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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/kr/legalcodehttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/kr/
NiAl
Mechanical Properties of Porous NiAl with
Unidirectional Pores
2012 2
NiAl
Mechanical Properties of Porous NiAl with
Unidirectional Pores
2012 2
Mechanical Properties of Porous NiAl with
Unidirectional Pores
by
Ji-Woon Lee
A THESIS
Submitted to the faculty of
INHA UNIVERSITY
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
Department of Metallurgical Engineering
February 2012
i
List of Figures
List of Tables
Abstract
1. 1
2. 4
2.1 4
2.1.1 4
2.1.2 11
2.1.3 14
2.2 Nickel Aluminide 17
2.2.1 -NiAl 19
2.2.2 22
3. NiAl 25
3.1 25
3.2 26
3.3 29
3.3.1 29
3.3.2 29
3.4 35
ii
3.4.1 35
3.4.2 38
3.5 40
4. NiAl 42
4.1 42
4.2 43
4.3 44
4.3.1 44
4.3.2 47
4.4 54
4.4.1 54
4.4.2 59
4.5 65
5. 67
68
iii
List of Figures
Figure 2-1. Schematic diagram for an exterior view of lotus-type porous
metal 5
Figure 2-2. Temperature dependence of hydrogen solubility in solid and
liquid of various metals under the hydrogen pressure of 0.1MPa
6
Figure 2-3. Schematic diagram of pore nucleation and growth in
unidirectional solidification in gas atmosphere 8
Figure 2-4. Averaged pore diameter and porosity of lotus-type porous
stainless steel under various pressure of mixed gases composed
of (a) hydrogen and argon or (b) hydrogen and helium 10
Figure 2-5. Schematic diagram of mold casting technique 12
Figure 2-6. Schematic diagram for the melting part of continuous zone
melting technique 13
Figure 2-7. Schematic diagram of continuous casting apparatus 15
Figure 2-8. Ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of lotus-type porous
copper in the direction parallel and perpendicular to pore axis as
a function of porosity 16
Figure 2-9. Schematic diagram of compressive stress-strain curve of
lotus-type porous metal 18
Figure 2-10. Ni-Al phase diagram 20
Figure 2-11. B2 crystal structure (space group Pmm, CsCl prototype) of
iv
NiAl 21
Figure 2-12. Critical resolved shear stress for (a) a slip in 'soft'
crystals, (b) a{112} and a{110}slip in 'hard' crystals
23
Figure 3-1. Photograph of a universal testing machine 28
Figure 3-2. Optical micrographs of pore morphology of lotus-type
porous NiAl cross-sections (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to
the solidification direction 30
Figure 3-3. X-ray diffraction patterns of lotus-type porous NiAl (a) before
and (b) after homogenization heat treatment 31
Figure 3-4. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (b) nonporous NiAl and
(c), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction
(a), (c) parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the compressive
direction 32
Figure 3-5. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) lotus-type porous and (b)
nonporous NiAl 36
Figure 3-6. Scanning electron micrographs of crack tip blunting of
lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a)
perpendicular and (b) parallel to the compressive direction 37
Figure 3-7. Scanning electron micrographs of multi-crack for lotus-type
porous NiAl. A magnified view of A and B in (a) is shown in
(b) and (c), respectively. 39
Figure 4-1. Photographs of (a) a universal testing machine and (b) a heating
chamber near Jigs 45
Figure 4-2. Optical micrographs of microstructure in (a), (b) lotus-type
v
porous and (c), (d) nonporous NiAl rods. (a), (c) and (b), (d)
show transverse and longitudinal cross sections, respectively.
