Doktori (PhD) Disszertáció - ppk.elte.hu · Doktori (PhD) Disszertáció Gordon T. G. Dobson Teacher development: A case study 2010

Doktori (PhD) Disszertáció

Gordon T. G. Dobson

Teacher development: A case study

2010

Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem

Pedagógiai és Pszichológiai Kar

ELTE PPK Neveléstudományi Doktori Iskola Doktori iskola vezetője:

Dr. Bábosik István DSc, egyetemi tanár

Nyelvpedagógiai Doktori Program Programvezető:

Dr. Károly Krisztina PhD, habil. egyetemi docens

Gordon T. G. Dobson

Teacher development: A case study

Témavezető: Dr. Szesztay Margit PhD, egyetemi adjunktus

A bíráló bizottság elnöke: Prof. Dr. Kárpáti Andrea, egyetemi tanár Bíráló: Dr. Uwe Pohl PhD, egyetemi docens

Bíráló: Dr. Poór Zoltán CSc, egyetemi docens A bizottság titkára: Dr. Holló Dorottya CSc, egyetemi docens

A bizottság tagjai: Dr. Lazár Ildikó PhD, adjunktus Dr. Loch Ágnes PhD, főiskolai docens

Dr. Sárvári Judit PhD, egyetemi docens

2010

This dissertation is dedicated to Ágnes, Hanna and Philip - it’s a poor substitute

for times missed.

Thanks go to Szesztay Margit for being a constant source of wisdom, constructive

criticism and encouragement.

I want to express my gratitude to my parents, Alan and Joan Dobson, for creating such

positive views of education so many decades ago.

Thanks must also go to Zentai Erzsébet for her help.

Lastly, thank you to all the students and colleagues whose comments and ideas can be

found in these pages.

Abstract

This thesis examines an instant of teacher development at tertiary level. It makes

use of the case study approach and employs exploratory practice as a means of collecting

the necessary data. The development in question is that of a language teacher who

makes the transition to teacher trainer. The case study approach is used because this is a

long-term undertaking concentrating on one individual teacher. Exploratory practice is

employed because the teacher did not wish to use intrusive research methods, preferring

those which could be used as part of everyday practice. The findings should help those in

a similar position.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Background .............................................................................................. 1

1.1 Development .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Case study .................................................................................................................. 2 1.3 The rationale behind the choice of research area .................................................. 4 1.4 The research context ................................................................................................ 4 1.5 Data sources .............................................................................................................. 5 1.6 The research method ................................................................................................ 5 1.7 Procedures for data collection and analysis ........................................................... 5 1.8 Summary ................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2 The chronology of my teaching .............................................................. 7

2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 7 2.2 My teaching career to date – An overview ............................................................. 7 2.3 Pre-training ............................................................................................................... 8

2.3.1 State school language assistant ................................................................... 8

2.3.2 University lector .......................................................................................... 9

2.4 Post-training ............................................................................................................ 10 2.4.1 Freelance Berlin ........................................................................................ 10

2.4.2 British Council Budapest .......................................................................... 12

2.4.3 ELTE Budapest ......................................................................................... 14

2.4.4 PhD in Language Pedagogy ...................................................................... 15

2.5 My research career to date .................................................................................... 16 2.5.1 Research concerns ..................................................................................... 17

2.6 Fine-tuning the research ........................................................................................ 18 2.6.1 Charting the move from teacher to teacher trainer .................................... 19

2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 21

Chapter 3 Literature review ................................................................................... 22

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 22 3.1.1 Teacher development, Action Research and Collaborative or Cooperative

Development ................................................................................................................. 22

3.2 Teacher development ............................................................................................. 23 3.2.1 Development and the teacher: Background .............................................. 23

3.2.2 Teacher development and teacher training ............................................... 27

3.2.3 Potential misconceptions about teacher development ............................... 29

3.2.4 The personal nature of teacher development ............................................ 31

3.2.5 Pre-service teacher training ....................................................................... 34

3.2.6 My understanding of teacher development ............................................... 37

3.3 Teacher training and teacher development .......................................................... 38 3.4 Teacher training and teacher development: Historical perspectives ................ 39 3.5 Teacher training and teacher development: Examining the differences ........... 41 3.6 Teacher training and teacher development: Definitions ..................................... 43

3.6.1 In-service teacher training (INSETT) ....................................................... 46

3.7 Language classroom research ................................................................................ 51 3.8 Action research ....................................................................................................... 52 3.9 Reflective practice ................................................................................................... 54 3.10 Exploratory practice ............................................................................................... 57 3.11 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 59

Chapter 4 Research design and method ................................................................ 60

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 60 4.2 Research aims ......................................................................................................... 60 4.3 Research design ....................................................................................................... 64 4.4 Research method ..................................................................................................... 65

4.4.1 Diary writing as a research tool ................................................................ 66

4.4.2 Survey data ................................................................................................ 67

4.4.3 Feedback ................................................................................................... 68

4.5 Methodological considerations .............................................................................. 69 4.5.1 Students as partners in the research endeavour. ........................................ 69

4.5.2 Validating the case study approach ........................................................... 69

4.5.3 Thick description ....................................................................................... 70

4.5.4 Grounded theory ........................................................................................ 70

4.5.5 An emic versus an etic perspective ........................................................... 72

4.5.6 Credibility ................................................................................................. 73

4.5.7 Generalisability ......................................................................................... 74

4.6 The issue of research ethics .................................................................................... 77 4.7 Data collection ......................................................................................................... 78

4.7.1 Data collection procedures ........................................................................ 78

4.8 Data sources ............................................................................................................ 79 4.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 83

Chapter 5 Baseline data: Preliminary research and pilot study ......................... 84

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 84 5.2 Overview – Preliminary research ......................................................................... 84 5.3 Research instruments used prior to spring 2005 ................................................. 85 5.4 Themes ..................................................................................................................... 86 5.5 Choosing and naming ............................................................................................. 87 5.6 The dilemma of naming ......................................................................................... 87 5.7 Why effectiveness? .................................................................................................. 88 5.8 The pilot study ........................................................................................................ 88 5.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 91

Overview of Chapters 6 - 9 ....................................................................................... 92

Chapter 6 Results and discussion of Research Question 1 ................................... 93

6.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 93 6.2 Research Question : How should the teacher trainer share their own teaching experience and expertise in the delivery of a methodology course? ............................... 93 6.3 How far should the teacher trainer feel obliged to do this? ................................ 98 6.4 How can the teacher trainer avoid the temptation to lead their students down their own preferred methodological path? ...................................................................... 103 6.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 111

Chapter 7 Results and discussion of Research Question 2 ................................. 112

7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 112 7.2 Research Quesiton: Students on methodology courses often comment that they have no teaching experience. As far as you are concerned, what does having ‘no teaching experience’ mean? .............................................................................................. 112 7.3 What are the implications of this for the teacher trainer? ............................... 118 7.4 What counts as experience? ................................................................................. 125 7.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 129

Chapter 8 Results and discussion of Research Question 3 ................................. 130

