of the action the action throughout a period of time.

1. Present Perfect Progressive:

The action began in the past (remote or recent) and continues up to the present. The most common prepositional phrases used with the present perfect tense are the ones introduced by the prepositions “for” and “since” I have been striving to become a doctor all my life. (I began to strive years ago and continue to work hard so that I can become a doctor someday) The priest has been preaching for over an hour. (He began an hour ago and continues preaching) She has been taking medication since she had the accident (Immediately after the accident, she began to take medication, and she is still taking it)

2. Past Perfect Progressive:

This tense is a construction made up of the auxiliary have in the past tense (had) plus the auxiliary been and the –ing form of the main verb. This tense expresses an action that began in the past but continued up to another action or time in the past. The past perfect continuous emphasizes the duration of the action throughout a period of time. The little girl had been crying for half an hour before her mother came home. They had been waiting for the ticket office to open when it started to rain. The woman said that she had been cooking for an hour.

3. Future Perfect Progressive:

The future perfect continuous tense is a construction formed with the modal auxiliary will plus the auxiliaries have been and the –ing form of the main verb. This tense indicates that an action will take place before another action or by a certain time. By midnight, I will have been working on my paper for ten hours. (I began at two o’clock; I am still working on the paper and will have worked ten hours by midnight) We will/shall have been studying English for two years by November. (We will complete our second year of English in November)


EXERCISE 1 SIMPLE PAST & PRESEN T PERFECT Use the simple past or the present perfect. In some sentences. Either tense is possible. 1. I (attend, not)________any parties since I came here. 2. Al (go)________to a party at Sally’s apartment last Saturday night. 3. Bill (arrive)________here three days ago. 4. Bill (be)________here since the 22nd 5. Try not to be absent from class again for the rest of the term. You (miss, already)

_______________too many classes. You (miss)____________two classes just last week. EXERCISE 2: PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESIVE Use the present perfect progressive in the following. 1. The boys are playing soccer right now. They (play)________________for almost two hours. They

must be getting tired. 2. Alex is talking on the phone. He (talk)________________on the phone for over half an hour. He

should hang up soon. Long distance is expensive. 3. I’m trying to study. I (try)________________to study for the last hour, but something always

seems to interrupt me. I think I’d better go to the library. EXERCISE 3: PAST PERFECT & SIMPLE PAST Use the simple past or the past perfect. 1. He (be)_____________a newspaper reporter before he (become)__________ a businessman. 2. I (feel)______________ a little better after I (Take) _____________the medicine. 3. I was late. The teacher (give, already)______________ a quiz when I (get) _____________ to

class.



4. The anthropologist (leave)_______________the village when she (collect)

_______________enough data. 5. It was raining hard, but by the time class (be)_______________over, the rain

(stop)_______________. EXERCISE 4: use the present perfect to describe events that may have made speakers say the following exclamations: 1. Great! ____________________________________________________ 2. Sorry! _____________________________________________________ 3. My god! ___________________________________________________ 4. Damn! _____________________________________________________ 5. Oh dear! ___________________________________________________ 6. Congratulations! _____________________________________________ 7. Knock on wood! _____________________________________________ 8. Welcome! __________________________________________________ 9. No, thank you! _______________________________________________ 10. Stop it! ____________________________________________________ 11. Cut it out __________________________________________________ 12. Knock it off. _____________________________________________ EXERCISE 5: with “since” or “for” use the present perfect continuous to describe relevant situations that have taken place in the life of one of the members of your family.


EXERCISE 6: Brainstorm and write three sentences about what you have accomplished in your life up to now. Write two more sentences about what you have not accomplished yet. EXERCISE 7: fill in the blanks with either the present perfect or present perfect continuous form of the verb in parenthesis. Following in her father’s footsteps, Rigoberta Menchu ___________ (work)as an activist for human rights for many years. Since the 1980’s, she _______________(organize) indigenous tribes so that they can defend their land and their rights, and she____________(coordinate) the members of trade unions to fight for social justice. She, however, ___________ (remain) neutral towards the rebel forces and their violent tactics. Not all of Rigoberta’s actions (be) pacific, but for her work for Indian rights and the reconciliation of the two prominent ethnic groups in Guatemala, she__________ (receive) the Nobel Price for Peace. Even so, her work__________________ (not, conclude) because the fight for civil rights___________ (go on) for thirty years. EXERCISE 8: fill in the blanks with either the past perfect or past perfect continuous form of the verb in parenthesis. Prior to the solar eclipse of July, 1991, the astronomers__________________(establish) its route from Hawaii, over the Pacific Ocean, and down the American continent. They _______________ (calculate) The precise time of the eclipse in each location and _________________(set up) their telescopes and other scientific instruments to observe and study the solar flares. In other places, special groups __________________ (prepare) religious festivities, and anyone, who ________________(wait) anxiously for the event, found ways to get a glimpse at the eclipse. They _____________ (ready) sunglasses, smoked glass, binoculars with filters and, of course, their sophisticated cameras. Since not everyone was willing to see the eclipse, some__________________ (make) the decision to stay indoors to avoid undesirable consequences. Hey, what can I say! EXERCISE 9: fill in the blanks with either the future perfect or future perfect continuous form of the verb in parenthesis. By the time I graduate, I ___________________(practice) English for four years. However, since practice is not enough to get a degree in English. I______________________(also, learn) about the system of the language, I____________________(deal with) syntax, morphology, phonetics and, needless to say, I________________________(struggle) constantly to convey my ideas since meaning is crucial in communication. Meanwhile, and in spite of the closer approximation of my interlanguage to get my target language, I________________________ (repeatedly, wonder) where to find the magic formula to get rid of my accent, but, by then, I _______________(realize) that I still need to work on my stress, rhythm, and intonation.


This opinion letter must be addressed to N.L.C Editores de Panama, Inc and has to be about your experience with the program, try to use all the structure that you have learned so far, and must include your full name, contract, phone number and sign. One page

OPINION LETTEROPINION LETTEROPINION LETTEROPINION LETTER


MODAL AUXILIARIES

Besides using the verbs be, do, and have in the formation of tenses, English verbs are often modified by other types of auxiliaries to change their meaning. Among these are the modal auxiliaries shall, will, would. Can, could, may, might, should, must, and ought to. Modal auxiliaries have only one grammatical form. They are not inflected, that is, they do not add the suffix –s for third person singular, and they do not have infinitive or participle forms. Modals do not have a complete meaning unless in answer to question (yes, he will), or when the main verb is omitted because it is supplied by earlier context (I can speak in English as well as you can). In declarative sentences, they appear immediately after the subject but are fronted in yes/no questions (will it be ready soon? ) and tag questions ( he can sing well, can’t he ? ). In Wh-questions, they follow the interrogative word (when should we handed in the assignment?). Modals have two forms: present for shall, will, can, must, and ought to; past for would, could, should, and might. However, they may indicate present, past, and future time in real or contrary-to-fact conditions. To express present and future time, these auxiliaries use the simple form of the verb (she might go today/tomorrow), or the continuous form (he may be sleeping). To express past time, they either use the perfect form ( he might have gone ), or the perfect continuous form of the verb ( he may have been resting ) would and could may also express past time when followed by the simple form of the verb ( when I was young, I could run very fast and would outrun my friends ). As seen, adverbial of time play an important role in expressing these different times. To make a modal negative, the particle not is inserted immediately after the modal (cannot, may not, might not, should not). The contracted form of not is possible with the following modals: shall not (mustn’t) may and ought to once had contracted forms, but they are now rarely, if ever, used. Modal auxiliaries generally express a speaker’s attitudes, or ¨moods¨. For example, modals can express that a speaker feels something is necessary, advisable, possible, or probable, and, addition, they can convey the strength of these attitudes. SHALL, AND WILL In ordinary conversation, the idea of future time is often expressed by using an adverb of time (he is leaving soon), or by using a form of the verb be plus going to whenever an activity has been planned beforehand (we’re going to meet at john’s house). Shall and will also express future time under different conditions of formality. Shall shows futurity with the first person singular and plural in formal situations, such as business letters, public speeches, and academic writing. We shall be pleased to send your order within a few days. I shall appreciate any help concerning the new program.



