Cost ModelCost Modelandand

Estimating Result Sizes Estimating Result Sizes

המחיר המחיר מודל מודלCost ModelCost Model

כל • של המחיר את לחשב איך הראנו בהרצאה

( join)שיטה

• , היחסים גודל את לדעת צריך זאת לעשות כדי

ביניים כתוצאות מתקבלים שחלקם

תוצאות, • של הגודל את לחשב צורך יש לפיכך

ביניים

התוצאה • גודל את מעריכים איך נסביר עכשיו

בחירת תוכנית לחישובבחירת תוכנית לחישוב צירוף של שלושה יחסים צירוף של שלושה יחסים

• : היחסים שלושת של צירוף לחשב - Reserves , Sailorsרוצים ו Boats

הצירוף ) • בפעולת היחסים מסדר התעלמות תוך האפשרויות שתי

: הנן( הראשונה

(Sailors Reserves) Boats

Sailors (Reserves Boats)

איזה • בשאלה היתר בין תלויה יותר הזולה התוכנית מהי ההחלטה

יותר קטנה הנה ביניים תוצאת

התוצאות גודל של התוצאות אנליזה גודל של אנליזה

הצירוף • של התוצאה גודל את להעריך צריך

( Sailors Reserves) גודל לעומת

הצירוף של Reserves )התוצאה

Boats)

היחסים DBMSה- • לגבי סטטיסטיקות שומר

והאינדקסים

Statistics Maintained by Statistics Maintained by DBMSDBMS

• Cardinality: Number of tuples NTuples(R) in each relation R

• Size: Number of pages NPages(R) in each relation R

• Index Cardinality: Number of distinct key values NKeys(I) for each index I

• Index Size: Number of pages INPages(I) in each index I

• Index Height: Number of non-leaf levels IHeight(I) in each B+ Tree index I

• Index Range: The minimum value ILow(I) and maximum value IHigh(I) for each index I

NNoteote

• The statistics are updated periodically

(not every time the underlying

relations are modified).

• We cannot use the cardinality for

computing

select count(*)

from R

Estimating Result SizesEstimating Result Sizes

• Consider

• The maximum number of tuples is the product of the cardinalities of the relations in the FROM clause

• The WHERE clause is associating a reduction factor with each term. It reflects the impact of the term in reducing result size.

SELECT attribute-list

FROM relation-list

WHERE term1 and ... and termn

Result SizeResult Size

• Estimated result size:

maximum size

X

the product of the reduction factors

AssumptionsAssumptions

• There is an index I1 on R.Y and index

I2 on S.Y

• Containment of value sets: if

NKeys(I1)<NKeys(I2) for attribute Y,

then every Y-value of R will be a Y-

value of S

Estimating Reduction Estimating Reduction FactorsFactors

• column = value: 1/NKeys(I) – There is an index I on column.

– This assumes a uniform distribution.

– Otherwise, use 1/10.

• column1 = column2: 1/Max(NKeys(I1),NKeys(I2)) – There is an index I1 on column1 and an index I2 on column2.

– Containment of value sets assumption

– If only one column has an index, we use it to estimate the value.

– Otherwise, use 1/10.

Estimating Reduction Estimating Reduction FactorsFactors

• column > value:

(High(I)-value)/(High(I)-Low(I)) if there

is an index I on column.

ExampleExample

• Cardinality(R) = 100,000

• Cardinality(S) = 40,000

• NKeys(Index on R.agent) = 100

• High(Index on Rating) = 10, Low = 0

Reserves (sid, agent), Sailors(sid, rating)

SELECT *

FROM Reserves R, Sailors S

WHERE R.sid = S.sid and S.rating > 3 and

R.agent = ‘Joe’

Example (cont.)Example (cont.)

• Maximum cardinality: 100,000 * 40,000

• Reduction factor of R.sid = S.sid: 1/40,000 – sid is a primary key of S

• Reduction factor of S.rating > 3: (10–3)/(10-0) = 7/10

• Reduction factor of R.agent = ‘Joe’: 1/100

• Total Estimated size: 700

Database TuningDatabase Tuning

Database TuningDatabase Tuning

• Problem: Make database run efficiently

• 80/20 Rule: 80% of the time, the

database is running 20% of the queries

– find what is taking all the time, and tune

these queries

SolutionsSolutions

• Indexing

– this can sometimes degrade performance.

why?