8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 130 8.2 Research Question: What is a teaching professional? ...................................... 130 8.3 What is ‘classroom culture’? ............................................................................... 134 8.4 How are you initiated into the culture of the classroom? ................................. 140 8.5 What is expected of you by your future teaching colleagues, supervisors, mentors and teacher trainers in terms of knowledge of the classroom? ...................... 143 8.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 146

Chapter 9 Results and discussion of Research Question 4 ................................... 147

9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 147 9.2 Research Question: How can the course materials, in particular the readings, best be exploited for maximum comprehension and usefulness? .................................. 147 9.3 How can the theoretical best be linked to the practical? .................................. 153 9.4 How can the course materials be made more interactive/participatory? ........ 158 9.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 162

Chapter 10 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 163

10.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 163 10.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 166

References ................................................................................................................. 167

Appendices ........................................................................................................... 183184

List of Tables and Figures

Figure 1 Time line of the chronology of my teaching .................................................... 8 Figure 2 A sequence for developing competences ....................................................... 26 Figure 3 Grenfell's (1998) 'triangle of training' ............................................................ 36 Figure 4 The training – development continuum ......................................................... 39 Figure 5 Gebhard's (1996) The four –stage cycle of exploratory practice ................... 58 Figure 6 The three ways of examining teacher development ....................................... 62 Figure 7 Research instruments ..................................................................................... 65 Table 1 Characteristics of the lector’s lot ..................................................................... 14 Table 2 Research question 1 ......................................................................................... 62 Table 3 Research question 2 ......................................................................................... 63 Table 4 Research question 3 ......................................................................................... 63 Table 5 Research question 4 ......................................................................................... 64 Table 6 Consideration of ANN- 462 Methodology Foundation I ................................ 79 Table 7 Consideration of ANN- 464 Methodology Foundation II ............................... 80 Table 8 Consideration of ANN-466 Methodology Specialisation Tier – Focus on the teacher...........................................................................................................................80Table 9 Consideration of ANN-466 Methodology Specialisation Tier – Teaching English for business......................................................................................................81 Table 10 Consideration of ANN-465 Methodology Specialisation Lecture – Teaching ESP................................................................................................................................82

Chapter 1 – Background 1

Chapter 1

Background

1.1 Development

What is teacher development? Teacher development can mean different things to

different teachers. For some teachers teacher development is completely synonymous with

training and they use the two terms interchangeably, for others it is something completely

different from training and the two are not at all connected. Another group of teachers

considers that while the two are not the same, they are nevertheless linked in some

fundamental way. Reconciling the views of the first two groups is far from easy, and is

outwith the scope of this study; it is the third view, that development and training are linked

yet different which lies is at the heart of this dissertation. The nature of development,

specifically development for the practising language teacher, will be discussed later in the

dissertation. To further complicate matters, in addition to the term 'teacher development'

education professionals refer to various types of development: 'personal development',

'professional development', 'personal professional development' or 'continuing professional

development'. The literature is replete with distinctions between develepment and training,

just as it is with the various types of development (Allwright, 1999a, Bailey, Curtis & Nunan,

2001, Blandford, 1998, Boyd, 2005, Crookes, 2003, Edge 1992a & 1992b, Foord, 2009,

Hargreaves & Fullan, 1993, Kiely, 1996, Mann, 2005, Perkins, 2002, Richards & Farrell,

2005, Richards, Platt & Platt 1992, Thornbury, 2006, Ur, 1998 and Wright & Bolitho, 2007).

As far as consideration of the different guises under which teacher development can

be found is concerned, Mann (2005) concludes that a 'distinction between professional

development and teacher development is not that marked in the literature'; however, it will


prove useful to be aware of what meanings are given to the various kinds of development

mentioned here. Mann explains that at 'an institutional level it is more common to use the

term 'continuing professional develoment' or CPD', while 'professional development is career

orientated and has a narrower more instrumental and utilitarian remit'… whereas 'teacher

development' is 'more inclusive of personal and moral dimensions' (p.104). This three-way

distinction is important because we can now locate what the term development means for the

author of the present study.

Development for me is not synonymous with training; however, it is not entirely

separate either, the two are linked and the existence of the one does not preclude that of the

other. In addition, in terms of the type of develoment which is of interest, it is the more

personal teacher development, rather than the CPD of institutions or the professional

development solely for career advancement, which is my major concern and area of

investigation. Throughout the thesis it is teacher development which is referred to; unless

there is a need to specify, for example CPD or professional development, teacher

development will serve as the default term.

1.2 Case study

The aim of the research described here is to present an example of teacher

development within the teacher training context at tertiary level. The essence of the study is to

capture instances of my own development in terms of my recent transition from being a

teacher to becoming a teacher trainer. In order to examine this I have chosen to examine an

area of my own practice using a limited number of research instruments. However, in order to

bring these together I have chosen to view the research as a case study.


To describe what a case study is, is no easy task. It may be useful to consider two

definitions of what it is not. McKernan (1996) is clear in stating that it 'should be noted that

case study employs many research methods and that it is not a single method that can be

packaged and used as a prescription' (pp.75- 76), rather a case study makes use of a variety of

research methods and data collection tools. Similarly, McDonough and McDonough (1997)

advocate caution in asserting that a 'case study… is not itself a research method nor the

equivalent of one: it employs methods and techniques in the investigation of an object of

interest' (p. 203) and as a result is 'methodologically eclectic' (p. 207). In more positive terms,

Nunan (1992) posits that a case study can be seen as 'a 'hybrid' in that it generally utilises a

range of methods for collecting and analysing data, rather than being restricted to a single

procedure' (p. 75). In support of this view, Robson (1993) states that 'the basic rule is that the

nature of the data collection should depend on the kind of study that you are doing' (p. 157),

and thereby underlines the eclecticism of the case study. Simons (2009) offers a definition

which includes all the preceding while also being broader in its coverage. For Simons the case

study is

an in-depth exploration from multiple perspectives of the complexity and uniqueness of a particular project, policy, institution, programme or system in a 'real life' context.

It is research-based, inclusive of different methods and evidence-led. The primary purpose is to generate in-depth understanding of a specific topic (as in a thesis), programme, policy, institution or system to generate knowledge and/or inform policy

development, professional practice and civil or community action. (p.21)

The research presented here reflects a number of points from the above definition: the

complex nature of the tertiary teacher training situation; its very 'real life' context; its

utilisation of different methods of conducting research and collecting data; its proposal to

generate a detailed understanding of one aspect of professional practice.