1. Shall is mostly used in interrogative sentences with the first person pronouns and carries a semantic component of agreement.

a. When used without and adverb of time, it refers to the immediate future, right after the moment of speaking.

Shall we open the window? Shall we leave? b. When used with an adverb of time, it refers to a more distant future. Shall we go fishing next weekend? Shall I do the dishes tonight?

2. Shall is also used to make prophecies about the future.

Nostradamus says the world shall end in the year 3997. If he continues to rise in the company, he shall be the general manager.

Will shows futurity in everyday speech and writing. In this sense, it is used in simple, continuous, and perfect tenses (Henry will be working late tonight; He will have read the chapters for tomorrow). The semantic component of will produces some other meanings.

1. Will suggests promise, intention, or willingness.

If I win the lottery, I’ll buy you a new dress. He says that he’ll be back by 4 o’clock. Who volunteers to buy the paper cups? I will.

2. Will sometimes expresses determination, threat, or inevitability.

She’ll do it in spite of what you say. Please keep the secret, or I’ll never trust you again. He’ll get in trouble if he breaks the window.

3. Will can show inference (as a conclusion) or assumption (act of assuming).

The storm is about over, it’ll be fine tomorrow. Someone’s at the door. That’ll be Joe.

4. Will reveal doubt or inquiry (request for information).

Will he win the competition or won’t he? Will you need your umbrella today?

5. Will is also used in request and commands.

Will you turn on the lights, please? Turn the radio down, will you?


WOULD Would states the probable outcome (result or consequence) of a hypothetical condition or contrary-to-fact. This appears in the result clause of conditional sentences or their equivalents

If I were you, I would go home. It would be foolish to give up hope. Jonathan would go camping, but his mother won’t let him. I’m glad tomorrow is holiday; otherwise, I would have an exhausting day.

1. It also occurs in wish sentences expressing contrary –to-fact actions.

I wish it would stop raining. Mark wished his son would have gone to college.

2. It can also express an action that did not happen in the past or a past unreal condition.

We would have taken a picture, but we didn’t have a camera. She would have gotten a good grade if she had studied harder.

3. Would is used in refusals.

Although he was hungry, he wouldn’t eat anything He was hungry, but he wouldn’t eat anything.

4. Would denote an action that occurred frequently in the past. In this sentence in equivalent to used to.

When I was a child, my mom would always tell us stories. In summer if the weather was fine, we would all go for a swim in the nearby river.

5. Would acts as the past form of will in indirect speech. Ann said, “I won’t be late” Ann said that she wouldn’t be late.

6. Would is used to state a polite request. In this pattern, it shows more formality than will.

I would appreciate receiving your check as soon as possible. Would someone please turn down the radio?

7. Would is sometimes stressed in ordinary conversation to show that we are not happy about something that has happened.

You would get dirty, wouldn’t you? They would spend all our tax money on weapons.


CAN

Can shows ability. In meaning, it is synonymous of be able to.

1. In some cases sentences, it refers to physical ability.

Tom is so strong that he can lift 50 kilos. Hector has been training so hard that he can now run five miles without getting tired.

2. Sometimes, it refers to a learned ability.

The new girl in class can speak three languages. The Osborne brothers can play several musical instruments.

3. At other times, it expresses the power to do something.

An eruption volcano can destroy tons of crops. Historical events can often shake the values of a society.

4. Can also show possibility.

Mrs. Henderson can’t see you now, but she can see you tomorrow. I can go to Europe if I receive the bank loan.

5. Can is colloquially used to ask for, give, or to talk about permission. It denotes less formality than may.

Can we leave now? They cannot meet in that room. I wonder if I can take my vacation next week.

6. Can’t is sometimes stressed in everyday speech to show that we think something wrong.

I CAN’T stand so much litter in the city. He was crying just a minute ago, he CAN’T be singing already. What he said CAN’T be true.

COULD Could also express ability. It refers to a past ability that does not exist in the present. It is, in this sense, equivalent to be able to.

Tom was so strong that he could lift 50 kilos. He could skate very well when he was young. The land was so flat that you couldn’t see a mountain for miles.


1. Could show possible actions or happenings in the future. In this case, it is formal than can but denotes less probability. It is usually stressed in such sentences.

Mrs. Henderson can’t see you today, but she COULD see you tomorrow. Where shall we go tonight? We COULD go to the movies. There COULD be another earthquake soon.

2. Could expresses permission that was once granted in the past, but is no longer valid in the present.

Years ago, everyone could enter stores without having to leave their bags at the counter. Some years ago, people could smoke in the cinemas and on the buses.

3. Could is used to consult someone and thus, semantically, it reveals diffidence.

Could I borrow your pen? Could I ask you something, if you’re not too busy?

4. Could is also used to politely ask someone to stop doing something. In such cases, not modifies the verb.

Could you not smoke at the table, please? Could they not talk so loudly?

5. Could act as the past form of can in indirect speech.

Alice said, “I can be here at five o’clock” Alice said that she could be here at five o’clock.

6. Could appear in the result clauses in conditional sentences that show present or future time.

If he weren’t so old, he could run faster. Janet could have more friends if she were more sociable.

MAY May indicate assumption. The changes for something to occur are great.

1. To state an assumption in the future, may is followed by the simple form of the verb.

Knowing Peter, he may be late again. The new designs may be ready next week. If you eat too much candy, you may get a stomach ache.


2. To express an assumption in the present, may is followed by be and –ing form of the verb.

Where’s dad? He may be working in the yard. The children are very quiet, they may be sleeping.

3. May affirms that permission has been granted. It is used in present and future situations only. To express permission granted in the past, use verbs such as “allow” or “permit”( he allowed us to enter)

May Susan use your hair drier? You may start answering the questions. John’s mother says that he may go with us.

4. May is synonymous of can when it suggests ability or possibility in the present or future.

You may find the information in the 1990 catalogue. Michelangelo’s LA PIETA may be seen in the Vatican. She’s saving her money, so that she may buy a car.

5. May appears in concessions.

He may be thin but he’s strong. Even though she may be a beginner, she shows great potential.

6. May can express a wish. This use is more poetical than colloquial.

May all your dreams come true¡ May god keep you well¡

MIGHT Might also expresses assumption; yet, the chances for something to happen in the future are lower than with may but higher than with could. Compare the following sentences.

It has been raining so hard these days that it will probably rain tomorrow, too. The clouds are so dark that it may rain soon. (Assumption made from cause-effect experience) The wind is strong and cool. It might rain later on. (Assumption where the cause-effect relationship is weak or unfulfilled) It could rain today even though there are no clouds. (Assumption made from past occasional experience)


To indicate assumption in the present, might is interchangeable with May.

Miss Davis is looking intently at the floor. She might be trying to find her contact lens.

Mr. Smith doesn’t celebrate his birthday, so he might not like the surprise party we have for him.

1. Might reveal diffidence (shy-timid) when used in questions asking for permission.

Might I have your attention please? Might they be allowed to practice in the auditorium?

2. Might used in exclamatory sentences denote sarcasm or reproach, and it is stressed strongly.

You MIGHT have been more polite! You MIGHT try to be more careful!

3. Might functions as the past form of May in indirect speech.

Professor Harris said “I may arrive a little late” Professor Harris said that he might arrive a little late.

MUST Must expresses obligation o necessity in the present or future if the obligation lies with the speaker, or subject, of the sentence. If the obligation arises from someone else, then have to is used and stressed in the sentence. Study the following examples:

I must go now. (I don’t want to be late) I HAVE TO be at the bank before it closes. (The bank sets the working hours) We must eliminate all sources of malaria. (It’s an obligation) International travelers HAVE TO show their passport and ticket at the boarding gate. (The airport administration requires that they do so)

1. Had to expresses obligation or necessity in the past.

We had to stay overnight because the fog wouldn’t lift. My brother had to drive me to the hospital yesterday.

