Critical Thinking Textbook

............................................................................................................................................................3 1. .................................................................................................................................................12 1.1 ............................................................................................................................12 1.2 ........................................................................................................16 1.3 ....................................................................................................................................22 1.4 .......................................................................................................................................25 2. .................................................................................................................................................30 2.1 ................................................................................................................................30 2.2 ............................................................................................................................38 2.3 ................................................................................................................................45 2.4 ................................................................................................................................53

3. .................................................................................................................................................62 3.1 ................................................................................................................................62 3.2 ................................................................................................................................68 3.3 ................................................................................................................................74 4. .................................................................................................................................................78 4.1 ................................................................................................................................78 4.2 ............................................................................................................................84

2011

2

Logic Critical Thinking

(induction) 4.1 4.2 (fallacy) rational thinking reason reasoning 1 2009 9 2009 10 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education HKDSE ()

1. 2. (1) 3. (2)

1. 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (3) 5. (4)

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2

4. (1) 5. (2) 6. (3) 7. (4) 8. (1) 9. (2) 10. (3) 11. (1) 12. (2) 13.

6. (1) 7. (2) 8. (3)

9. (1) 10. (2)

3.1 3.2 3.3

A. B. C. D.3

11. (1) 12. (2) 13. 4.1 4.2

1.1 1.4 2.1 2.4 (deduction)(categorical logic)(symbolic logic) (categorical syllogism)(validity) 3.1 3.3 3

1 2

() 2007 2 3 2009-04-06 C 4

4

80% 20%

5 general education liberal studies liberal studies artes liberales 4 5

6

2008 11 20

2009-03-31 2009-3-31 5

6

() 2007 102 6

viewpoint ) 7 1112 5 L1 L5 L5*L5** L2 L2 L5 L58 clear argument viewpoint argument with exampleclear argumentargument with example argument 9 = viewpoint + + evidence Independent Enquiry Study IES propositionargument 7

13

argument =

10

argument

ppt http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/HKDSE/Subject_Information/LS_Briefing_Session_KY_Lo-11_Aug_08.pdf 8 9 10 7

http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200909/18/P200909180191.htm 11 97 12 97 13 104 8

1-2 14 16

200 IES

15

17

IES IES

14 15

mind-map Mindmap16 17

http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/DocLibrary/HKDSE/Subject_Information/LS_Briefing_Session-SBA2.pdf 80 9

90 89-90 10

18 19 Copi and Cohen Introduction to Logic Moore and Parker Critical Thinking 1982

1. 1.1

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning.(Copi 2009: 4) (proposition)(argument)

(declarative)(interrogative)(imperative) (exclamatory)

18 19

http://www.liberalstudies.tv/ls_skills_main.html 135 11

(premise) (conclusion)12

Q

X X

(inference) (claim)I argue I claim

X (mind-map) (explanation) Q P Copi and Cohen, Introduction to Logic (13th edition), New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2009, pp. 3-70. Moore, B.N. and Parker, R., Critical Thinking (8th edition), New York: McGraw-Hall, 2007, pp.1-76. Q Q Q P 13 14

(reasoning) (sudoku)

1.2 (truth)(validity)(soundness)

(1)

(2)

%&*^)@%)%E@)*&%

dispute

(ambiguity)(disagreement)

15

16

(obviously genuine disputes) (species) (genus) (difference)

(merely verbal disputes)

(ambiguity)(vagueness)

(0.6kg)(0.5kg) 0.6 0.60478982

(apparently verbal disputes that are really genuine) (negative euthanasia) (positive euthanasia)

[W]e define validity as follows: A deductive argument is valid when, if its premisses are true, its conclusion must be true.(Copi 2009: 26)

All M is P (definiens) (definiendum) (extension)(intension) All S is M All S is P

All P is M All S is M All S is P

(definition by example) (ostensive definition)(pointing) (gesture) (semi-ostensive definition)

17

(1)

18

(6) (2) (7) (3) (4) (5) (soundness) 19 20

M P S M S P

1.3

(credibility)

(ambiguity) (trust)(faith)

Copi and Cohen, Introduction to Logic (13th edition), New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2009, pp. 3-70. Moore, B.N. and Parker, R., Critical Thinking (8th edition), New York: McGraw-Hall, 2007, pp.1-76.

(1)

(claim)

(2)

21 22

80 80

Wikipedia Encyclopdia Britannica Wikipedia

(Free University)

Wikipedia

Moore, B.N. and Parker, R., Critical Thinking (8th edition), New York: McGraw-Hall, 2007,

pp.77-116.