1.3 The rationale behind the choice of research area

Part of the rationale for the study presented here is to reach an understanding of what

the transition or 'the “shift” from teacher to teacher educator' (Matei, Bernaus, Heyworth, Pohl

and Wright, 2007, p.5) means for my own personal teacher development. However, under the

circumstances, that on its own would be too narrow and limited. In wanting to better

understand my own situation, I realised that I also need to do something akin to Lamb and

Simpson (2003) where Simpson attempted to 'relate more to his students and empathise with

their struggle' (p.55). As I was also new to the teacher trainer role I felt a certain empathy with

the students coming to be trainee teachers. In very many ways it was a clear example of 'the

teacher as learner' (p.56). In order to find out about myslef, I also found out about the trainee

teachers and came to undestand them better. There was a second rationale, I wanted to make

the findings from my research available to other teachers who might find themselves in the

same situation. As Fraser, Kennedy, Reid and McKinney (2007) contend, teacher

development activities can act 'as potentially knowledge generating for the wider educational

community' (p.161). The third element was to validate the case study as one means of

professional development.

1.4 The research context

The research context is my teacher training work as part of my role as a full-time

member of the Department of English Applied Linguitics (henceforeth DEAL) in the School

of English and American Studies (henceforth SEAS) at Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest

(heneforeth ELTE).


1.5 Data sources

The source of data for this study was the 13 language teaching methodology seminars,

two of which were complusory courses, and two of which were electives, and one elective

methodology lecture which I held during the period between spring 2005 and spring 2008

inclusive, a period of three and a half years.

1.6 The research method

The research method chosen was to make use of three instruments: a teaching diary;

classroom surveys; and end of semester feedback sheets. The reasoning for this choice was to

make use of data that was, as far as possible, non-intrusive and non-parasitc (Allwright 2003),

or for which the collection, as far as possible, involved the use of of activities that formed

part of the teaching and training in the seminars.

1.7 Procedures for data collection and analysis

The instruments detailed above were chosen to ensure that data could be collected on a

regular basis and analysis in an ongoing way. The diary was written as quickly as possible

after the lessons, surveys were conducted as part of the course on a number of occasions for a

variety of purposes, and the semester feedback sheets were administered, according to DEAL

guidleines, in a dedicated time slot during the final lesson of the semester.

The reason for the use of all these instruments was threefold: firstly to ensure that

triangulation could be achieved; secondly to guarantee that a reasonable amount of data

could be collected which would provide different perspectives; and thirdly to make sure that


given the unpredictablity of the classroom, data could still be collected in all foreseeable and

unforeseeable classroom circumstances.

1.8 Summary

The dissertation is divided into ten chapters. Following this introductory chapter,

Chapter 2 presents a chronolgy of the authors teaching as background to the study and the

influences upon it. Chapter 3 then provides an overview of teacher development, discussing

training in the process, along with addressing some of the wider concerns of education. Next

Chapter 4 addresses the research design and method of the study as well as introducing the

four research questions. It also provides further information on the research instruments and

data sources, as well as introducing the study's most important participants, the trainee

teachers. It also discusses a number of important methodological considerations. In Chapter 5

preliminary research and the pilot study are discussed. Chapters 6 to 9 are the results and

discussion of each of the four research questions. Chapter 10 concludes the dissertation,

discusses the implications for teacher training, including a number of limitations and ends by

proposing areas for further research.

Chapter 2 – Chronology of my teaching 7

Chapter 2

The chronology of my teaching

2.1 Introduction

I include a chronology of my teaching in order to 'locate the background and

significant features' (Simons, 2009, p. 71) which have ultimately contributed to the research

presented here. I wish to divide the chronology into two distinct yet overlapping parts. These

will be a description of my teaching career to date followed by a description of the study

proper. The chronology will span a period of approximately twenty years, beginning in 1985

with a year spent as a language assistant in a state school in western Germany and concluding

in the spring of 2008.

2.2 My teaching career to date – An overview

Two distinct periods are described here. The time I spent as a state school language

assistant during the 1985/1986 school year, and a later period of three academic years, 1988-

1991, spent as a university lector. These four years I shall term pre-training since they refer to

the time spent teaching without any formal teacher training or formalised teaching

qualifications. In the spring of 1992 I took part in a diploma level teacher training course and

subsequently gained the Diploma in Teaching English as a Foreign Language to Adults

(Dip.TEFLA) in the summer of the same year. The period from summer 1992 to the present I

have termed post-training. The timeline below illustrates this:


1985/6 1988/9 1989/1991 1991/2 1992/7 1997/9 1999/2000 2000/8 2008/10

Language Assistant

University Lector

University Lector

Freelance Freelance British Council Teacher

ELTE-TTK Lector

ELTE-BTK Lector

Freelance

Figure 1 Timeline of the chronology of my teaching

2.3 Pre-training

This section deals with three geographic locations, the Rhineland Palatinate, Rostock

and Berlin, and two teaching situations, those being an undergraduate teaching assistant and

working as a lector at two institutions of tertiary education.

2.3.1 State school language assistant

The first period I describe is that prior to any contact with formal training. Essentially,

I can begin my teaching career in 1985 when I took up the post of a language assistant in a

combined state primary and secondary school (ages 7 to 16) in the Federal Republic of

Germany. The role of a language assistant was threefold:

• to provide language input to host country learners of English;

• to enable British undergraduate language students to spend a year in the country of

their language of study;

• to experience the school environment first-hand by acting as a teacher and language

resource to the institution concerned.

Such positions were remunerated and the language assistant was expected to

participate in the academic life of their institution, albeit to varying degrees. However, very


little preparation, except a short two-day orientation focusing on basic classroom survival

skills, was offered to language assistants before they took up their posts. Most assistants had

little or no teaching experience and were expected to gain the requisite skills at post. There

were not always opportunities or circumstances for this to occur. Despite enjoying the

1985/1986 academic year, I most definitely did not see my career being in teaching as a result

of my assistantship. Since my motivation was to improve my own language skills and extend

my cultural knowledge, the assistantship was a means to an end. At the end of the

assistantship I returned to university to complete the remaining two years of my studies.

2.3.2 University lector

Following graduation in 1988, I took up a post as an English language lector at a

university in the German Democratic Republic. Again, apart from a brief orientation (this

time with a rather more political than pedagogical slant) little preparation was offered. In situ

I was likewise offered little on-the-job training, and therefore found myself teaching as I had

been taught at school, and more recently, at university. In essence I continued to teach in very

much the same way as I taught in 1985/1986. However, given that I was now working with

adults, the one difference I did introduce was that I consciously based a lot of my teaching on

that of our own language assistants from university.

For the next three years I worked as a lector in Rostock on the Baltic coast, and

subsequently in (East) Berlin. Again, initially at least, my motivations were linguistic and

cultural rather than any commitment to the teaching profession. Nevertheless, over time I

found that I did genuinely have a liking for, and interest in, the job and role of teacher,

particularly at tertiary level.


However, I found myself acutely aware of my shortcomings in terms of pedagogy,

practical as well as theoretical, and ever more conscious of a need to see English as a skill

rather than exclusively as a subject of academic enquiry. I had reached the stage where I could

no longer rely on my resources of experience; my apprenticeship of observation no longer

sufficed. I had developed in two significant ways. Firstly, in terms of my realisation that I had

found something I enjoyed and felt challenged by, enough that is to wish to pursue it further,

and secondly, that I needed to acquire knowledge and skills to enable me to do this.