2. Had to also function as t he past form of must in indirect speech.

The doctor said, “You must lose weight.” The doctor said that I had to lose weight.


3. Must not single out a positive prohibition. It is usually contracted in conversation and states the obligation or necessity not do something.

You must NOT walk in the middle of the road. You MUSN’T spend too many hours under the sun. (Not modifies the verb)

4. Must is used for illogical deductions or strong suppositions.

a. to express an indifference in the present, must is followed by the simple or the continuous form of the verb.

Paul recently finished high school. So, he must be about eighteen years old. The Robertsons haven’t returned from their trip yet. They must be having a great time!

b. For negative deductions in either present, future, or past, must is stressed but never contracted with not.

That store charges more than others. It must be an exclusive store. (Positive deduction) It MUST not be very honest in its dealings. (Negative deduction) Hellen looks a little sad. She MUST not have passed the test.

5. Must, stressed in the following sentences, and denotes sarcasm.

If you MUST smoke, please step outside. If he MUST chew gum, couldn’t he do it quietly?

6. Must can state a general truth if used without time expressions.

One must sleep well to work well. You must love to be loved.

SHOULD Should expresses duty on the part of the speaker, or subject of the sentence.

Your tooth aches so badly that you should go to the dentist this afternoon. Children shouldn’t play with matches.

Should is also used to express a duty at the present moment. In this case, it is followed by the continuous form of the verb.

Sarah likes to argue so much that she should be studying law instead of drama. He should be doing his homework and not watching television.


1. Should suggest advisability. In questions asking for agreement or offering help, it is interchangeable will shall when used with first person singular and plural.

You should be careful with strangers. He should exercise more. Should I help you with those bags? Should we hand in our report typewritten?

2. Should has no past form n indirect speech. It does not change.

Father said, “You should mow the lawn” Father said that I should mow the lawn.

3. Should is used in conditional sentences to replace the word if.

Should they try deciding to invest in the company, they would have to do it before the wee expires. Should he comes, please give him these papers.

OUGHT TO Ought to hints at the advisability of the speaker, or subject, of the sentence to do something. Compare the following sentences.

Should I retype this letter? Yes, you should. (It is your duty to re-do it because it is not well done) Should I retype this letter? Yes, you ought to. (It is advisability that you re-do it, but it is choice whether or not you want to. She ought to work harder on her pronunciation. You ought to offer your guests some refreshments.

Ought to, in colloquial usage, sometimes conveys assumption or suggestion. It is usually used in exclamatory sentences, but it is not stressed.

The party ought to be great! (I assume it will be) He ought to be famous! (I suggest that he should be)


EXERCISE 1: choose the alternative that best completes the sentence logically.

1) The steak (shall, will, would) burn if you don’t turn it on the other side. 2) I advise him not to go too fast, but he (shall, will, would) not listen. Now, look what’s he’s

done to his bike. 3) ( shall, will, would ) I do this for you? 4) After their last dispute over property rights, the brothers (shan’t, wouldn’t) talk to each

other. 5) She thinks that we (shall, will, would) be friends for a long time.

EXERCISE 2: fill in the blank with shall, will, or would.

1) He said that he was having a small problem with the distributors of the product, that he

______________settle the matter soon.

2) ________________ you be going to the seminar on Shakespeare?

3) Although the key turned, the drawer _____________________ not open.

4) _______________________we go now?

5) I asked him to come in, but he ________________ not. EXERCISE 3: choose the alternative that best completes the sentence logically.

1) Did you know that VCR cassettes (can, could) hold six hours of continuous recording? 2) The ball rolled down the hill, but the boy (can’t, couldn’t) catch up to it. 3) The bank clerk said that I (can’t, couldn’t) cash the check because the account had no funds. 4) A flood (can, could) cause considerable damage to both land and houses. 5) There (can, could) be dire consequences to hostile acts.

EXERCISE 4: fill in the blanks with can or could.

1) Books ____________________stir the imagination. 2) To sit and watch the sea roll in ____________________produce a very soothing effect. 3) ________________you climb a tree when you were little? 4) A power surge protector____________ protect electrical equipment from excessive voltage. 5) The secretary said that she_____________ have the invoices ready on time.



EXERCISES 5 choose the alternative that best completes the sentence logically.

1) Eddie asked to borrow my wrench. Please tell him that he(may, might). 2) Mrs. Stuart said that she (May, might) sign up for the senior citizen’s program. 3) Lou (may, might) not be an outstanding worker but he’s certainly a great dad. 4) I’m not quite sure, but I think you (may, might) find the hardware department on the fourth

floor. 5) You (may, might) get lost in Los Angeles even with a good map.

EXERCISE 6: fill in the blanks with may or might.

1) Laura _____________seem timid, but she is really sociable. 2) _______________ God bless you! 3) Father said that he ______________retire this year. 4) ________________ I borrow your pencil, please? 5) Darren only likes classical music, so he ______________ not want to go to the rock concert with us.

EXERCISE 7: choose the alternative that best completes the sentence logically.

1) You (must, should, ought to) take risks to achieve your goals. 2) The beans have been cooking for quite a while. They (must, should, ought to) be about ready. 3) It’s not my business, but you haven’t called your parents in a month. Don’t you think you (must, should, ought to)? 4) It is wise to save money in case of an emergency. Everyone (must, should, ought to) have a bank account. 5) You (must, should, ought to) tidy up your room so that you will not feel ashamed when your friends come to visit.

EXERCISE 8: fill in the blanks with must, should, ought to.

1) Judy is an American exchange student and wants to learn how to dance salsa and merengue maybe, she____________ enroll in a dance class.

2) Miguel looks disoriented. He ___________________know his way around campus yet. 3) Gloria Stefan is giving a concert next week. Yeah, it_________________ be good! 4) He wears a big hat, jeans, and pointed boots. He _______________ be a rancher. 5) People with cholesterol problems__________________ eat fried food.


OTHER AUXILIARES AND IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

There are some other auxiliaries and idiomatic expressions that are very frequent in English. They, like the modal auxiliaries, have specials meanings and uses. Without them, it would be almost impossible to communicate many personal intentions, attitudes, and emotions. Practice will, undoubtedly, sharpen the ability to handle the subtle differences among them correctly. BE ABLE TO Be able to substitutes can when we want to express the meaning of can in infinite or participle form.

You’ll be able to drive a car soon. (Infinitive) I’d like to be able to spend 6 months in Europe. (Infinitive) I haven’t been able to hear well recently. (Infinitive)

Be able to also substitutes could to show that someone had an opportunity to do something in the past and achieved his purpose; he had the chance and took it.

Bruce wasn’t able to win Roger at tennis even though the game wasn’t difficult. Although the Louvre Museum closed at four, we were able to see the Mona Lisa.

Have to, have got to Have to, as seen previously, is used to express an obligation or a necessity that comes from someone or something else. In everyday conversation, though,, it is often interchangeable with have got to but only in present and future situations. Unlike have to, have got to can be contracted pronouns.

I have to return this book to the library by Friday. We’ve got to get some medicine from the drugstore. They had to pick up all their toys from the floor.

In questions, have to is used for habitual or customary actions while have got to is used for single occasions.

Do we have to hand in our reports every week? (Do we need to do so every week?)

Have we (got) to listen to him? (Do we need to stay and listen to him now?)

The negative forms of these expressions also show this difference.

We don’t have to rewrite our papers. (We don’t need to do so) We haven’t got to pay for our fares. (There is no need to pay our fares)


HAD BETTER Had better is an idiomatic expression that indicates advisability on the part of the speaker, or the subject, of the sentence. It is followed by the simple form of the verb and had is usually contracted with the subject pronouns (he’d, it’d). Even though had is a part form, it does not reflect past time. The advisability is present and, semantically, it implies that something wrong might happen if the action is not carried out in the immediately future. The expression is not normally used in affirmative question.