(1)

(2) Wikipedia

23

24

1.4

(rhetoric) (persuasive writing)

(proposition)

(rhetorical definitions) B(ambiguity) A

(informative)(expressive)(directive) (rhetorical explanations) A B A B A(explanation) (argument) (Euphemism) 25 26

(rhetorical analogies) A BA B B A

(Dysphemism)

(Downplayers)

(Stereotypes) Stereotypes

(Innuendo)

(Horse laugh)

(Hyperbole)

(Loaded question) yesno (Proof Surrogates) (Weaselers) X X X 27 28

Moore, B.N. and Parker, R., Critical Thinking (8th edition), New York: McGraw-Hall, 2007, pp.117-144.

2. 2.1

(Categorical Logic) (Truth-functional Logic)(Categorical

(1)

(2)

Proposition)(Categorical Syllogism)

S P

S (subject): P (predicate):

A E I O

(quality)

(affirmative) (negative) (quantity) (all)(no) (some)

A, I E, O

A, E I, O

29

30

(copula)(subject)(predicate)

AEIO

A S P E S P (distribution) A proposition distributes a term if it refers to all members of the class designated by the term. AEIO A S A P E S E P I S I P O S O P I S P O S P

A A S P A S P

E S P E S P (contrary)(sub-contrary) (contradictory)(subalternation) (contrary)A E A: E:

I S P I S P

O S P O S P 31

32

(sub-contrary)I O

I:

S P

I: P S

O: S P I: O:

A (conversion by limitation) A I O

(contradictory)A O E I (obversion)(P)(complement, non-P) O: A: A: S P I: E: E: I: S PE O S (contraposition)(S)(non-P)(P) (non-S) A: I: A: S P E: E: O: I: S P S P O: A: O: P S P S* P S S P S P E: A: O: I: S P S P S P S P

O: S P (subalternation) A I S P P S P

O: S P

(inference)(conversion) (obversion)(contraposition)

E E OI

(conversion)(S)(P)

(1) A: S P E: S P I: P S* E: P S33

34

(2) (3)

SP0) A,E (SP 0, SP 0) (3)(3) (fallacy of existential assumption) A O E I

I O S (class)(member) I O A E I O A E A O

O: A:

I: E:

I O

AEIO

I: O:

S (empty class) (George Boole, 1815-1864)A E (empty class) A E I O (pp.206-207)(Boolean square of opposition)

I O

I O A E A E

A: E:

x(Ux Wx) x(Ux ~Wx)

(A,E) (I,O)

I,O (SP0,35 36


2.2 (categorical syllogism)

(major premise)(P)(M) (minor premise)(S)(M) (conclusion)(S)(P)

(1) A

(2) (1)

(major term, P) (minor term, S) (middle term, M)

(figure)

1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : M-P S-M S-P P-M S-M S-P M-P M-S S-P P-M M-S S-P

37

38

A: M-P A: S-M A: S-P

A: SP=0 (empty!)

E : SP=0 (empty!)

AAA-1

O : SP0

(A,E,I,O)4x4x4=64 (1,2,3,4)4 64x4=256

I : SP0

(Venn Diagram Method)(Rules Method)

X

S P

AAA-1

All M is P All S is M AEIO (Venn diagram) All S is P

A: M-P A: S-M A: S-P

39

40

(1) (2) (3) AAA-2 (4) (5) (6)

All P is M All S is M All S is P

A: P-M A: S-M A: S-P

(1) (2) (3)

41

42

A : S P E : S P I: S P

(1)

O: S P III-4 (2) EAO-3

A: P-M I: S-M I: S-P AII-2


43

44

2.3 (truth functional logic)

p q (variables)~p (substitution instance) p~p

(truth table)

If P then Q not P not Q

p T F ~p F T

P or Q not P Q (conjunction) pq

p T

q T F T F

pq T F F F

(Not): (And): (Or): (Imply): (If and only if):

~

T F F

(disjunction) p q p q T F T F pq T T T F

~p pq pq pq p q

(negation form) (conjunctive statement form) (disjunctive statement form ) (conditional statement form) (biconditional statement form)

T T F F

45 46

(implication) p q p T T F F q T F T F pq T F T T (P)(Q) ~(p~q) p T T F F q T F T F ~q F T F T p~q F T F F ~(p~q) T F T T (R)(S) (R)(S) RS (Q if P) P Q (Q only if P) Q P (Q if P, and Q only if P)(P Q)(Q P) P Q Q T F T F pq T F F T (necessary condition) (p q)(q p) p T T F F q T F T F pq T F T T qp T T F T47

A GPA 4.0

(If)

(Q)(P) QP (Only if)