Circumstances conspired to have me in the United Kingdom for the 1991/1992 academic year

where I was able to follow a formal course in EFL methodology. The Diploma in Teaching

English as a Foreign Language to Adults (Dip.TEFLA), which I gained in 1992, proved to be

the first step on a long journey of conscious and unconscious personal professional

development.

2.4 Post-training

This section deals with two geographic locations, Berlin and Budapest, and three

teaching situations, freelance, private sector language schools and public tertiary education.

2.4.1 Freelance Berlin

Following the Dip.TEFLA, I began what I now see as the second and ongoing period

of my teaching career. In the summer of 1992 I returned to Berlin and worked freelance for a

total of five years. During this time, I worked as a teacher for the public and private sectors

(colleges, universities and non-university/tertiary adult education, as well as private language

schools and corporations), and as a teacher trainer for tertiary institutions. As a freelance

teacher and trainer I had no recourse to any kind of institutional further training or


professional development opportunities. Operating very much alone, as is the lot of many

freelance teachers, I found myself drawing considerably on the knowledge resources of the

Dip.TEFLA, both in terms of its theoretical content, and the opportunities it provided in terms

of teaching practice and discussion of the same.

Nevertheless, without being overtly aware of any significant shortcomings, I soon

came to realise that I needed a wider and deeper knowledge base than that offered by the

Dip.TEFLA. The then practical and pragmatic solution was to begin a master's level course. I

chose to study for an MA in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL).

This I did over three years via distance learning (DL), thus enabling me to finance the course

by being able to continue working whilst studying. At the same time, I was involved in the

foundation of a regional teachers’ association which aimed at being a professional forum and

self-help group. We succeeded in establishing an association offering workshops on various

aspects of language teaching as well as on social, legal and financial issues related to

teaching, particularly freelance work. It was an active organisation with a healthy mix of non-

native and native speakers, a wide range of experience and qualifications, and representing

some eight or more nations. Without knowing it, this did indeed constitute a type of teacher

development.

Both the Dip.TEFLA and the MA (TESOL) provided me with a wealth of resources:

theoretical, practical and experiential. However, they both put forward knowledge and

practice which were prescriptive. This was especially so in terms of the PPP (presentation,

practice and production) paradigm from the Dip.TEFLA, and the emphasis on accumulating a

considerable body of theoretical linguistic knowledge which was to be applied in the

classroom from the MA. In neither was any mention made of how the teacher was to develop

amidst the knowledge and practice they were being provided with; the focus was very

consciously on either the student, or on the subject knowledge, that is, linguistics applied.


During these five years spent doing freelance work, this situation was not in any way

disturbing or problematic; as a busy teacher I was involved in the business of day-to-day

teaching, concentrating more on the likes of preparing classes, writing materials and marking

student work than any conscious consideration of whether or not I was developing. Added to

which I was studying for the MA (TESOL) and running a freelance business. Nevertheless, as

during the pre-training stage described above, I again felt there was something lacking in

terms of teacher development outside of the practical and theoretical knowledge I was gaining

during this time. Now, with the benefit of hindsight, the situation was a clear. However, at the

time I was not sufficiently aware and articulate enough to realise and express such an idea.

2.4.2 British Council Budapest

A move to Budapest in 1997 saw me working for an international English language

provider, and after five years of freelance work I was back inside a very institutionalised

school environment. As a member of a large and varied teaching staff in respect of age,

experience, qualifications and inclination, I soon became aware of a pedagogical management

framework apparently placing considerable emphasis on teacher development and ultimately

teacher performance. As a competitive commercial entity, the school had a clear interest in

portraying its teachers and teaching as being of the highest quality.

As well as the formalities of a job description, individual job plans and line-

management, in-house teacher development was a compulsory component of the teachers'

timetable and part of the routine of life in the centre. More knowledgeable teachers, and

sometimes academic management, were responsible for passing on knowledge and skills to

other, usually newer and more inexperienced teachers. For all teachers there were possibilities

for development inside and outside the school. This could be formalised in terms of courses


relating directly or indirectly to preferences and interests (with the potential for later

promotion in the school or the wider network), for example the Dip.TEFLA for less

experienced teachers, qualifications in teaching English for Business, Computer Aided

Language Learning (CALL), teaching young learners, academic management, or even the

sponsored learning of Hungarian. In a less formalised, but by no means less valuable way,

teachers were encouraged to observe fellow teachers, be peer-observed themselves, team-

teach and take on levels or areas of teaching new to them. Moreover, all teachers irrespective

of experience were encouraged to contribute to the centre’s stock of materials as well as to

actively participate in the development sessions already outlined.

Reality of course intruded in that teachers were contracted to teach 24 classroom

contact hours per week and teaching had priority over all of the above. Everyday working put

extreme pressure on all members of staff, with the result that the compulsory and formalised

elements of teacher development were on many occasions severely constrained. Less

formalised elements tended to be quickly forgotten once a semester got under way.

On a personal level, practical and less practical difficulties aside, the teacher

development framework offered by the school, as briefly described above, proved to be

pivotal in raising my awareness not just of the absence of teacher development (personal and

professional) during the time prior to my working in the school, but also the clear and

pressing need for such. Clear and pressing despite, or more accurately because of the

Dip.TEFLA, the prestige qualification in the school and in the wider British influenced

English language teaching world. I did therefore avail myself of a number of development

opportunities ranging from learning Hungarian, peer observation, team teaching, teaching new

courses, gaining further qualifications as well as leading teacher development sessions and

giving conference papers. Having a line-management function, I was also responsible for the

professional well-being of three other teacher colleagues.


2.4.3 ELTE Budapest

Returning to tertiary education in 1999, I was instantly cut off from teacher

development as I had known it over the previous two years. No such notions on the

institutional or departmental level appeared to exist. It was, and effectively remained, a case

of everyone being responsible for themselves, or a general attitude that at university level

people know what they are doing and need no further training, education, development or

what one will, apart that is, of course, from doctoral studies, post-doctoral studies and

publish-or-perish. Members of the university considered themselves to be faculty not teachers.

On a personal and professioanl level the lector post offered a number of advantages, as

well as having a number of disadvantageous characteristics. These are set out in the table

below. The positive aspects of the job are self-explanatory and show the range of possibilities

open to a lector. In terms of negatives, explanation is needed. The notion of being neither fish

nor foul refers to the role of the lector, primarily to input language and culture, they are more

teacher than faculty and hence have very little status within the academic hierarchy of the

university. Job security and pay are concerns of all those working in education and are

outwith the scope of this discusssion.

Table 1 Characteristics of the lector's lot

Negatives: Positives:

• neither fish nor fowl;

• virtually non-existent job security;

• low pay;

• low down in the academic hierarchy.

• myriad opportunities to meet a variety

of colleagues;

• freedom to teach a range of course

types to a great diversity of students;


• introduction to a plethora of jobs and

tasks;

• intimate acquaintance with academe.

In summary, the lector role confers numerous advantages and benefits, but is balanced

out to a certain, if much lesser extent, by a number of disadvantages and drawbacks.