We’d better leave before the rush hour. They’d better not forget their appointment with the lawyer. Hadn’t you better check on the baby?

BE USED TO, GET USED TO, USED TO Be used to is an idiom that means be accustomed to. It is followed by a noun, a pronoun, or a gerund and used in present and past situations.

Were you used to the cold winter in the north? (Noun) Yes, I was used to them. (Pronoun) We aren’t used to work with sophisticated methods. (Gerund) I was used to running in the field before I moved to the city. (Gerund)

get used to is another idiom that means to become accustomed to . it is very much like used to, as it is followed by a noun, a pronoun, or a gerund. Yet, it indicates that a certain amount of time needs to elapse before any change can occur. It is used in present, past, and future actions.

People will never get used to inflationary prices. (Noun) Did the young boy soon get used to shaving? (Gerund) Yes, he got used to it pretty soon. (Pronoun) Most exchange students don’t get used to eating rice and beans every day. (Gerund)

Used to refers to an action that regularly happened in the past but no longer continues in the present. It is followed by the simple form of the verb.

Computers programs didn’t used to be very good, but they have certainly improved in recent years. Didn’t your family used to live on a farm? Yes, we used to.

WOULD LIKE, WOULD RATHER, AND WOULD SOONER. Would like is an idiom that expresses polite way of showing preference. It is usually followed by an infinite.

We would like to have two Cokes, please. Would you like to go on a picnic with us? What would he like to get for Christmas?


Would rather is an idiom that shows the speaker preferences for an alternative, when both alternatives are positive, or when one of the alternatives is positive and the other negative.

The Newmans would rather not go out tonight. They would rather travel by car than by train. They would rather stop drinking than die.

Would sooner is yet another idiomatic expression that shows preference for an alternative, when the two alternatives are negative for the speaker.

I would sooner drop the course than face the professor’s anger. He would sooner climb Mount Everest than cross the swamp.

MAY AS WELL, MIGHT AS WELL May as well and might as well are idioms. They express the idea that we should do something, either because there is nothing better to do, or there is no choice but to comply with or duty. They are, more often than not, interchangeable.

It’s late. We may as well go home I have to do so many things that I may as well start by ironing the clothes. We might as well watch this movie. (There is nothing better to watch ) That is the situation. You might as well accept it. You’ll have to wait half an hour for the next bus, so you might as well start walking.

CAN’T HELP, CAN BUT, CAN HARDLY/CAN BARELY Can’t help is an idiom that means can’t avoid. It is always followed by a gerund.

They can’t help laughing at my mistake. He couldn’t help thinking about the final exam.

Can but is yet another negative form of can. It is followed by the simple form of the verb and stressed in the modal.

I CAN but only think of the consequences. He COULD but use sign language; but he couldn’t speak.

Can hardly and can barely are also other negative forms of can, and they are followed by the simple form of the verb.

She can hardly hear you; speak loud. The baby was so sleepy that he could hardly keep his eyes open. The children are so excited about the puppet show that they can barely wait to go.


EXERCISE 1: fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of be able to.

1) In the 1990 World Cup, the Costa Rican team___________________ get to the semi-finals. 2) Without earphones, you ________________ listen to your walkman radio. 3) The assault victim _______________ overcome the trauma left by the attack on her life. 4) Even though the test was difficult, Karen _____________ finish it in two hours. 5) _____________________ they _________________ score a goal before half-time?

EXERCISE 2: fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of have to, have got to, and had better.

1) You _____________________ save your file on your disk drive before the power fails again. 2) I ____________________ change my attitude toward the new teaching techniques before I am

completely blocked. 3) The librarian told Karl that he _________________ return the books in a week. 4) The light bulb is loose. You ____________________ fix it. 5) I have a dental appointment this afternoon. I _____________ be there at 2:30 p.m.

EXERCISE 3: fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of be used to, get used to, and used to.

1) Sonia __________________ sing in the choir when she was in high school. 2) Couples soon ______________waking up in the middle of the night to feed their newborn baby. 3) The Harrisons __________ heavy rainfall. After all, they have lived in the tropics for ten years

now. 4) Small children _______________________ taking a mid-morning nap. 5) He _______________________ washing, ironing, and cooking, but now that he’s married, he

doesn’t want to help with the house chores. EXERCISE 4: fill in the blanks with would like, would rather, or would sooner.

1) Richard _________________ to go fishing this weekend, but he can’t. 2) Some people ______________ accept flattery than the truth. 3) In the battlefield, soldiers _________________ charge against the enemy than feel trapped in

the trenches. 4) Mrs. Brooks loves to go to the entertainment park, but she ____________ not go up on the

Ferris wheel. 5) Children ___________________ eat junk food than a wholesome meal.



EXERCISE 5: fill in the blanks with May as well, or might as well.

1) Jean wants to live by herself. She ____________ as well look for an apartment. 2) I’m hungry but too tired to cook dinner. I ___________________as well heat up the left-overs. 3) Pierre dreams of going to the United States. He has signed up for an English course because he

says he ___________________ as well start by studying the language. 4) If you are going to eat spaghetti with lots of tomato sauce, you _______________ as well use a

napkin as a bib. 5) Your favorite blouse is badly stained. You _________________ as well throw it away.

EXERCISE 6: fill in the blanks with can’t help, can but, or can hardly in the present or past forms.

1) The Dawsons are taking a cruise in the Caribbean. They __________________ wait for the trip to start.

2) My son has been coughing all morning. I __________________ hope that it’s nothing more than a cold.

3) Matt saw some children begging on the streets downtown. He ________________feeling sorry for them.

4) The fog was so thick that we _________________ see the road ahead. 5) When you fall in love, you ________________________ thinking of the beloved.


PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

The preposition

Prepositions are connective words, sometimes a group of two or three words that relate a noun or pronoun to one or another of the basic elements of the sentence (the subject, verb, object, or complements). Prepositions have been called the biggest little words in English. They are usually quite short and insignificant looking, but they have very important functions, take a look at this sentences and notice how completely different the meaning of the sentences is.

� A letter was sent to Mary. � A letter was sent by Mary. � A letter was sent for Mary. � A letter was sent from Mary. �

The prepositions change, but that is enough to change the meaning entirely. Read the following conversation and observe the use of prepositions. Try to imagine how you could give the same meaning without using any preposition. It would be very difficult. As a matter of fact, it would be almost impossible.

Mr. and Mrs. Smith were driving along a country road. They came to a river with a bridge over it.

“Here is the river that we noticed on the map,” Mr. Smith said “now we must take this road that runs along it”. “No,” Mrs. Smith said, “we should go across the river. Maybe we should take the road beyond the river.” “Well”, said Mr. Smith, “I’m confused now. I don’t know whether we should take the road along the river, across the river, or beyond the river.” Mr. Smith was confused. He didn’t know which direction to go. But he did understand the meaning of each preposition.



Prepositional phrases

Notice in the conversation that each preposition follows a noun or a verb. The preposition is followed by a noun or a pronoun. A pronoun after a preposition is always an object pronoun: It, me, him, her, us, and them. The preposition and its accompanying noun or pronoun is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases functions as adjective, adverbs, and sometimes as nouns. Prepositional Phrases as adjectives Normally, a preposition phrase used as an adjective follows the noun that it modifies.

� We should take the road along the river. � We saw a river with a bridge. � The book on Egypt has been sold. � The package for Mary arrived yesterday. �

Prepositional Phrases as Adverbs Prepositional phrases can modify verbs, and in such cases function as adverbs in the sentence. Such adverbial phrases can occur after the verb they modify or after the object.

� They were driving along a country road. � They came to a river. � We saw John in January. � In April, we will see him again. �

Prepositional Phrases as noun Prepositional phrases can be used as noun.