46
Figure 4-3. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (c), (e) nonporous NiAl
and (b), (d), (f) lotus-type porous NiAl testing at (a), (b) 298
K, (c), (d) 673 K and (e), (f) 873 K 48
Figure 4-4. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive
specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type
porous NiAl after compression test at 673 K. Compressive
direction is (a), (b) parallel and (c), (d) perpendicular to the
solidification direction. 51
Figure 4-5. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive
specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type
porous NiAl after compression test at 873 K. Compressive
direction is (a), (b) parallel and (c), (d) perpendicular to the
solidification direction. 52
Figure 4-6. Yield strength variation of nonporous and lotus-type porous
NiAl with the solidification direction (a) parallel and (b)
perpendicular to the compressive direction as a function of
temperature 53
Figure 4-7. Optical micrographs of exterior features of porous specimen
after compression test at (a), (c) 673 K and (b), (d) 873 K;
compressive direction is (a), (c) parallel and (b), (d)
perpendicular to the solidification direction. 55
Figure 4-8. Scanning electron micrographs of specimen surfaces for
lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a)
perpendicular and (b) parallel to the compressive direction after
compression tests 57
vi
Figure 4-9. Schematic diagram of applied stress to (a) sharp and (b) blunt
crack tips 58
Figure 4-10. Scanning electron micrographs of parallel lotus-type porous
specimen after compression test at (a) 298 K and (b) 673 K 60
Figure 4-11. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) parallel and (b)
perpendicular lotus-type porous specimen 62
Figure 4-12. Inverse pole figure maps of nonporous specimens with the
compressive direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the
solidification direction 64
vii
List of Tables
Table 3-1. Chemical compositions of NiAl ingot, lotus-type porous and
nonporous NiAl 27
Table 3-2. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl
with the solidification direction parallel and perpendicular to the
compressive direction at room temperature 34
Table 4-1. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl
with the solidification direction parallel and perpendicular to the
compressive direction at 298 K, 673 K and 873 K 49
viii
NiAl
,
. NiAl
.
NiAl ,
.
NiAl NiAl
, .
NiAl NiAl
4 , 2.5 .
.
NiAl - , 673
K NiAl .
,
. ,
.
ix
Abstract
Mechanical properties of intermetallic compound NiAl has been studied
by investigating the influence of unidirectional pores, when the pores are
introduced to the brittle material. Lotus-type porous NiAl was fabricated
by unidirectional solidification. A compression test was conducted at
ambient temperature and elevated temperatures. Crack behavior and
dislocation movement were analyzed and compared with nonporous NiAl
for more reliable elucidation after compression tests.
The deformation strain of the lotus-type porous NiAl was larger than
that of nonporous NiAl at ambient temperature. The porous NiAl exhibited
anisotropy in the specimens with pore axis in relation with compressive
direction. The deformation strain of the porous NiAl increased
approximately four times compared with nonporous NiAl. The energy
absorption ability increased approximately two and half times. Increased
energy absorption ability was postulated by crack tip blunting and
multi-cracking. At elevated temperature, the ductile to brittle transition
temperature decreased, and the deformation strain increased dramatically in
the porous NiAl at 673 K. Unidirectional pores affected the movement of
cracks and dislocations in the material, and these contributed to the
increased toughness of the material. Compressive strength of porous NiAl
with the solidification direction parallel to the compressive direction was
higher than that perpendicular. The anisotropy was caused by the stress
concentration differences along the direction of the pore axis and the
inherent anisotropy that originates from the crystal structure of NiAl.
1
1.
,
.
,
, .
, ,
,
.
15-95%
.
(,
, ) /,
, .
, ,
[1,2].
, ,
.
,
. ,
,
2
[3].
,
, , .
, ,
.
,
.
[4].
, 1979 Aoki[5] Ni3Al B
30%
.
,
TiAl Ni3Al . Ni-Al
L12 Ni3Al B2 NiAl
. NiAl Ni3Al , ,
,
.
[6,7].
NiAl -
3
.
NiAl
.
,
.
4
2.
2.1
,
. ( )
,
Imabayashi [8-10]
. Shapovalov[11]
,
(Gas-reinforced composite
metals) Gasar metals" . , Nakajima[12,13]
( )
. Nakajima
,
(Lotus-type
porous metals)" . Fig.
2-1 .
2.1.1
Fig. 2-2 0.1 MPa ,
.
. ,
.