2.4.4 PhD in Language Pedagogy

Beginning the PhD in Language Pedagogy, which coincided with my return to

university teaching, was not, at least consciously, seen as a form of teacher development at

the time. It was rather a case of qualification inflation, after an MA the next logical step, for

me, appeared to be a doctorate. Unconsciously, the decision can be seen as a further striving

for opportunities to develop. For as much as I enjoyed working in the British Council English

Teaching Centre I no longer felt it was the type of teaching I wanted to do for the rest of my

career. Whilst for Hungarian colleagues working in higher education a PhD acted as an

insurance against ever present job redundancy in academic circles, I did not have such

pressure at that time.

The PhD in Language Pedagogy does indeed offer scope for personal and professional

growth. It opens new vista and can act as a forum for professional exchange and debate.

However, despite its clear applied nature it appeared to focus on areas that are often

quantifiable, emphasising the subject matter as object or foregrounding the language learner.

During my compulsory courses only one brought the teacher to the fore. Obviously all thesis

topics within the programme were worthy in their own right as contributions to the individual

and to the field. However, I felt a great opportunity was being wasted with too little stress


placed on the role and the place of the teacher. Moreover, too little mention was made of how

this important classroom participant could develop and grow.

However, I came to realise that the PhD could offer me avenues of personal and

professional growth via self-development and exploration. This was a result of five courses

that were offered, the compulsory first year course Focus on the language teacher (the

companion course to Focus on the language learner) and four electives Training the trainer,

Language classroom research, Teacher development through exploration and Group

facilitation. The attraction of these courses lay in their reflecting an interest which began to

develop around the year 2000, but which took rather longer to be made conscious and become

articulated. This was an interest in how teachers can develop, at all stages, but, particularly for

me, at the stage when a teacher has collected their various diplomas and masters degrees, and

as a result is considered by many, sometimes even including themselves, to be a finished

entity. I perceived a clear desire to move on in the sense of improving further as a classroom

practioner rather than just forwards or upwards into academic management and administration

as discussed by Lortie (1975):

The major opportunity for making status gains rests in leaving classroom work for full-time administration. The primary benefits earned by persistence in teaching (annual increases in pay) are outcomes of seniority and course-taking, the incentive system is not organised to respond to variations in effort and talent among classroom teachers. (p. 99)

2.5 My research career to date

The above has detailed my teaching experience, almost exclusively in adult education,

in the public and private sectors. Now I wish to turn to my experience as a researcher: this is a

much shorter chronology and an area of activity where I am still inexperienced and oftentimes

uncertain. However, as should have become clear from the preceding paragraph, the

requirements of the taught component of the doctoral studies acted as a fillip to investigating


my own classroom practice and thus set a course for conducting research in my own

classrooms with my own students.

2.5.1 Research concerns

As should also be clear by now one of my overriding concerns was to avoid

conducting research of a parasitic nature (see Chapter 1), that is the tendency to research ‘on’

people and situations, rather than ‘with’ people in their situations.

The rationale for my choice of research topic as outlined in Chapter 1 sought to

illustrate my understanding of what can constitute doctoral research within applied linguistics,

or more specifically within the field of language pedagogy. In doing this my aim was to utilise

research means that have as little intrusive impact on the classroom as possible. Whilst I

acknowledge that all research is, perforce, intrusive, I wished to minimise its impact as much

as possible within my own classrooms. My motivation for this stemmed predominantly from

my own experience of having research thrust upon me. By this I mean having teaching

colleagues conduct their research on the classrooms and students where I have taught.

One example should serve to illustrate the point. This process of ‘having teaching

colleagues conduct their research often entailed a process of being co-opted, coerced or forced

to partake in someone else's research. Whilst wishing to adopt an accommodating attitude

and contribute to the creation of a positive professional atmosphere in one the institutions

where I worked, I found myself becoming ever more resistant to such requests, and eventually

very much annoyed, so much so that on later occasions towards the end of the academic year I

openly refused to assist further. This was a less than collegial attitude, but I was no longer

prepared to tolerate further such intrusions on my students learning opportunities and my

classroom practice.


My reason was not just a growing annoyance at such intrusions and at having

classroom time stolen from students, but a burgeoning dislike of such research processes. This

dislike was made manifest in the attitude of those colleagues who sought to take data from

those they viewed as their research subjects, that is people (my students and myself, for

example) and places (our classrooms), without offering anything in return. For me at the time

this became unacceptable and lead to my subsequent point-blank refusal to offer further

assistance. Later, whilst reading for the Language classroom research elective I happened

upon the notion of 'parasitic research' (Allwright 1999b) and found intellectual and practical

solace in my earlier actions.

As a result of these two occurrences, being researched and refusing to sanction it

further, I made a conscious decision to choose a research methodology, or more accurately an

approach to conducting research, which would attempt to minimise intrusion and avoid

conducting research that only took rather than also contribute to the classrooms where it was

carried out. I vowed not to become a parasitic researcher viewing my temporary hosts as a

source of data yet worthy of no further thought and consideration once their data had been

taken.

Adopting such a stance led me to choose the research contexts, data sources and the

research method given in Chapter 1. However, it took a considerable period of time to fine-

tune a research area which I could examine within the confines laid down by the requirements

of a doctoral thesis; Chapter 4 provides details of this.

2.6 Fine-tuning the research

Inspired as I was in 2000 by the compulsory courses Focus on the teacher, and such

electives as Language classroom research and Teacher development through exploration in


2001 it took me at least 18 months to realise that conducting a broad sweep approach to the

study of a teacher’s professional development would break the bounds of a doctorate. The

Group facilitation elective in 2002 made it clear that a narrow focus within the wider field of

teacher development was possible and that adopting a case study approach to teacher

development was appropriate for doctoral research. Nevertheless, the process of adequately

narrowing down and fine-tuning the research topic had to wait a further three years until 2005

when I was able to identify an area of my practice which could be sufficiently delineated in

order to offer a clear focus and a potential for research.

2.6.1 Charting the move from teacher to teacher trainer

This focus and potential was a wish on my part to teach the two Methodology

Foundation courses offered by DEAL as mentioned in Chapter 1. At this point it is of

fundamental importance that I clarify not just the reasons for, but also the circumstances of,

my decision to teach these course types. My principal reasons stemmed from a keen interest,

and it must be admitted a nagging wish over many years, to teach English language teaching

methodology at tertiary level. Although I had already taught a course in business English

methodology on numerous occasions since 2001 at DEAL, and also for Budapest’s Municipal

Pedagogical Institute since 2000, I did not consider myself a teacher of methodology, that is a

teacher trainer. My work teaching the methodology of business English teaching was, I felt, a

natural outcome of my own experience of teaching business English in the public and private

sectors, and of my own ongoing interest in the business world, business English and the wider

field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). I had until then lacked the confidence to attempt

teaching a course in the methodology of English language teaching (ELT). As above, I did not

consider myself a teacher trainer (despite experience pointing to the contrary outlined in


section 2.4 above). This may, in part have stemmed from a DEAL departmental ruling

requiring staff to have five years’ experience in the department before they could observe and

assess the department’s trainee teachers during their teaching practice in school. I

misinterpreted this as also excluding me from teaching ELT methodology until these requisite

five years had passed.