� Before breakfast is a good time for a swim. (subject) � The best place for a picnic is in the park

Prepositions usually indicate relationships such as position, place, direction, time, manner, agent, possession, and condition between the objects and other parts of the sentence. Prepositional phrases provide information usually as for by the question words who, what, where, how, when, why, how much, how long, etc.

Prepositions

The following list shows some of the most common uses of preposition. Where: place, position. Across Her house is across the street. At He used to be a student at an American U. Against His bicycle was leaning against the fence. Behind The garage is behind the house. By That house by the lake is my dream house. Down We saw her walking down fifth avenue this

afternoon. In She was dozing in an armchair when we got there.


In back of The taxi is parked in back of the bus. In front of The ball rolled in front of the bus. Inside Come in. It’s warmer inside the house. Near You shouldn’t smoke near gasoline. On He put the book on the table. On top of I want cake and ice cream, and on top of that I want

whipped cream. Over The mother pulled the blanket over the baby. Outside There’s a bird’s nest outside my window. To She went to the grocery store. Through The bird flew through the open window. Under I found that book it was under the desk. Underneath Put a pad underneath that hot coffee pot. Up He was walking up the street. Upon He placed his hat upon his head. Among If you look carefully, you might find the letter among

those papers. Between His shop is between the bank and the post office. After Walk straight ahead; then take the first street after the

bridge. Before I have your letter before me now. Below They live in the apartment below ours. Opposite The school is opposite the church

Where: direction. Into I saw her going into the theater a few minutes ago. Out of He took some money out of his pocket Toward This road leads toward the sea By way of Can’t we go to New York by way of Philadelphia Across He is building a house across the street Opposite The post office is opposite the court house

When: time At I told her to meet us at six o’clock sharp By Alice should be back by seven at the latest In I’ll meet you in an hour For They are living for three weeks During During the summer, I think I’ll go to Florida After Would you please call after eight Before Take this medicine before mealtime Until (till) We must wait until noon On + time Do you think the train is arriving on time? In + time Please hurry up or we’ll never be in time for the first

act Around I get to my office around nine every morning About I think she will be away about a week From…to The office will be open from one to nine every day From…unt il She works from eight am until two six pm day a week


Why: purpose, reason. For Take this medicine for your headache Whose: possession Of The leader of the scouts has not arrived yet To Those books belong to Mary How: manner By I enjoy going there by train On I met her on the train In You must be dressed in formal clothes at that hotel With She met me with a scowl on her face Like She is not at all graceful; she walks like a duck How: agent, material By This film was directed by an American director In The play was originally written in English With I must fill my pen with ink What, which: At The shop at the corner sells stamps On The apartment on the second floor is smaller than

ours By That book by Capote is a masterpiece In The man in the dark suit is Mr. Howard Of This kind of material can’t be found today For She was given an award for her high grades As (in capacity of)

She works as a secretary

How much, how long: measurement. For We walked for miles and miles

He has lived here for years I paid sixty cents for a dozen eggs

Of I want to buy two bottles of milk By Meat is sold by the pound or by the kilo


Some prepositions are used to express a variety of meanings, and often present difficulties. Some of the common prepositions with their various meanings and their most common uses are summarized below for reference purposes. By

• Means or agent We went by bus. The letter was delivered by the postman That story was written by a friend of mine • Without help, or alone (when used with a reflexive pronoun) He lives by himself She did the homework by herself I always study by myself • Passing near something and continuing without stopping I always walk by that house on my way to work Several buses go by our house Do you go by the post office? • Time expression meaning, not later than I hope I can finish my work by six o’clock He will be here by five o’clock All classes will be over by June

Prepositions of Location: above, below, over, under, inside, outside, and near. Above

• Anywhere higher than a certain point The ceiling is above our head The dictionary is on the shelf above the encyclopedia Our airplane was above the clouds during most of the trip The temperature is well above freezing

Below • Anywhere lower than a certain point There is a shop below their apartment. From the airplane we could see mountains below us That valley is below sea level The temperature was below 30º Fahrenheit this morning.

Over • Directly above a certain point; more than; during a long period of time. There is a light over the table. He held an umbrella over his head. We flew over the mountains. It cost over ten dollars. He is over eighty years old Over the years, he has proven to be a good friend


Under • Directly below a certain point; less than; under the supervision of The cat is sleeping under the chair His shoes are under the bed The children in this class are under six years of age John works under Dave Moore

Inside • Completely within a certain location The paper is inside the drawer Come inside the house, it’s much cooler here You will find your gift inside that box

Outside • Completely out of a certain location He is outside the house Please wait outside the office The car is outside the garage

Near • Indefinite position not far away from a certain place The bank is near the post office She lives near me His car is parked near the school

Prepositions of Motion: to, toward, into, out of, and through. To

• Continuing to a definite place We walked to the station He drove to Washington They traveled to France

Toward • In the direction of All mosques face toward Mecca He is pointing toward his friend’s house Those children are running toward us

Into • Motion that ends somewhere inside a certain place He has already gone into theater He put his hand into his pocket She fell into the water


Out of • Motion that ends somewhere outside a certain place She moved all chairs out of the room What time will they come out of the mall? My teacher sent the boy out of the room

Through • First into and then out of (to go through is to enter and then leave directly) Let’s walk through the park We drove through several villages You have to go through room three in order to get to room four

In • Location or residence in a state, a city, or a country(the place is usually a large area or a large city) He lives in America That river is in California She lives in Cairo • Point of time, or period of time thought of as a complete unit I saw him in January It was in 1965 The mail comes in the morning We swim and play in the summer • Duration of time He can do it in an hour He finished that book in one evening I wrote that composition in half an hour • Languages They were speaking in Arabic The play was produced in French That opera was originally written in Italian • Inside, within, enclosed He is in his office now His hand kerchief is in his pocket She is in the garden • After a certain length of time He will come in an hour

At • Location or residence in a small town, or a street address if the house number is given He lives at Smithville We have finally arrived at his town He lives at 18 Magnolia Street • Exact time He arrived at 8:00 o’clock Those farmers stop working at sunset He gets up at dawn


• Price The prices of those books begin at $1 and go up. They are on sale at two dollars a dozen I cannot afford to buy them at that price • Direction or aim Look at those boys fighting That child threw a stone at me The hunter aimed his gun at the birds • Location place He is at school now Dr. Miller is at his office He is at work

On • Resting on or touching something The book is on the table The picture is on the wall There is a light on the ceiling • Days of the week and other dates Summer begins on June 21 We do not have classes on Sundays Our vacation begins on Friday • Location of residence on a street if the number is not given I live on McKinley Street She is visiting a friend on Magnolia St.

For • Duration of time She played the piano for two hours We have been waiting for twenty minutes They lived in Washington for two years • In exchange for He rented the house for very little money I bought this book for two dollars Can you buy a good notebook for fifteen cents? • For the pleasure or benefit of Mary sang songs for us Shall I open the window for you? She baked a cake for me • Instead of or in place of She was busy. So I did her work for her When you were away, Tom did the work for you Alice is going to cook the dinner for us and her mother

For is often used in this way: be + adjective + noun + infinitive It’s impossible for Tom to pronounce that word It is important for them to arrive early It is too late for us to go to the party


• Beside (next to) He is sitting beside Alice He is sitting next to Alice The library is next to the post office The library is beside the post office • Opposite Tom sits opposite me in the cafeteria every day There is a new building opposite our house Our school is opposite a park • As far as We walked as far as the park before we got tired He threw the ball as far as he could He threw the ball as far as that tree We can see as far as the horizon • Between Alice is sitting between Jane and Mary I want to put the table between those two windows Wednesday comes between Tuesday and Thursday • Among I found your letter among my school papers He is sitting among some of his friends Do not put your papers among mine • Beneath, underneath