• Tuning queries

• Reorganization of tables; perhaps

"denormalization"

• Changes in physical data storage

DenormalizationDenormalization

• Suppose you have tables:– emp(eid, ename, salary, did)

– dept(did, budget, address, manager)

• Suppose you often ask queries which require finding the manager of an employee. You might consider changing the tables to:– emp(eid, ename, salary, did, manager)

– dept(did, budget, address, manager)

- in emp, there is an fd did -> manager. It is not 3NF!

Denormalization (cont’d)Denormalization (cont’d)

• How will you ensure that the

redundancy does not introduce errors

into the database?

Creating Indexes Using Creating Indexes Using OracleOracle

IndexIndex

• Map between

– a key of a row

– the location of the data on the row

• Oracle has two kinds of indexes

– B+ tree

– Bitmap

• Sorted

B+ treeB+ tree

Root

17 24 30

2* 3* 5* 7* 14* 16* 19* 20* 22* 24* 27* 29* 33* 34* 38* 39*

13

Creating an IndexCreating an Index

• Syntax:

create [bitmap] [unique] index index on

table(column [,column] . . .)

Unique IndexesUnique Indexes

• Create an index that will guarantee the

uniqueness of the key. Fail if any duplicate

already exists.

• When you create a table with a

– primary key constraint or

– unique constraint

a "unique" index is created automatically

create unique index rating_bit on Sailors(rating);

Bitmap IndexesBitmap Indexes

• Appropriate for columns that may have very

few possible values

• For each value c that appears in the column,

a vector v of bits is created, with a 1 in v[i]

if the i-th row has the value c

– Vector length = number of rows

• Oracle can automatically convert bitmap

entries to RowIDs during query processing

Bitmap Indexes: ExampleBitmap Indexes: Example

create bitmap index rating_bit on Sailors(rating);

• Corresponding bitmaps:– 3: <1 0 0 1>

– 7: <0 1 0 0>

– 10: <0 0 1 0>

SidSnameagerating

12Jim553

13John467

14Jane4610

15Sam373

When to Create an IndexWhen to Create an Index

• Large tables, on columns that are likely

to appear in where clauses as a

simple equality

• where s.sname = ‘John’ and s.age = 50

• where s.age = r.age

Function-Based IndexesFunction-Based Indexes

• You can't use an index on sname for the

following query:

select *

from Sailors

where UPPER(sname) = 'SAM';

• You can create a function-based index to

speed up the query:

create index upp_sname on Sailors(UPPER(sname));

Index-Organized TablesIndex-Organized Tables• An index organized table keeps its data sorted by the

primary key

• Rows do not have RowIDs

• They store their data as if they were an index

create table Sailors(

sid number primary key,

sname varchar2(30),

age number,

rating number)

organization index;

Index-Organized Tables (2)Index-Organized Tables (2)

• What advantages does this have?

– Enforce uniqueness: primary key

– Improve performance

• What disadvantages?

– expensive to add column, dynamic data

• When to use?

– where clause on the primary key

– static data

Clustering Tables TogetherClustering Tables Together

• You can ask Oracle to store several tables

close together on the disk

• This is useful if you usually join these tables

together

• Cluster: area in the disk where the rows of

the tables are stored

• Cluster key: the columns by which the

tables are usually joined in a query

Clustering Tables Clustering Tables Together: SyntaxTogether: Syntax

• create cluster sailor_reserves (X number);– Create a cluster with nothing in it

• create table Sailors(

sid number primary key,

sname varchar2(30),

age number,

rating number)

cluster sailor_reserves(sid);

– create the table in the cluster

Clustering Tables Clustering Tables Together: Syntax (cont.)Together: Syntax (cont.)