(equivalence) p q p T T F F

(necessary condition)(sufficient condition)(necessary and sufficient condition)

q p (p q)(q p) T F F T p only if q pq 48

(false)P~ P (sufficient condition) q p p if q qp P (necessary and sufficient condition) q p q p (p q)(q p) pq A GPA4.0 p q (material equivalence) (law of identity) (truth table)(truth value) (validity) P P P T (tautology)(contradictory) (contingent)(true)P ~ P (law of contradiction) P T F ~P F T P~P T T P P P T F ~P F T ~(P~P) T T F PP T T T T F F Q T F T F PQ T F F F PQ P T F ~P F T P~ P F F

(p.344~)

49

50

(law of excluded middle) P P P T F ~P F T P ~P T T

P Q Q P

P T

Q T F T F

P Q T F T T

T F F


PQ ~P Q

P T T F F

q T F T F

pq T T T F

(1)

(2)

51

52

2.4 (variables) 5 32 (25=32)

2. / Modus Tollens (M.T.) pq ~q ~p

(testing) (proof)(Rules of inference) (Modus Ponens, M.P.) pq p q

3. Hypothetical Syllogism (H.S.) pq qr p r

4. Disjunctive Syllogism (D.S.) pvq ~p q

(substitution instance) PQ P Q

5. Constructive Dilemma (C.D.) (p q) (r s) pvr qvs

(justification) M.P.

1. / Modus Ponens (M.P.) pq p q

6. Absorption (Abs.) pq p (p q)

7. 53 54

Simplification (Simp.) pq p

1. P Q 2. Q R 3. P R

8. Conjunction (Conj.) p q pq

4. Q 5. R

1,3, M.P. 2,4, M.P.

(Double Negation, D.N.) p ~~p

9. Addition (Add.) p pvq

(tautology) p ~~p~~p p

10. De Morgan's Theorem (De M.) ~(p q) (~p v ~q) ~(p v q) (~p ~q) 11. Commutation (Com.) (p v q) (q v p) (p q) (q p)

PQ QR P R

12. Association (Assoc.) [p v (q v r)] [(p v q) v r] [p (q r)] [(p q) r]

13. 55 56

Distribution (Dist.) [p (q v r)] [(p q) v (p r)] [p v (q r)] [(p v q) (p v r)] 14. Double Negation (D.N.) p ~ ~p A ~B 15. Transposition (Trans.) (p q) (~q ~p) 16. Material Implication (Impl.) (p q) (~p v q) 17. Material Equivalence (Equiv.) (p q) [(p q) (q p)] (p q) [(p q) v (~p ~q)] 18. Exportation (Exp.) [(p q) r] [p (q r)] 19. Tautology (Taut.) p (p v p) p (p p) 1. A ~B 2. ~(C ~A) C ~B 3. ~C v ~~A 4. C ~~A 5. C A 6. C ~B 2, De M. 3, Impl. 4, D.N. 5,1, H.S. ~(C ~A) C ~B

19 (rules of inference) 9 (Elementary valid argument forms) 10 (Logically equivalent expressions) 19 All Some 4 (p.404)

1. Universal Instantiation, UI (x)(x),

2. Universal Generalization, UG y, (x)(x)57 58

(x)(Hx Mx) 3. Existential Instantiation, EI (x)(x), Hs Ms

4. Existential Generalization, EG , (x)(x)

1. (x)(Hx Mx)

(x)(Hx Mx) Hs Ms Hs ~Ms (x)(Hx ~Mx) UG E: No H is M (For all X if x is H, then x is not M) UI A: All H is M (For all X if x is H, then x is M)

2. Hs Ms 3. Hs Ms 4. Ms 1, UI 3,2, M.P.

(x)(Hx Mx) Hs Ms EI

I: Some H is M (For some X x is H and x is M)

p ~p q

Hs ~Ms (x)(Hx ~Mx) EG O: Some H is not M (For some X x is H and x is not M) 1. p 2. ~p A, E, I, O q 3. p v q 4. q 1. Add. 3,2, D.S.

p 1 1 0 0

~p q 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

59

60

3. 3.1

(inconsistency)p ~p p~p

p ~p q q

9 10 4


(1)

1. p (qr) 2. p q 1, Simp.

(2)

~Q(~S~T) P (Q S) ~P

61

62

(valid)(invalid)(strong)(weak)

B A

(terms) A(07xxxxxx) 100 B(04xxxxxx) 1000 B (analogical argument) (dissimilar) A X a,b,c,d P Q a,b,c R d R (similar) A P, Q, R B P, Q, R, S, T, U B (relevant) A P Q R (disanalogies) b a (point of difference) A B B A P Q 29.6km/L 10km/L A 30km/L B 20km/L B 63 64

B X, Y, Z B

S, T, U B P, Q, R B

(enumeration) (instances) 95% 1000 3% 1500 a b c (self-selected samples)(slanted questions)

(generalization)