/
5
Figure 2-1. Schematic diagram for an exterior view of lotus-type porous
metal
6
Figure 2-2. Temperature dependence of hydrogen solubility in solid and
liquid of various metals under the hydrogen pressure of 0.1 MPa[14]
7
. (liquid)
(solid)+(gas) "Gas-evolution crystallization
reaction"[15],
.
Fisher[16] ,
GPa
.
. 100-10
-1Pa
ppm
. /
.
/ .
/ ,
.
/ . ,
( )
, (Coarsening)
. Fig. 2-3
.
.
, /
.
,
.
, ,
. Hyun Nakajima[17]
8
Figure 2-3. Schematic diagram of pore nucleation and growth in
unidirectional solidification in gas atmosphere[18]
9
. /
,
. ,
,
.
.
Fig. 2-4
[19].
.
Sievert
[20]:
(1)
Cg, P, k , ,
. Boyle
. ,
. Fig. 2-4
, .
Sievert ,
.
, ,
. ,
.
10
Figure 2-4. Averaged pore diameter and porosity of lotus-type porous
stainless steel under various pressure of mixed gases composed of (a)
hydrogen and argon or (b) hydrogen and helium[19]
11
2.1.2
Fig. 2-5 (Mold
casting technique) . (Crucible)
.
Sievert ,
(Mold) . (Chiller)
, .
(Matrix)
, .
, ,
.
Cu, Mg
.
.
,
.
.
, Nakajima[21]
Fig. 2-6 (Continuous zone melting technique)
. (Holder) (Metal rod)
, Sievert
.
, (Blower)
.
12
Figure 2-5. Schematic diagram of mold casting technique[3]
13
Figure 2-6. Schematic diagram for the melting part of continuous zone
melting technique[21]
14
,
.
,
.
Nakajima[22] Fig. 2-7
(Continuous casting technique)
.
,
.
2.1.3
, [23,24]. Hyun[25]
Cu ,
-
.
. Fig.
2-8
,
.
,
. Hyun "Load-bearing
area model" . Balshin[26]
15
Figure 2-7. Schematic diagram of continuous casting apparatus[27]
16
Figure 2-8. Ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of lotus-type
porous copper in the direction parallel and perpendicular to pore axis as a
function of porosity[25]
17
(2)
K 1, K
3 .
. , Fig. 2-9 -
. (Plateau stress region)
- .
,
[1]. ,
[28.29]. ,
. Hyun[30]
Cu
, .
(Buckling) ,
(Collapse) (Densification) .
.
2.2 Nickel Aluminide
Ni-Al NiAl 1908 Gwyer[31]
,
18
Figure 2-9. Schematic diagram of compressive stress-strain curve of
lotus-type porous metal[30]
19
. , , ,
, ,
. , , ,
,
.
2.2.1 -NiAl
Fig. 2-10 Ni-Al . NiAl
, (Stoichiometric composition)
Ni 300K 1911 K .
, 2/3 5.86g/m3 3-8
.
NiAl B2 CsCl
. Fig. 2-11
Ni d-Al p
Ni-Al
.
[32].
NiAl
. NiAl 0.65 Tm
.
(Off-stoichiometric composition) Ni-rich Ni
Al , Al-rich Ni
[33].
20
Figure 2-10. Ni-Al phase diagram[34]
21
Figure 2-11. B2 crystal structure (space group Pmm, CsCl prototype) of
NiAl
22
2.2.2
NiAl ,
. NiAl
, ,
.
, (CRSS,
Critical resolved shear stress) [35-38].
Fig. 2-12 , CRSS
5-7 . "hard
orientation" {110}
. ,
"soft orientation" ,
{110} . ,
CRSS . "hard orientation"
, 800 K NiAl
(Anti-phase Boundary)
. 800 K
[39]. "soft orientation" , 77 K 400 K
, 400 K 1250 K
[6].
NiAl - (DBTT, Ductile to Brittle Transition
Temperature) {110}
, 5 Von
mises criterion .