• create index sailor_reserves_index on cluster sailor_reserves– Create an index on the cluster

• create table Reserves(

sid number,

bid number,

day date,

primary key(sid, bid, day) )

cluster sailor_reserves(sid);

– A second table is added to the cluster

Reserves

sidbidday

221027/7/97

2210110/10/96

5810311/12/96

Sailors

sidsnameratingage

22Dustin745.0

31Lubber855.5

58Rusty1035.0

Stored

sidsnameratingagebidday

22Dustin745.010

27/7/97

10

110/10/96

31Lubber855.5

58Rusty1035.010

311/12/96

The Oracle OptimizerThe Oracle Optimizer

Types of OptimizersTypes of Optimizers

• There are different modes for the optimizer

• RULE: Rule-based optimizer (RBO)– deprecated

• CHOOSE: Cost-based optimizer (CBO); picks a plan based on statistics (e.g. number of rows in a table, number of distinct keys in an index) – Need to analyze the data in the database using

analyze command

ALTER SESSION SET optimizer_mode = {choose|rule|first_rows(_n)|all_rows}

Types of OptimizersTypes of Optimizers

• ALL_ROWS: execute the query so that all of

the rows are returned as quickly as possible

– Merge join

• FIRST_ROWS(n): execute the query so that

all of the first n rows are returned as quickly

as possible

– Block nested loop join

analyze table | index

<table_name> | <index_name>

compute statistics |

estimate statistics [sample <integer>

rows | percent] |

delete statistics;

analyze table Sailors estimate statistics sample 25 percent;

Analyzing the DataAnalyzing the Data

Viewing the Execution PlanViewing the Execution Plan(Option 1)(Option 1)

• You need a PLAN_TABLE table. So, the first

time that you want to see execution plans,

run the command:

• Set autotrace on to see all plans

– Display the execution path for each query, after

being executed

@$ORACLE_HOME/rdbms/admin/utlxplan.sql

Viewing the Execution Plan Viewing the Execution Plan (Option 2)(Option 2)

• Another option:

explain planset statement_id='test'for SELECT *FROM Sailors SWHERE sname='Joe';

explain plan set statement_id=‘<name>’ for <statement>

Select Plan_Table

Operations that Access Operations that Access TablesTables

• TABLE ACCESS FULL: sequential table scan

– Oracle optimizes by reading multiple blocks

– Used whenever there is no where clause on a

query

select * from Sailors

• TABLE ACCESS BY ROWID: access rows by

their RowID values.

– How do you get the rowid? From an index!

select * from Sailors where sid > 10

Types of IndexesTypes of Indexes

• Unique: each row of the indexed table

contains a unique value for the

indexed column

• Nonunique: the row’s indexed values

can repeat

Operations that Use Operations that Use IndexesIndexes

• INDEX UNIQUE SCAN: Access of an

index that is defined to be unique

• INDEX RANGE SCAN: Access of an

index that is not unique or access of a

unique index for a range of values

When are Indexes Used/Not When are Indexes Used/Not Used?Used?

• If you set an indexed column equal to a value, e.g., sname = 'Jim'

• If you specify a range of values for an indexed column, e.g., sname like 'J%'– sname like '%m': will not use an index

– UPPER(sname) like 'J%' : will not use an index

– sname is null: will not use an index, since null values are not stored in the index

– sname is not null: will not use an index, since every value in the index would have to be accessed

When are Indexes Used? When are Indexes Used? (cont)(cont)

• 2*age = 20: Index on age will not be used. Index on 2*age will be used.

• sname != 'Jim': Index will not be used.

• MIN and MAX functions: Index will be used

• Equality of a column in a leading column of a multicolumn index. For example, suppose we have a multicolumn index on (sid, bid, day)– sid = 12: Can use the index

– bid = 101: Cannot use the index

When are Indexes Used? When are Indexes Used? (cont)(cont)

• If the index is selective

– A small number of records are associated

with each distinct column value

HintsHints

HintsHints

• You can give the optimizer hints about

how to perform query evaluation

• Hints are written in /*+ */ right after

the select

• Note: These are only hints. The oracle

optimizer can choose to ignore your

hints

HintsHints

• FULL hint: tell the optimizer to perform a

TABLE ACCESS FULL operation on the

specified table

• ROWID hint: tell the optimizer to perform a

TABLE ACCESS BY ROWID operation on the

specified table

• INDEX hint: tells the optimizer to use an

index-based scan on the specified table

ExamplesExamples

Select /*+ FULL (sailors) */ sidFrom sailorsWhere sname=‘Joe’;

Select /*+ INDEX (sailors) */ sidFrom sailorsWhere sname=‘Joe’;

Select /*INDEX (sailors s_ind) */ sidFrom sailors S, reserves RWhere S.sid=R.sid AND sname=‘Joe’;