Beneath and underneath mean almost the same thing in many uses. Generally, both indicate lower than a given point. When the meanings diverge, underneath conveys more specifically the meaning of one object being covered up by another, and beneath may be used in a figurative sense. It may be useful to associate underneath with under and beneath with below

Two hundred feet beneath (below)the surface of the earth, solid rock was found You will find a pot of gold underneath (under) a huge stone at the foot of the rainbow Mr. Glum considers such a fairy tales beneath his dignity • Off

Removed from contact or connection; away from a place occupied before He took the book off the shelf He took the picture off the wall I can’t find the calendar. It is off the wall I lost a bottom off my coat • Upon

Resting on top (about the same meaning as on, when it means in contact with, or above) His hat is upon his head He put it upon the shelf Her photograph is upon the mantelpiece • Besides

In addition to, more than Two others won prizes besides us


Besides those five verbs, we learned five nouns She has written many books besides that one

• Like, unlike •

Like mean similar to. Unlike is the opposite of like (just like means identical, exactly the same as) His mind is like an adding machine You look just like your brother Do you think English is like French? The film is unlike the book Being so impolite is unlike him. • Despite

Despite, like in spite of, has the meaning of without regard to another circumstance or situation (is often used in the expression despite the fact that)

They are playing football despite the rain They are playing despite the fact that is raining She came to school today in spite of the doctor’s warnings • In order to

For the purpose of (usually can be replaced by to) We will have to hurry in order to arrive on time One has to go to the office in order to learn the results In order to save time, please don’t do that • Since

Duration of time based on stated prior period of time or specific date I have known him since his marriage They have lived there since 1965 I haven’t seen them since our party • During

Over a stated period of time or while a given event is in progress; maybe either constant or intermittent John lived in St. Louis during most of his childhood We ate hot dogs and drank cokes during the football game It rained several times during august • Throughout

Much of the same meaning is during with stress on the intensity or continuity of action; indicates unceasing activity from the beginning until the end of the period of time mentioned

The girls whispered throughout the concert It rained throughout our week at the beach • Before and after

These words have obvious opposite meanings in time expressions I will see you after the examination I would like to meet you before class time He studies before an examination He relaxes after all examinations


• Until

Period of time before something else happens; up to I will wait for you until five o’clock He lived there until his marriage I have to work up to five o’clock today I have to work until five o’clock today • Within

Inside described limits He said he would finish the report within the required time The mail will arrive within an hour • According

Used in citing authority or source of information According to the latest census, Houston has more than a million inhabitants According to the critics the play is excellent According to my watch it’s 12:30

Prepositions at the end of the sentence: It used to be said that one should never end a sentence with a preposition, but in actual practice that is a rule that cannot always be followed. Prepositions commonly end sentences under the following circumstances:

• When an interrogative pronoun is the object of a preposition Who (whom) are you speaking to?

What are you looking for? • When a relative pronoun is used as the object of the preposition This is the house that I used to live in There is the man that I was speaking of • When the relative pronoun is omitted This is the house I used to live in This is the house in which I used to live Here is the book I was speaking of This is the book of which I was speaking • After an infinitive at the end of the sentence He used his pen to write with

Notice the position of the preposition in the following sentences 1. He admires the man for whom he works 2. He admires the man whom he works for 3. He admires the man that he works for 4. He admires the man he works for


EXERCISE 1: Choose in, on, or at for the blank space in each sentence.

1) Mr. and Mrs. Kennedy live _______ West End Avenue. 2) Did you buy your new car _______ Detroit or here? 3) The Browns were ________ Greece and Italy two years ago. 4) Mr. Foster works ________ 667 E, 78th Street ________ New York. 5) The Johnson’s garage is _______ back of their house. 6) Would you please park your car ________ the driveway. 7) Mr. and Mrs. Smith stayed _______ the Lincoln Hotel _________ Boston. 8) I’ll meet you __________ the corner of 34th Street and Broadway. 9) How did you enjoy your vacation _______ Europe last year? 10) Alice isn’t ____ home right now. 11) There are national parks ____ every section of the country. 12) Do your friends live ________ Manhattan or _________ Long Island? 13) Turn left ______ the corner. The house is ________ the left side. 14) Mr. Carson arrived __________ the airport half an hour later. 15) My friend and I always ride to school _______ the bus.

EXERCISE 2: select the right preposition for the blank space in each sentence. Adj + pre

1) Mr. Adams went ________ a walk _____ the park this afternoon. 2) I hope that the director will cooperate _______ us ________ that matter. 3) That restaurant _________ 10th street is known ______ its fine food. 4) I think that the young girl is afraid ______ cats and dogs. 5) The quality of this is not equal _______ the quality of that one. 6) Are you ready ______ the English examination. 7) Everyone feels very sorry ______ that poor old man. 8) How much did your friend pay _______those theater tickets? 9) When did the Andersons expect to arrive _______ New York? 10) The men will probably rely ______ you ____ some assistance. 11) Frank always depends ______ his brother for assistance. 12) They are aware ____ my strong feelings _______ that matter. 13) We are not accustomed ________ this very cold weather yet. 14) Our visitors complained _______ the bad weather ______ this region. 15) Betty is always very considerate _______ other people’s feeling.

EXERCISE 3: choose before, after, or ago for the blank space in each sentence.

1) Our friends will arrive in this city a week ______________ now. 2) Mr. Benson was here the week __________ last. 3) Fred’s brother finished school several years ___________________. 4) Bill and I went to that meeting the night ___________________-last 5) Pierre will return to this country two years __________________now.

EXCERSISES EXCERSISES EXCERSISES EXCERSISES


6) Our school year ended the month __________ last. 7) Mr. and Mrs. Fox left here two weeks ________________ yesterday. 8) I’m going to go back to school the ______________ next. 9) Did you speak to Miss Davis the day __________ yesterday? 10) I am leaving for South America a week _______________ tomorrow.

EXERCISE 4: SINCE vs. FOR

1) Mr. Berg has studied English in this class ___________________ eight months. 2) My friend has studied English in this class _________________last October. 3) The Browns have lived in this city ______________ 1948. 4) The Wilsons have lived in New York ____________ six years. 5) Mr. Smith worked for the Ajax Company ________ one year. 6) Mr. Smith has worked for our company ________________ that time. 7) Alice has been here _____________ the beginning. 8) Her sister has been in San Francisco ______ a long time.

EXERCISE 5: FOR vs. IN

1) Mr. Smith worked for the Container Corporation ______________ 1951. 2) Mr. Smith worked for the corporation ____________________ one year. 3) My wife and I usually take our vacation _______________ the summer. 4) We usually stay inVermont or Maine_________________ a whole month. 5) Professor Moore came to his university_______________ 1939. 6) Professor Moore has taught here_________________ seventeen years. 7) Fred’s sister has had her diploma______________ over six weeks now. 8) She received her diploma from Michigan State University ______________June.

EXERCISE 6: BY vs IN

1) Thomas and Richard will be there_______________ ten o’clock. 2) My friends will be there__________________ two or three hours. 3) Will you finish the work_________________ September 10? 4) I’ll finish all of the work_________________ three months. 5) I’ll lend you my dictionary_______________ a day or two. 6) Don’t brother; I’ll have my own dictionary________________ then. 7) We’ll go there at six-thirty________________ that time, Tom will be there. 8) I’m sure you will not finish the work __________ that amount of time.

EXERCISE 7: BY vs. FOR

1) We’ll have that report for you ______________ 4:00 p.m. 2) We’ll work on that report ______ the next two hours. 3) I’m leaving now, but I’ll be back here _____ noon. 4) I’ll be away from my office _____________ several hours today. 5) The highway department will finish that road _____ 2008. 6) The construction company has already worked on it __________________ one year. 7) Please don’t tell my friends the news ______________ a few days.