23
Figure 2-12. Critical resolved shear stress for (a) a slip in 'soft'
crystals, (b) a{112} and a{110}slip in 'hard' crystals[35-38]
24
[40,41], 3 [42],
[43,44],
.
25
3. NiAl
3.1
(Ordered BCC structure)
NiAl (5.86 g/cm3), (1911 K),
(294.2 GPa), ,
. NiAl
,
[6,7]. ,
Ni
NiAl
.
[40,41], 3
[42],
[43,44],
.
(Lotus-type
porous metal)
[3]. ,
.
,
TiAl [3,45].
,
[45]. , NiAl Ni3Al[46]
. NiAl
,
26
.
3.2
(Ingot) Ni(99.99 wt%)
Al(99.99 wt%) .
(AQ325L, Sodick Corp., Japan)
10 mm, 170 mm (Rod) .
(Continuous zone melting technique)
2.5 MPa H2 NiAl
. NiAl NiAl 2.5 MPa
Ar .
(Optima 7300DV,
Perkinelmer Inc., USA) , Table 3-1
. NiAl 5 mm, 7.5 mm
, P
(3) .
(3)
, , 0
. (VHX200, Keyence Corp.,
Japan) .
, ,
. Fig. 3-1 (Model 4481, Instron
27
Table 3-1. Chemical compositions of NiAl ingot, lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl
Specimen Ni (wt. %) Al (wt. %) etc. (wt. %)Ingot 68.83 31.01 0.16Porous 70.36 28.93 0.71Nonporous 70.74 29.09 0.17
28
Figure 3-1. Photograph of a universal testing machine
29
Corp., USA) 1.1 10-3/s
. 24 1474 K
-NiAl .
, .
, (JSM-5500,
Jeol Ltd., Japan) .
3.3
3.3.1
Fig. 3-2 NiAl
. ,
Fig. 3-2(b)
. NiAl 388 109
, 37.0 3.9%. Fig. 3-3 , X-
. NiAl, Ni3Al, Ni5Al3
, NiAl .
3.3.2
NiAl
Fig. 3-4 . ASTM E9-89a[47]
-
.
NiAl
. - NiAl NiAl
30
Figure 3-2. Optical micrographs of pore morphology of lotus-type porous
NiAl cross-sections (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the solidification
direction
31
Figure 3-3. X-ray diffraction patterns of lotus-type porous NiAl (a) before
and (b) after homogenization heat treatment
32
Figure 3-4. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (b) nonporous NiAl
and (c), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a), (c)
parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the compressive direction
33
. , NiAl
.
,
. -
,
.
, -
. ,
4 .
Table 3-2
. .
NiAl NiAl
.
(Strain energy)
, (4) [48].
(4)
, f, ,
, -
. NiAl NiAl
,
.
NiAl
. ,
NiAl .
34
Table 3-2. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl with the solidification direction parallel and
perpendicular to the compressive direction at room temperature
Specimen Relation of pore axisto compressiondirection
Yield stress(MPa)
Fracture Strength(MPa)
Absorbed energy/volume(MJm-3)
Porous Parallel 312 452 19.0Perpendicular 85 128 5.2
Nonporous Parallel 417 467 9.8Perpendicular 298 339 7.3
35
3.4
3.4.1
NiAl Fig. 3-4
NiAl 4
, . Fig. 3-5
NiAl .
NiAl (Transgranular fracture)
. Fig. 3-4 3-5 ,
, .
(Crack)
. Fig. 3-6
.
, . ,
,
. ,
.
,
.
(Tip) ,
.
,
,
.
,
.
36
Figure 3-5. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) lotus-type porous and
(b) nonporous NiAl
37
Figure 3-6. Scanning electron micrographs of crack tip blunting of
lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) perpendicular
and (b) parallel to the compressive direction
38
.
(Surface energy) ,
(System)
.
.
,
. Fig. 3-7 .
,
.
, .
, ,
NiAl -
. (Matrix)
NiAl
.
3.4.2
NiAl
. Table 3-2
NiAl
.
.
[25].
.