As with many practitioners who work as teacher trainers, I self-selected myself to

teach methodology and to train future teachers (Kurtoglu Eken, 2012, p.7). Somewhat to my

surprise, I was able to teach the Methodology Foundation I course in spring 2005. Between

spring 2005 and spring 2008 I taught Methodology Foundation I and Methodology

Foundation II four times each. In addition, I continued to teach a Methodology Specialisation

course on the teaching of business English, as well as the more recently developed

Methodology Specialisation Tier- Focus on the teacher. The opportunity to lecture on ESP in

the autumn of 2007 added a further teaching experience.

Having taught the two Foundation courses I began to look upon myself as a teacher

trainer as well as a teacher. However, more importantly than this changed perception of self, I

was able to collect and record data on a new development within my own practice. Unlike the

data I had been collecting previously on courses and teaching I was already very familiar

with, the data gleaned from the Foundation courses, beginning in spring 2005, offered the

opportunity to gather data in, and on, uncharted waters. I could research my new role (given

the caveat that I was not wholly unfamiliar with the trainer role per se as the chronology of

my teaching exemplifies) as a teacher of ELT methodology and teacher trainer.


2.7 Conclusion

My teaching career to date has exposed me to a wide range of students in a variety of

teaching situations, teaching for a variety of purposes. Now having started the move into

teacher training I find myself very much in the role of the learner once again; learning that is

to teach teaching. This is an opportunity that I purposefully sought out, yet it is also one

which offers considerable chances to develop as a teacher, personally, and it must be said,

professinally. Chapter 3 will now review the literture on teacher development.

Chapter 3 – Literature review 22

Chapter 3

Literature review

3.1 Introduction

There are a variety of ways to develop as a teacher: Five will be discussed here:

language classroom research; collaborative development; action research; reflective practice;

and exploratory practice. However, before these are considered, the bulk of the review will be

devoted to teacher development, as indicated in Chapter 1.

Whether the situation is to be bemoaned or not, the teacher's lot is a lonely one

(Bailey, Curtis and Nunan, 2001, p.10). Once a classroom door is shut behind the teacher,

they are very much on their own: the focus of attention may, temporarily, be on other

elements and phenomena in the classroom, but the prime mover and arbiter of classroom

activity remains the classroom teacher. This role and responsibility of classroom teachers can

neither be removed nor abdicated without obviously and radically altering the reality of the

classroom. Teacher development is discussed here as a valuable way of ensuring that

classroom teachers have the means at their disposal to contemplate, reflect upon, understand

and where need be, change their practice for their own benefit and that of their students.

3.1.1 Teacher development, Action Research and Collaborative or Cooperative

Development

In terms of this thesis, teacher development is synonymous with neither action

research nor collaborative development. Action research is acknowledged as one type of


teacher development, albeit an influential one, exemplifying an approach to problem solving

in the classroom; collaborative or cooperative development meanwhile emphasises

collaborative/cooperative ventures. Influential titles in the field of action research (Allwright

and Bailey, 1991, Chaudron 2000 and Wallace, 1998) and those in that of collaborative/

cooperative development (Edge, 1992a and Burns, 1999) underline these preoccupations.

However, the prime focus of this thesis is on the development of an individual teacher and is

presented as a case study. In order to provide a background to the case that is to follow, it is

necessary to provide a review of the literature that has influenced the thinking and ideas

which have helped form this thesis, as well as offering a snapshot of the current state of the

field.

3.2 Teacher development

This section will deal with teacher development and explore the various terms

associated with development; some of which are used synonymously, some of which are used

inappropriately and some of which are used inaccurately. For this reason a number of terms

will be introduced in an attempt to find a working definition of teacher development for the

purposes of this thesis. In addition, the distinction between training and development will be

made and examined in some depth, including a treatment of the term education. The

examination begins with background information on the current state of teacher develoment,

in particular in the United Kingdom, a country where CPD has become all important across

both the public and private sectors (Boyd, 2005).

3.2.1 Development and the teacher: Background


For Cohen, Manion and Morrison (1996) 'education is… problematic and not

susceptible to simple recipes for success' (p. 37). As a result it becomes incumbent upon

students teachers, and I would contend, both 'recently and distantly qualified teachers' (p. 28)

'to nurture their own development …constantly aware of the shifting currents of debate and

practice, and becoming increasingly able to exercise autonomy, collegiality and professional

judgement' (p. 37).

Nicholls and Jarvis (2002) refer to the recent situation in the United Kingdom, where

there is to be found a 'rhetoric that teaching and research are of equal importance' (p. 1) and

consequently its government sought 'to create a better balance between teaching, research and

scholarship (…attainment and achievement) in higher education' (p. 1). This implies a need 'to

reconsider the role of the lecturer in teaching and learning, the changing 'nature of student

intake, curriculum and pedagogy, and the way they are affecting the way in which academics

have to function' (p.2). In addition, the British context reflects a heightened acceptance by

large swathes of society of the ongoing socio-economic swing towards consumerism and

entrepreneurism. As White, Hockley, van der Horst Jansen and Laughner (2008) point out

when discussing the management of English language teaching operations throughout the

world, there is now 'a focus on quality, efficiency, improved productivity, self-management,

accountability to stakeholders and an emphasis on service', which is all pervasive. It 'is a

feature of managerialism… in which codes of practice and the interests of the client are

prioritized' (p.5).

While this reflects the pressures facing the teaching profession in the United Kingdom

at all levels in terms of the relationship between the supplier and the consumer of educational

services this eventually will have an effect on the Hungarian teaching context at tertiary level.

The consequences may be the increased use of teacher development as a means of ensuring

quality control. However, examining recent examples from the United Kingdom can provide


assistance in contextualising potential types of teacher develoment activities which could

enhance the provision of teacher training and so ease the lot of trainee teachers and help

teachers make the transition to the role of teacher trainer.

When discussing innovations to initial teacher preparation in the UK, Cohen et al.

(1996), refer to the sea change which has meant that '[n]o longer do student teachers lead a

closeted existence in schools of education and colleges of higher education' (p. 20). Instead

they are required to spend periods of time in the classroom. Accompanying this practice is the

acquisition, and demonstration, of a number of specific competences. Such competencies

could prove useful as input into the teacher training courses described in Chapter 1. For

example, for newly qualified secondary school teachers in the United Kingdom, these are:

• subject knowledge;

• subject application;

• class management;

• assessment and recording of pupils' progress;

• further professional development. (pp. 21-22)

The inclusion of professional development, is clearly significant as far as initial

teacher preparation in the United Kingdom is concerned. As implied here the private

educational sector is also influenced by such developments, particularly the provision of

English lanaguage teacher training, as is shown by the likes of Spratt, Pulverness and

Williams (2005) as well as Thornbury and Watkins (2007a and 2007b). How this could be

included in the teacher training described here will be addressed in Chapters 6 to 9.