8) Why not? Your friends will know all about it _______ that time. EXERCISE 8: FOR vs. IN

1) The train to Chicago will leave ____________ five minutes. 2) The train will stay in the station ______________ five minutes more. 3) Are your friends going to be in Wisconsin ________ a long time? 4) No, they’ll be back in this city ___________ a week or two. 5) We usually go from Detroit to New York ___________ three hours. 6) My brother and his wife lived in Detroit _______ three years. 7) Are you leaving now? No, I’ll leave __________ a little while. 8) Are you leaving now? Yes, I’ll be away _____ a little while.

EXERCISE 9: select the correct preposition for each blank space. Use only prepositions since, for, ago, in, on, at.

1) Mr. Rossi was born ______________ Genoa, Italy ________ the year 1907. he was born _____ Tuesday, March 15, _____ midnight. He lived ____ Genoa ____ eight years. Then he moved to Rome _______ 1915.He fell in love with that city ______ that time. He has written a lot of stories about Rome ______ that time. However, it has been quite a long time _______ his last year ___ that city. He went to school _______ Rome ________ eight years. He quit school there _________ June, 1923. _____July 15, he left _______ Switzerland. He arrived ______ Lausanne late ____________ night two days later. He went to a private school ______ that city _____ two years. Today, he often speaks about the wonderful time he had ________ that school many years _______. ________ the end of those two years, he left ______ France. ______ first, he felt very homesick. However, he finally got a job ________ the staff of a large newspaper. It was hard work_______ the beginning. He didn’t have much experience _______ that time. That was ________1925. Of course, he has gained a great deal of experience _____ then. But ______ those days, he was only a beginner ______ that field. ___ the beginning of the next year, he got a job ______ a publishing house. He worked _______ that concern ______ four years. Mr. Rossi came to the United States _____ the spring of 1930. He became a citizen _______ the twentieth of April, 1935. he has had a house ____ this city _______ that time. _____ all, he has lived ________ this country _______ quite a long time. Mr. Rossi took a course ______ English a number of years ________. He started his course ________ ten o’clock _____ the morning _________ October 7, 1933. He studied English _______ two years. Mr. Rossi has also studied German and Spanish _________ that time. He studied German _______ the summer of 1940, and he started his Spanish course ____________ February, 1943. he studied that language _____________ three years. Mr. Rossi went to South Africa six years _________, and he stayed there _________ two years. Then he returned to the United States ___________ good. He has also written many things about South America _______ that trip. Mr. Rossi has been a professional writer _______ 1925. he wrote his first article _____ 1925. _____ then, he has written almost 800 articles and stories.


THE PASSIVE

Active and passive voices are used in English to express actions. While in the active voice, the subject is the doer, the passive, the subject receives the effect of the action. Thus, only transitive verbs (those that take a direct object) can undergo the passive transformation. This is one of the reasons why the active voice is more frequent in speech and in writing. The passive voice, however, is especially useful for stylistic reasons in official documents, journalistic articles, and scientific writing.

Form or the passive: verb to be + past participle

To transform an active sentence into a passive one, follow these three steps.

1. Move the direct object of the active sentence to subject position.

Both governments signed the agreement. D.O The agreement was signed by both governments. S

2. Insert a form of be in the tense of the active sentence, and write the main verb of the active sentence in its past participle form.

Roy grows potatoes in the farm. Potatoes are grown on the farm.

The telephone company is installing new lines. New lines are being installed by the telephone company

The doctor has already examined the pregnant women. The pregnant women have already been examined by the doctor The champion must drive that race car. That race car must be driven by the champion.



3. Move the subject of the active sentence to the end of the passive sentence. The subject of the active sentence becomes the agent of the passive one. The agent is then headed by the preposition by.

The boy told a weird story. S A weird story was told by the boy. Agent

The agent is, however frequently omitted when it does not contain information which specifically wish to include. Oscar Arias from Costa Rica was awarded the Nobel Price for peace in 1987. (we omit the by prepositional phrase)

Only transitive verbs (verbs that are followed by an object) are used in the passive. It is not possible to use verbs such as happen, sleep, come and seem (intransitive verbs) in the passive. Ex.

ACTIVE: An accident happened. PASSIVE: (none)

VERB TENSE Simple Present Mary

John Helps Is helped

John By Mary

A P

Present Progressive Mary John

Is helping Is being helped

John By Mary

A P

Present Perfect Mary John

Has helped Has been helped

John By Mary

A P

Simple Past Mary John

Helped Was helped

John By Mary

A P

Past Progressive Mary John

Was helping Was being helped

John By Mary

A P

Past Perfect Mary John

Had helped Had been helped

John By Mary

A P

Simple Future Mary John

Will help Will be helped

John By Mary

A P

Be going to Mary John

Is going to help Is going to be helped

John By Mary

A P

Future Perfect* Mary John

Will have helped Will have been helped

John By Mary

A P

*The progressive forms of the present perfect, past perfect, future and future perfect are very rarely used in the passive.


Using the Passive:

1.To signal that the performance is unknown

The investigation was carried out in Germany.

The television set had been assembled in Mexico.

English is spoken in many places.

2. To hint that the “doer” is a general group.

The mechanic was held at 10 o’clock

The dining hall was being readied for the diplomatic banquet.

It is constantly said that ecology is vital to our survival.

3. To avoid mentioning the performer of the action.

Romeo an Juliet was written between 1594 and 1596.

The concert was given inside the cathedral.

I was told to go to the immigration office.

4. To place emphasis on the “receiver” rather than on the performance of the action.

The thief was beaten by the policeman.

Has the arrest been declared illegal?

The trial is being postponed for next month.

4. To describe a scientific experiment or process.

First, the sample was taken and then the test tube was heated.

The plants were labeled for further research.

The patients had been vaccinated previous to the diagnosis.


The Passive Form of Modals and Similar Expressions:

The Passive Form: modal + be + past participle

MODAL PASSIVE

Tom The window Children This book This letter Mary Fred

Will Can’t Should May I Had better Ought to Has to Is supposed to

Be invited Be opened Be taught Be excused Be returned Be sent Be told Be told

To the picnic To respect their elders From class? To the library soon Before June 1st About our change in plans About the meeting

These Past - Passive Form: modal + have been + past participle

MODAL PASSIVE

The letter This house Jack

Should Must Ought to

Have been sent Have been built Have been invited

Last week Over 200 years ago To the party

EXERCISE 1: Change the active to the passive by supplying the correct form of BE. Ex. Tom opens the door. The door ____is____ ____opened by Tom. 1. Tom is opening the door. The door ______________ opened by Tom. 2. Tom has opened the door. The door _______________ opened by Tom.



3. Tom opened the door. The door __________________ opened by Tom. 4. Tom was opening the door. The door _______________ opened by Tom. 5. Tom had opened the door. The door _______________ opened by Tom. 6. Tom will open the door. The door __________________ opened by Tom. 7. Tom is going to open the door. The door ________________ opened by Tom. 8. Tom will have opened the door. The door __________________ opened by Tom. EXERCISE 2: Change the active to the passive Ex. Shakespeare wrote that play. The play was written by Shakespeare. 1. Bill will invite Ann to the party.

2. Alex is preparing that report.

3. Waitresses and waiters serve customers.

4. The teacher is going to explain the lesson.

5. Shirley had suggested a new idea.

6. The horses were pulling the farmer’s wagon.

7. Kathy had returned the book to the library.


8. His tricks won’t fool me.

EXERCISE 3: Change the active to the passive if possible. Some verbs are intransitive and cannot be changed. Ex. A strange thing happened yesterday. (No change) Jackie scored the winning goal. The winning goal was scored by Jackie. 1. My cat died.

2. I agree with Dr. Ikeda´s theory

3. Dr. Ikeda developed that theory.

4. Timmy dropped the cup.

5. The cup fell to the floor.

6. The assistant manager interviewed me.

7. It rained hard yesterday.

8. A hurricane destroyed the small fishing village.

9. Dinosaurs existed millions of years ago.

EXERCISE 4: Why is the use of the passive appropriate in the following Sentences. What would be the active equivalents of the passive sentences?