(4)
39
Figure 3-7. Scanning electron micrographs of multi-crack for lotus-type
porous NiAl. A magnified view of A and B in (a) is shown in (b) and
(c), respectively.
40
(4) p, 0, p K ,
, , .
K 1 , K 3
[25]. K 0.8, 3.3
. ,
, .
, NiAl
,
.
NiAl .
NiAl
NiAl [36].
,
. Fig. 3-4 -
,
.
,
.
3.5
NiAl
.
.
41
1) NiAl , NiAl
, ,
.
2)
,
.
42
4. NiAl
4.1
(Ordered BCC structure)
NiAl (5.86 g/cm3), (1911 K),
(294.2 GPa), ,
. NiAl
,
[6,7]. ,
Ni
NiAl
.
[40,41], 3
[42],
[43,44],
.
-
[1]. (Plateau
stress region) ,
. ,
.
(Lotus-type porous metal)
[28,29]. ,
. ,
.
43
.
,
- [48]. ,
.
NiAl ,
.
,
. TiAl
. TiAl
,
[45]. ,
. ,
.
NiAl
,
.
4.2
(Ingot) Ni(99.99 wt%)
Al(99.99 wt%) .
(AQ325L, Sodick Corp., Japan)
10 mm, 170 mm (Rod) .
(Continuous zone melting technique)
2.5 MPa H2 NiAl
. NiAl NiAl 1.1 MPa
44
He .
(Optima 7300DV,
Perkinelmer Inc., USA) ,
Ni52Al48.
. 200
(VHX200, Keyence Corp., Japan)
.
Fig. 4-1(a) (Model 4481, Instron
Corp., USA) 1.1 10-3/s 673 K, 873 K
. (Chamber)
Fig. 4-1(b) (JIg)
, 10
. 5 mm, 7.5 mm
NiAl ,
24 1474 K .
, 90 mL
H2O, 10 mL H2O2, 10 mL HCl (Etching)
. , (JSM-5500, Jeol Ltd.,
Japan) .
(S-4300SE, Hitachi Ltd.,
Japan) .
4.3
4.3.1
Fig. 4-2
45
Figure 4-1. Photographs of (a) a universal testing machine and (b) a
heating chamber near Jigs
46
Figure 4-2. Optical micrographs of microstructure in (a), (b) lotus-type
porous and (c), (d) nonporous NiAl rods. (a), (c) and (b), (d) show
transverse and longitudinal cross sections, respectively.
47
NiAl .
, Fig. 4-2(b)
. , NiAl
NiAl (Columnar grain)
. [3].
311 69 , 32.7 4.7 % .
4.3.2
Fig. 4-3 NiAl NiAl
-
, Table 4-1 . NiAl
NiAl .
-
NiAl NiAl .
Fig. 4-3(a) 4-3(b) 3
. ,
.
4 ,
.
673 K
. - ,
,
.
-
[30,50].
.
873 K .
48
Figure 4-3. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (c), (e) nonporous
NiAl and (b), (d), (f) lotus-type porous NiAl testing at (a), (b) 298 K, (c),
(d) 673 K and (e), (f) 873 K
49
Table 4-1. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl with the solidification direction parallel and
perpendicular to the compressive direction at 298 K, 673 K and 873 K
Specimen Relation of pore axis to compression direction
Yield stress (MPa)
Strain to failure (%)
298 K 673 K 873 K 298 K 673 K 873 KPorous Parallel 321.5 204.3 78.7 4.53 - -
Perpendicular 87.6 65.9 32.3 3.19 - -Nonporous Parallel 401.1 344.9 230.3 1.03 2.07 -
Perpendicular 288.3 161.4 148.5 0.88 0.92 -
50
, NiAl NiAl .
673 K ,
NiAl ,
.
Fig. 4-4 673 K .
NiAl
, NiAl
. Fig. 4-5
873 K
(Slip band) .
-
.
NiAl NiAl
Fig. 4-2 Table
4-1 . NiAl NiAl
.