X X 20% 20%

(sample size) (error margin)(confidence level) 95%

10 25 50 100 250 500 1000 1500

(%) 30 22 14 10 6 4 3 2

65

66


3.2 (cause)(effect)

(causal claim)(causal argument) (fallacy)

(1)

(2)

(post hoc fallacy)X Y X Y X Y X Y

(John Stuart Mill 1806~1873) (method of agreement)(method of difference)(method of agreement and difference)(method of residues)(method of concomitant variation)

() ()() A B C D w x y z A E F G w t u v A w (A)(w) A B C D w A E F G w A w

67

68

A B C D w x y z B C D x y z A w (A)(w) A B C D w B C D w A w

A B C x y z B y C z A x

A B Cx y z A(+/-)BCx(+/-)y z A x A x

A B Cx y z A D Ex t w A B Cx y z B Cy z

50% 30% A

A x A x A x A x A x

(general causal argument)

A B Cx y z B y C z A x A x

(1) (controlled cause-to-effect experiment) (2) (non-experimental cause-to-effect study) (3) (non-experimental effect-to-cause study)

(experimental group)(control group)(Cause, C)(Effect, E)(difference, d) (statistically

69

70

significant).05 Level

10 25 50 100 250 500 1000 1500

(%) 40 27 19 13 8 6 4 3

100 100 A-B% 13% A% B%

100 100 C% D%

C E 100 ( C) E 30% 100 ( C) E 10% (d)30%-10%=20% 13% C E C E

C-D% 13%

(C) (C)(E)(d) 500 10% 500 5%5% 6%

(E) (E)(C)(d) 50 80% 50 50%30% 19%

71

72


3.3 Science, Natural Science, scientia, Wissenschaft (~logy)Humanistic science

(scientific method)

(1)

(2) (J. S. Mill) (general method of controlled experiment)

(scientific explanation)(argument) Q P Q(explanation) Q P Q(relevant) (general)

(scientific attitude)(tentative) (provisional)(testability)

(hypothesis) (verification principle)(falsification principle)(conformability

73

74

principle)

(Uranus)

(verifiability)

(Neptune)

(falsifiability) (Galileo) (Kepler)(Newton)

(conformability)

(Ockhams Razor) A B B

A

(P)(Q)(P)(P)

B

A B (competing) (compatibility with previously well-established hypotheses) (predictive or explanatory power)(simplicity)

75

76

Copi and Cohen, Introduction to Logic (13th edition), New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2009, pp. 559-587.

4. 4.1

(1)

(2) 2008-09-09 2008-10-06 Life is incomplete if you don't have children. 2009-02-23

B B B B

B

77 78

2009-02-11

2008-07-25

(fallacy)

office politics show off msnhi hi sms chum Don't you have better ways to spend your time?

(fallacy) type of argument that may seem to be correct, but that proves, on A examination, not to be so. (p.138)

(formal fallacies)(informal fallacies) (informal fallacies)

wonder email wonder wonder wonder wondering skip auto-pilot

(affirming the consequent) p q, q, p

better option

(denying the antecedent) p q, ~p, ~q

? book confirm ok IFC H One sales 79 80

AAA-2

pq p q

() OOO-3

pq ~p ~q

81

82


4.2

(1) The top ten fallacies of all time (2) Moore and Parker 2007: 486-490

Post hoc fallacy X Y X Y X: Y: A

Argument from popularity X X X:

Wishful thinking (Ostrich fallacy) X X X:

83

84

Attention-span fallacy X Y X: Y:

Scare Tactic X Y X X: Y:

Group Thinking X Y X(): Y():

Argument from outrage ()Shouting matches http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vpz-iKN0QLA Straw man fallacy X Y X: Y:

Hasty conclusion a) (anecdotal fallacy) A X X A: X:

Ad Hominem Argument

b) (irrelevant analogy) A,B X A Y B Y A: X: B: Y:

c) (jumping to conclusion) X Y X: Y:

(Relevance)(Presumption)85 86

(Ambiguity) () 04 02 05:05AM R1 5 2 1 QCA 9 30 3 R2 R6 R3 R7 R4 A A P1 R5 87

P2 88

A4 P3 (circular argument) A5 P4

P5

R1 (argument from ignorance) R2 (appeal to inappropriate authority) R3 (argument ad hominem)

A1 equivocation

R4 (appeal to emotion) R5 (appeal to pity) R6 (appeal to force) R7 (irrelevant conclusion)

A2 amphiboly

P1 (complex question) P2 (false question) P3 (begging the question) P4 (accident)

A3 (accent)

P5 (converse accident)

A1 (equivocation)

89

90

A2 (amphiboly) A3 (accent) A4 (composition) A5 (division)


(1)

(2) (1)

91

92

Documents

Critical Thinking Textbook