1. The Washington monument is visited by hundreds of people every day.

2. Paper, the main writing material today, was invented by the Chinese.

3. The World Cup soccer games are being televised all over the world.

4. Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony was performed at the concert last night.


EXERCISE 5: Complete the sentences with the given words, active or passive

Ex.

James ___should be told___ the news as soon as possible. (Should + tell) 1. Someone _________________________ James the news immediately. (Should + tell) 2. James _________________________ the news a long time ago. (Should + tell) 3. Meat _________________________ in a refrigerator or it will spoil. (Must + keep) 4. You _________________________ meat in a refrigerator or it will spoil. (Must + keep) 5. We tried, but the window _________________________. 6. (Couldn’t + open) 7. I tried, but I _________________________ the window. (Couldn’t + open) 8. Good news! I _________________________ a job soon. I had an interview at an engineering firm

yesterday. (May + offer) 9. Chris has good news. The engineering firm where she had an interview yesterday

_________________________ a her job soon. (May + offer) EXERCISE 6: Use the verb in parentheses with any appropriate modal or similar expression. All of the sentences are passive. In many sentences, more than one modal is possible. Use the modal that sounds best to you. 1. The entire valley (see) ________________ from their mountain home.

2. He is wearing a gold band on his fourth finger. He (marry) _________________.

3. According to our teacher, all of our compositions (write) ___________________

4. I found this book on my desk when I came to class. It (leave) _______________

5. Five of the committee members will be unable to attend the next meeting. In my opinion, the

meeting (postpone) _______________


6. A child (give, not) _______________ everything he or she wants.

7. Your daughter has a good voice. Her interest in singing (encourage) _______________.

8. Try to speak slowly when you give your speech. If you don’t, some of your words (misunderstand)

_______________.

9. Some UFO sightings (explain, not) _______________ easily. No one is able to explain them

easily.

10. She is very lazy. If you want her to do anything, she (push) ________________.


CONDITIONALSENTENCES EXPRESSING CONDITION

IF CLAUSES Ïf clauses¨ present possible conditions. The main clause expresses results. Ex. If it rains, the streets get wet POSSIBLE CONDITION: It rains The streets get wet.

A present tense, not a future tense, is used in a ïf clause¨ even though the verb in the ïf clause¨ may refer to a future event or situation, as in: If it rains tomorrow, I will take my umbrella

Words that introduce clauses of condition: Ïf clause¨

If in case (that) only if Whether or not in the event (that) providing (that) Even if unless provided (that)

• WHETHER OR NOT, EVEN IF Whether or not, expresses the idea that neither this condition nor that condition matters; the result will be the same.

I’m going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not is cold. (Or whether it is cold or not)

In this sentence it’s clear the condition, that it doesn’t matter if it cold or not I’m going swimming anyway.



• EVEN IF

Sentences with Even if, are close in meaning to those with whether or not. Even if gives the idea that a particular condition does not matter. The result will not change. Ex

I have decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold, I’m going to swimming tomorrow.

COMPARE:

Ïf clauses¨ are followed by expected result.

If Ann studies hard, she will pass the exam. CONDITION: Ann studies. EXPECTED RESULT: She passes the exam Ëven if clauses¨ are followed by unexpected results.

Even if Mary studies hard, she won’t pass the exam. CONDITION: Mary studies UNEXPECTED RESULT: She doesn’t pass the exam

• IN CASE (THAT), IN THE EVENT (THAT)

In case that and in the event that express the idea that something probably won’t happen, but it might. In case / in the event that = If by chance this should happen. Notes: In the event that is more formal than in case. The use of should in the clause emphasize the speaker’s uncertainty that something will happen. Ex. a. I’ll be at my uncle’s house in case you (should) need to reach me. b. In the event that you (should) need to reach me, I’ll be at my uncle’s house. c. • UNLESS This conditional has the same meaning that implies if ……not. Ex. I’ll go swimming tomorrow unless it’s cold. I’ll go swimming tomorrow if is not cold. These two clauses have the same meaning.


• ONLY IF, PROVIDING / PROVIDED THAT 1. Only if expresses the idea that there is only one condition that will cause a particular result.

The picnic will be canceled only if it rains. If it is windy, we’ll go in the picnic If is cold, we’ll go in the picnic If it is damp and foggy, we’ll go in the picnic If it is hot, we’ll go in the picnic

When only if begins a sentence, the subject and verb of the main clause are inverted. Ex.

Only if it rains will the picnic be canceled.

2. Providing that and provided that are equal to if or only if. Ex.

Providing / provided (that 9 no one has any further questions, the meeting will be adjourned).

VERB FORMS IN SENTENCES WITH IF (CONDITIONAL SENTEN CES)

SITUATION IF -

CLAUSE

RESULT CLAUSE EXAMPLES

TRUE IN THE PRESENT/ FUTURE

Simple present

Will Can

If I have enough money, I a ticket.

CONTRARY–TO-FACT IN THE PRESENT/FUTURE

Simple past

Would Could

If I had enough money, I a tickeT

CONTRARY-TO-FACT IN THE PAST

Past perfect

Would have Could have

If I had had enough money, I A ticket.

+ simple form

+ simple form

+ past participl

Will by Can buy

Would buy Could buy

Would have bought Could have bought


EXERCISE 1: Make sentences from the given possibilities. Give two sentences. Use if. Ex.

It may be cold tomorrow. If it’s cold tomorrow, I’m going to stay home. If it’s cold tomorrow, let’s go skating 1. Maybe it will be hot tomorrow. 2. Robert will probably study for the test. 1. The teacher may be absent tomorrow. 2. Maybe you will lock yourself out your apartment.

EXERCISE 2: Use the given information to complete the sentences. 1. Sam’s uncle tells a lot of jokes. Sometimes they are funny, and sometimes they are not. It doesn’t

matter.

a. Sam laughs at the jokes whether ______________ or not. b. Sam laughs at the jokes even if ________________

2. Maybe you are finished with the exam, and maybe you’re not. It doesn’t matter. The time is up.

a. You have to hand in your examination paper whether _______________ or not. b. You have to hand in your examination paper even if ____________________

3. It might snow, or it might not. We don’t want to go camping in the snow, but it doesn’t matter.

a. We’re going to go camping in the mountains whether _______________ or not. b. We’re going to go camping in the mountains even if ____________________



EXERCISE 3: Use in these sentences Ïn case / in the event (that) Ex. You probably won’t need to get in touch with me, but maybe you will. If so, I’ll give you my phone number. I’ll give you my phone number in case you (should) need to get in touch with me / in the event that you (should) need to get in touch with me. 1. You probably won’t need to see me, but maybe you will. If so, I’ll be in my office tomorrow

morning around ten. 2. I don’t think you need any more information, but maybe you do. If so, ask Dr. Smith. 3. Jack probably won’t call, but maybe he will. If so, please tell him that I’m at the library. EXERCISE 4: Make sentences with the same meaning by using UNLESS I will go to the zoo if it isn’t cold. I will go to the zoo unless it is cold. 1. You can’t I travel abroad if you don’t have a passport. 2. You can’t get a driver’s license if you are not at least 16 years old. 3. If I don’t get some film. I won’t be able to take pictures when Ann and Rob get here. 4. You’ll get hungry during class if you don’t eat breakfast.


EXERCISE 5: Use the given information to complete the sentences 1. Jimmy’s mother doesn’t want him to chew gum, but sometimes he chews it anyway.

Jimmy _______________ only if he’s sure his mother won’t find out.

2. If you want to go to the movie, we’ll go. If you don’t want to go, we won’t go.

We _______________ only if you want to.

3. You have to have a ticket. Then you can get into the soccer stadium.

Only if you have a ticket _______________.

4. My parents make me finish my homework before I can watch TV in the evening.

Only if my homework is finished ________________.

Documents

Complete Grammar Book