673 K
,
(Densification)
- . 873 K
673 K - .
NiAl NiAl
Fig. 4-6 . Fig. 4-6(a)
NiAl . , Fig. 4-6(b)
. NiAl 673 K
51
Figure 4-4. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive
specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl
after compression test at 673 K. Compressive direction is (a), (b) parallel
and (c), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction.
52
Figure 4-5. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive
specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl
after compression test at 873 K. Compressive direction is (a), (b) parallel
and (c), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction.
53
Figure 4-6. Yield strength variation of nonporous and lotus-type porous
NiAl with the solidification direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to
the compressive direction as a function of temperature
54
, 673 K
.
. , 673 K
.
Fig. 4-7 NiAl
. -
, .
(Slip band)
45 , (Bending)
(Buckling) .
(Collapse) , .
4.4
4.4.1
NiAl - (DBTT, Ductile to Brittle
Transition Temperature) 673 K 873 K
,
[7]. DBTT
, , 30
[51,52].
30 , Ni-rich
NiAl DBTT 673 K 873 K .
, NiAl
. Fig. 4-3 - ,
NiAl DBTT 673 K, NiAl
55
Figure 4-7. Optical micrographs of exterior features of porous specimen
after compression test at (a), (c) 673 K and (b), (d) 873 K; compression
direction is (a), (c) parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the solidification
direction.
56
DBTT . , NiAl DBTT
, . , Fig.
4-4 4-5
. 673 K NiAl
, NiAl
NiAl .
673 K -
.
.
Fig. 4-8 . (Crack
tip) (Inclusion) (Void)
,
[53-55]. ,
. ,
,
. ,
. ,
. Fig. 4-9
.
,
. ,
. (Tip)
,
.
,
57
Figure 4-8. Scanning electron micrographs of specimen surfaces for
lotus-type porous NiAl with solidification direction (a) perpendicular and
(b) parallel to the compressive direction after compression tests
58
Figure 4-9. Schematic diagram of applied stress to (a) sharp and (b) blunt
crack tips
59
DBTT .
NiAl NiAl
.
(Slip line)
,
[28,56]. ,
, . Fig.
4-10 NiAl .
,
.
. NiAl DBTT ,
. Fig. 10(a)
,
. Fig. 10(b) 673 K
(Wavy)
. BCC
, BCC
{110}, {112} {123}
[57]. ,
.
4.4.2
-
.
60
Figure 4-10. Scanning electron micrographs of parallel lotus-type porous
specimen after compression test at (a) 298 K and (b) 673 K
61
NiAl NiAl
. NiAl
. (Stress concentration) (Defect)
,
.
(Bulk
material) .
NiAl
. NiAl
.
Fig. 4-3 673 K 873 K NiAl
- .
. Fig. 4-11
,
(Buckling) . ,
, (Collapse)
(Densification) .
, NiAl NiAl
. -
, NiAl .
NiAl NiAl
Fig. 4-6 .
. 673 K
, .
62
Figure 4-11. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) parallel and (b)
perpendicular lotus-type porous specimen
63
NiAl NiAl
,
.
NiAl
. NiAl BCC
[36]. ,
NiAl NiAl
.
. "hard orientation" ,
"soft orientation"
[6].
Fig. 4-12 NiAl
(EBSD, Electron Backscattered Diffraction)
. NiAl Fig. 12(a)
(IPF, Inverse Pole Figure) ,
"hard orientation" {100}
. Fig. 12(b) "soft
orientation" {110} . Fig. 4-3 -
.