How, where and when these competences are to be demonstrated, and following

demonstration, what is the point at which a newly qualified teacher can be deemed to possess

them, lie outside the scope of this thesis. However, what is relevant for this thesis is the need


for teachers to be able to recognise such competences. In order for the 'extended professional'

' to do so, they have 'to be able develop the expertise through reflective practice' (Cohen et al.,

1996, p. 26). See below for a thorough discussion of reflective practice.

A sequence for developing the competences described above could be as follows:

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

DISCIPLINE

ASSESSMENT

TEACHING & LEARNING STYLES

CURRICULUM PLANNING

FURTHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Figure 2 A sequence for developing competences

What this sequence demonstrates is that for newly qualified teachers the pressing

concerns are related to survival in the classroom. Discipline is a significant element for all

new teachers, whether or not discipline is a real concern in their classrooms is frequently of

secondary importance. The sequence in Figure 2 is also a progression and reveals how

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teachers can move from primary concerns such as discipline, to such phases when they

become, for instance, more aware of their pupils as individuals, and so can take on more

responsibility in terms of curricular planning or working on assessment procedures, to a time

when they are more able to take stock of their own practice and so contemplate their own

professional development. Ironically, while such a system of initial preparation as described

here by Cohen et al. emphasises that professional development begins 'from the point of entry

to the course' (p.28), the sequence reveals that professional development 'may not be

uppermost in the mind of the novice student teacher' (p.28) as is indeed proven by my own

experience as will be discussed in Chapters 6 to 9.

3.2.2 Teacher development and teacher training

Although the terms 'teacher training' and 'teacher development' are often used

interchangeably, there would appear to exist a dichotomy between the two. Kennedy (1993),

for example, refers to 'the distinction between training and development' (p.162), describing

training 'as reflecting a view of teaching as a skill which has finite components which can be

learnt' (p.162). Development meanwhile 'focuses much more on the individual teacher's own

development of a 'theory' through personal reflection, examination and intelligent analysis'

(p.162).

Richards (1998) endeavours to differentiate between teacher development and what is

often construed as its polar opposite, training, and their different relationships to the wider

cast net of teacher education. Richards, Platt and Platt. (1992) consider teacher training and

teacher development to be two areas often subsumed within teacher education. For them

teacher education is 'the field of study which deals with the preparation and professional


development of teachers' (p. 374). Within this field they refer to a distinction sometimes made

between teacher training and teacher development:

Teacher training deals with the basic teaching skills and techniques, typically for novice teachers in a PRESERVICE EDUCATION programme. These skills include such dimensions of teaching as preparing lesson plans, classroom management, teaching the four skills (i.e. reading, writing, listening, speaking), and techniques for presenting and practising new teaching items, correcting errors, etc. Teacher development looks beyond initial training and deals with the on-going professional development of teachers, particularly in INSERVICE EDUCATION programmes. This includes a focus on teacher self-evaluation, investigation of different dimensions of teaching by the teacher (see ACTION RESEARCH), and examination of the teacher’s approach to teaching. (pp.374-375, capitals in the original)

As already mentioned, teacher development can also be referred to as continued

professional development or personal professional development. Both Balloch (2000) and

Curtis (2000) discuss the relevance and practicalities of professional development for

language teachers. The likes of Edge (1992b) and Underhill (1992) perhaps, therefore, use the

terms rather loosely, particularly that of development. Edge (1992b) refers to 'autonomous

development' (p.62) as well as stressing his more personal use of 'the term development to

mean self-development' (p.62). However, the use of the term differs somewhat from that of

Allwright (1999b) since Edge (1992b) stress that 'the purpose of development is action'

(p.64), whereas Allwright (1999a) sees a number of possible choices. Just as Gebhard and

Oprandy (1999), so Edge (1992b) makes clear that there is 'extra effort involved' (p. 70) in

such a developmental undertaking. Acknowledging the potential resistance to such effort,

there is the significant observation that 'professional maturity and cross-cultural sensitivity are

taking ELT worldwide beyond the idea of a best received method' (p. 70). As Barduhn (2002)

makes clear development of some form is becoming a given.

For Underhill (1992) 'teacher development takes many forms, has different meanings

in different contexts, operates from a variety of implicit and explicit beliefs and value bases


and is manifested in different forms of action' (p. 80). While this definition accords more with

Allwright (1999a) it also gets closer to the notions of exploratory practice put forward by

Gebhard and Oprandy (1999).

It is interesting to note the changes in how developemnt for teachers is perceived via

the definition supplied in Thornbury (2006) 14 years after that of Platt et al. For Thornbury:

Teacher development (TD) refers to the ongoing professional growth of teachers, particularly that which takes place after initial teacher training. TD may take the form of in-service training of a more formal kind, such as attendance on short or long courses, or at professional conferences. But it is more typically associated with informal, collegial and classroom-based programmes that incorporate cycles of classroom practice and reflection. These might include such activities as: a mentoring system, where more experienced teachers work alongside novice teachers, including taking part in team teaching • classroom observation, by peers, mentors or supervisors, plus feedback • keeping a teaching journal • action research • locally-based workshops and seminars • guided reading and discussion. (p. 224, italics and block in original)

Thornbury goes on to discuss how teacher development is frequently contrasted with

teacher training with 'the latter having more technical goals, such as the acquisition of basic

classroom skills and subject knowledge' whilst teacher development 'has a more 'whole

person' orientation, aimed at developing the teacher's capacity for self-directed growth and

educational well-being' (p. 225). However, as with Platt et al. both teacher training and

teacher development are subsumed within the larger notion of teacher education.

3.2.3 Potential misconceptions about teacher development

While the above concepts of teacher development are well-established in the literature,

for many teachers, and for many of their supervisors, managers and colleagues, teacher

development is still frequently equated with training. Moreover, given such perceived


equivalence of the two terms, development can be construed as synonymous with the use, or

more pertinently the misuse, of performance reviews, including the likes of classroom

observations, observation reports and student feedback questionnaires, as well as career

planning and counselling, including prospects for promotion, and even disciplinary and

dismissal procedures.

Unfortunately, teacher development is all too often done under the guise of quality

control, and then rarely for the benefit of the teacher involved, but rather for more visible and

thus public benefit of the school and its students. Interestingly, White, Martin, Stimson and

Hodge (1991) concern themselves with this perspective on teacher development (pp. 61 – 96).

Fortunately, other and more recent texts on ELT management offer approaches to

development which are less threatening. For Impey and Underhill (1995):

development is an attempt to widen the professional development of staff beyond the concept of in-service training into a very much more personal model in which all aspects of a person and their interaction with the working environment are included. The organization can facilitate this process by providing the necessary investment, support and conditions under which people can develop their potential to the full. (p.73)

White et al. (2008) see development as 'encouraging staff to constantly develop their

own professional goals and to enhance their skills and competencies as well as providing

access to learning and development opportunities' as a result development is 'a very valuable

way of increasing levels of personal mastery' (p.48).