NiAl Fig. 4-6
"hard orientation" ( ) 800K
NiAl
(APB, Anti-phase Boundary)
[39]. 800K
NiAl
64
Figure 4-12. Inverse pole figure maps of nonporous specimens with the
compressive direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the solidification
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5. Figure 2-1. Schematic diagram for an exterior view of lotus-type porous metal Figure 2-2. Temperature dependence of hydrogen solubility in solid and liquid of various metals under the hydrogen pressure of 0.1MPa Figure 2-3. Schematic diagram of pore nucleation and growth in unidirectional solidification in gas atmosphere Figure 2-4. Averaged pore diameter and porosity of lotus-type porous stainless steel under various pressure of mixed gases composed of (a) hydrogen and argon or (b) hydrogen and heliumFigure 2-5. Schematic diagram of mold casting technique Figure 2-6. Schematic diagram for the melting part of continuous zone melting technique Figure 2-7. Schematic diagram of continuous casting apparatus Figure 2-8. Ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of lotus-type porous copper in the direction parallel and perpendicular to pore axis as a function of porosity Figure 2-9. Schematic diagram of compressive stress-strain curve of lotus-type porous metalFigure 2-10. Ni-Al phase diagram Figure 2-11. B2 crystal structure (space group Pmm, CsCl prototype) of NiAl Figure 2-12. Critical resolved shear stress for (a) a slip in 'soft' crystals, (b) a{112} and a{110}slip in 'hard' crystals Figure 3-1. Photograph of a universal testing machine Figure 3-2. Optical micrographs of pore morphology of lotus-type porous NiAl cross-sections (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the solidification direction Figure 3-3. X-ray diffraction patterns of lotus-type porous NiAl (a) before and (b) after homogenization heat treatment Figure 3-4. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (b) nonporous NiAl and (c), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a), (c) parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the compressive direction Figure 3-5. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) lotus-type porous and (b) nonporous NiAlFigure 3-6. Scanning electron micrographs of crack tip blunting of lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the compressive direction Figure 3-7. Scanning electron micrographs of multi-crack for lotus-type porous NiAl. A magnified view of A and B in (a) is shown in (b) and (c), respectively. Figure 4-1. Photographs of (a) a universal testing machine and (b) a heating chamber near JigsFigure 4-2. Optical micrographs of microstructure in (a), (b) lotus-type porous and (c), (d) nonporous NiAl rods. (a), (c) and (b), (d) show transverse and longitudinal cross sections, respectively. Figure 4-3. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (c), (e) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d), (f) lotus-type porous NiAl testing at (a), (b) 298 K, (c), (d) 673 K and (e), (f) 873 K Figure 4-4. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl after compression test at 673 K. Compressive direction is (a), (b) parallel and (c), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction. Figure 4-5. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl after compression test at 873 K. Compressive direction is (a), (b) parallel and (c), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction. Figure 4-6. Yield strength variation of nonporous and lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the compressive direction as a function of temperatureFigure 4-7. Optical micrographs of exterior features of porous specimen after compression test at (a), (c) 673 K and (b), (d) 873 K; compressive direction is (a), (c) parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction. Figure 4-8. Scanning electron micrographs of specimen surfaces for lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the compressive direction after compression tests Figure 4-9. Schematic diagram of applied stress to (a) sharp and (b) blunt crack tips Figure 4-10. Scanning electron micrographs of parallel lotus-type porous specimen after compression test at (a) 298 K and (b) 673 K Figure 4-11. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular lotus-type porous specimen Figure 4-12. Inverse pole figure maps of nonporous specimens with the compressive direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the solidification direction Table 3-1. Chemical compositions of NiAl ingot, lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl Table 3-2. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl with the solidification direction parallel and perpendicular to the compressive direction at room temperature Table 4-1. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl with the solidification direction parallel and perpendicular to the compressive direction at 298 K, 673 K and 873 K
151. 12. 4 2.1 4 2.1.1 4 2.1.2 11 2.1.3 14 2.2 Nickel Aluminide 17 2.2.1 -NiAl 19 2.2.2 223. NiAl 25 3.1 25 3.2 26 3.3 29 3.3.1 29 3.3.2 29 3.4 35 3.4.1 35 3.4.2 38 3.5 404. NiAl 42 4.1 42 4.2 43 4.3 44 4.3.1 44 4.3.2 47 4.4 54 4.4.1 54 4.4.2 59 4.5 655. 67 68Figure 2-1. Schematic diagram for an exterior view of lotus-type porous metal 5Figure 2-2. Temperature dependence of hydrogen solubility in solid and liquid of various metals under the hydrogen pressure of 0.1MPa 6Figure 2-3. Schematic diagram of pore nucleation and growth in unidirectional solidification in gas atmosphere 8Figure 2-4. Averaged pore diameter and porosity of lotus-type porous stainless steel under various pressure of mixed gases composed of (a) hydrogen and argon or (b) hydrogen and helium 10Figure 2-5. Schematic diagram of mold casting technique 12Figure 2-6. Schematic diagram for the melting part of continuous zone melting technique 13Figure 2-7. Schematic diagram of continuous casting apparatus 15Figure 2-8. Ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of lotus-type porous copper in the direction parallel and perpendicular to pore axis as a function of porosity 16Figure 2-9. Schematic diagram of compressive stress-strain curve of lotus-type porous metal 18Figure 2-10. Ni-Al phase diagram 20Figure 2-11. B2 crystal structure (space group Pmm, CsCl prototype) of NiAl 21Figure 2-12. Critical resolved shear stress for (a) a slip in 'soft' crystals, (b) a{112} and a{110}slip in 'hard' crystals 23Figure 3-1. Photograph of a universal testing machine 28Figure 3-2. Optical micrographs of pore morphology of lotus-type porous NiAl cross-sections (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the solidification direction 30Figure 3-3. X-ray diffraction patterns of lotus-type porous NiAl (a) before and (b) after homogenization heat treatment 31Figure 3-4. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (b) nonporous NiAl and (c), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a), (c) parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the compressive direction 32Figure 3-5. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) lotus-type porous and (b) nonporous NiAl 36Figure 3-6. Scanning electron micrographs of crack tip blunting of lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the compressive direction 37Figure 3-7. Scanning electron micrographs of multi-crack for lotus-type porous NiAl. A magnified view of A and B in (a) is shown in (b) and (c), respectively. 39Figure 4-1. Photographs of (a) a universal testing machine and (b) a heating chamber near Jigs 45Figure 4-2. Optical micrographs of microstructure in (a), (b) lotus-type porous and (c), (d) nonporous NiAl rods. (a), (c) and (b), (d) show transverse and longitudinal cross sections, respectively. 46Figure 4-3. Compressive stress-strain curves of (a), (c), (e) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d), (f) lotus-type porous NiAl testing at (a), (b) 298 K, (c), (d) 673 K and (e), (f) 873 K 48Figure 4-4. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl after compression test at 673 K. Compressive direction is (a), (b) parallel and (c), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction. 51Figure 4-5. Optical micrographs of exterior features of compressive specimens for (a), (c) nonporous NiAl and (b), (d) lotus-type porous NiAl after compression test at 873 K. Compressive direction is (a), (b) parallel and (c), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction. 52Figure 4-6. Yield strength variation of nonporous and lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the compressive direction as a function of temperature 53Figure 4-7. Optical micrographs of exterior features of porous specimen after compression test at (a), (c) 673 K and (b), (d) 873 K; compressive direction is (a), (c) parallel and (b), (d) perpendicular to the solidification direction. 55Figure 4-8. Scanning electron micrographs of specimen surfaces for lotus-type porous NiAl with the solidification direction (a) perpendicular and (b) parallel to the compressive direction after compression tests 57Figure 4-9. Schematic diagram of applied stress to (a) sharp and (b) blunt crack tips 58Figure 4-10. Scanning electron micrographs of parallel lotus-type porous specimen after compression test at (a) 298 K and (b) 673 K 60Figure 4-11. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular lotus-type porous specimen 62Figure 4-12. Inverse pole figure maps of nonporous specimens with the compressive direction (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the solidification direction 64Table 3-1. Chemical compositions of NiAl ingot, lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl 27Table 3-2. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl with the solidification direction parallel and perpendicular to the compressive direction at room temperature 34Table 4-1. Mechanical properties of lotus-type porous and nonporous NiAl with the solidification direction parallel and perpendicular to the compressive direction at 298 K, 673 K and 873 K 49