In addition, teacher development may, falsely, be seen as receiving positive lesson

observation reports from institutional superiors and positive student feedback, as well as

keeping abreast of current developments in EFL/ESL, and the collecting of further (academic)

qualifications.


3.2.4 The personal nature of teacher development

Development, as Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) emphasise, is indeed personal, and can

be neither externally imposed nor undertaken with any lack of conviction. For Underhill

(1992) teacher development is a means of enabling teachers 'to move on rather than keep

repeating the same experience' (p.75). Moreover, teacher development is seen as a very

personal aspect of the individual teacher's roles, and being 'no different from personal

development...can only be self-initiated, self-directed, and self-evaluated. No one else can do

it for us…' (p.79).

Research findings which presume to offer insights pertinent to language classroom

practice have, stereotypically, come (and for many teachers do still come) from academe, and

classroom teachers were expected, until quite recently in many contexts (or still are in many

others) to accept, unquestioningly, such insights as sound educational practice. The

observation of Ramani (1987) that 'teachers often see themselves as 'practitioners' who have

little or nothing to do with theory' (p.3) would appear to support this. As Freeman (1998)

contends 'many people outside the classroom try to define what teaching should or shouldn’t

be' (p. 13). Bowen and Marks (1994) underscore this: '...if the only channels of enquiry into

professional development which teachers use lead away from them, towards outside

authorities of various kinds, the result can be an unnecessary and debilitating degree of

disempowerment' (p. 5, italics in the original). However, Widdowson (1984) advocates the

view that '[t]eachers are not consumers of research, but researchers in their own right' (p. 90)

and thus places such consumption as the antithesis of teacher development as proposed here.

Rather than just being consumers of research, teachers engaging in teacher development can

find themselves in situations where '[t]heory can be discovered and developed through

practice'’ (Bowen and Marks, 1994, p.15). By way of a summary Lampert (1985) puts

forward the view that the 'academician solves problems that are recognized in some universal


way as being important, whereas a teacher's problems arise because the state of affairs in the

classroom is not what she wants it to be' (p. 180). While this may be construed as devaluing

the role and relevance of teacher-initiated language classroom research, it does raise a number

of points, one of which is that of generalisability. As an important characteristic of research

per se, the notion of reliability is given more detailed treatment below. However, the

quotation can be interpreted as revealing some preconceived ideas regarding the value of

language classroom research, namely that it is small in scale and limited to some here-and-

now solvable problem concerning one individual teacher. Opposed to this, of course, is broad-

sweep, real academic research that naturally addresses problems of interest and concern to all.

This thesis, in part, sets out to show that such perceptions are misleading and by their nature,

essentially false.

The wealth of available literature about teachers researching their own lives and

activities, (Appel, 1995, Ashton-Warner, 1968, Borg, 2004, Bradley and Poór 1998, Elekes,

Magnuczné Godó, Szabó and Tóth, 1998, Goodson, 1992, Johnston, 1997 and Johnson and

Golombek, 2002), reveals that this situation no longer pertains universally and so displays a

confidence and fund of knowledge on the part of practising classroom teachers. Widdowson

(1984), while emphasising teaching's inherent contradictions, that is, '[n]o matter how

concerned teachers may be with the immediate practicalities of the classroom, their

techniques are based on some principle or other which is accountable to theory' (p.87), does

admit that there is the need for 'a recognition that what is at the heart of teaching is intellectual

enquiry and experimentation, operational research which uses various techniques to test out

principles explicitly spelled out' (p.88). This operational research and its various techniques

are now widely accessible via the literature, and it is no longer 'the teacher's role to apply

other people's models' (Edge, 2001, p.5). Examples of such research are studies such as Kiely

(1996) and Lamb (1995), both of which explore teacher development, whilst Tsai-Yu (2000)


examines development for teachers of English for Specific purposes in terms of their

acquiring subject specialist knowledge. A more recent example is provided by McGrath

(2006) who, in an article discussing the metaphors used by teachers, maintains that if teachers

are encouraged to investigate and undertake small-scale research it 'may be a spur to

professional self-development' (p.171) or 'trigger a new phase in self-development' (p.179) as

well as advancing intellectual enquiry and thus increasing the stock of knowledge on learning

and teaching.

Ironically, this stock of knowledge is all too frequently not introduced at what should

be the appropriate instances, that is during initial, pre-service teacher preparation. As section

3.1.1 makes clear, professional development does not loom large in the minds of qualifying or

newly qualified teachers since other more pressing concerns occupy their physical, emotional

and intellectual energies. Underhill (1992) refers to teacher training courses, 'where trainees

are often urged to move from an unconscious incompetence that they only dimly perceive,

direct to a conscious competence which is usually prescribed, [the] long-term consequences

[of which] can be disastrous' (p.78- 79).

Lamentably, standard texts on English as a foreign or second language (EFL/ESL)

teaching methodology (Doff, 1988a and 1988b, and Harmer 1991 and 1998, Hubbard, Jones,

Thornton and Wheeler 1983) tended not to mention teacher development at all or if they did

so, only via the likes of a cursory one page checklist of 'further suggestions' (Scrivener, 1994,

p.199). Ur (1996) was a salient exception for a general introductory text (pp.318-321).

Fortunately, the position has altered and recent editions of Harmer (2001), (2007a) (2007b)

and Scrivener (2005) have changed this situation, In addition other texts such as Lindsay and

Knight (2006) as well as Watkins (2005) devote a substantial amount of space to the

professional development of teachers, and this, most interestingly, with the needs of recently

qualified EFL and ESL teachers very much in mind.


A similar dearth existed, for example, within the methodology behind the teaching of

English for Specific purposes (ESP) and Business English (BE). The likes of Hutchinson and

Waters (1987) as well as Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) and Hewings and Nickerson

(1999) fail to allude to the role of teacher development: it is, indeed, ironic that Dudley-Evans

and St John (1998) have the word development in their title yet fail to make reference to

teacher development. More recent works, however, do so, and these include Donna (2000)

who attempts to answer the question. "What else can we do?" (pp.327-329) and Frendo

(2005), as well as studies such as that of Tsai-Yu (2000) as already mentioned.

3.2.5 Pre-service teacher training

There are various teacher training models described in the literature. Wallace (1991)

proposes three models: the craft (p.6), the applied science (p. 8) and the reflective (p. 12). The

craft model values 'the experiential aspect of professional development, but is essentially

static and imitative' (p.16). As the craft model has been unable to 'handle satisfactorily the

crucial element of the explosive growth of relevant scientific knowledge in recent times'

(p.16), it is left to the applied science model to do so. However, this model has caused a 'split

between research and professional practice' (p.16) leading to a tendency to downgrade

experiential knowledge at the cost of the promises made by an applied science model. The

reflective model, therefore, offers a compromise solution giving 'due weight both to

experience and to the scientific basis of the profession' (p.17). As a result, teacher education is

viewed as having two dimensions: the one comprised of elements of scientific research, and

the other relating to the ongoing experience of the teaching professional (p.17). Wallace refers

to these two dimensions as 'received' and 'experiential' knowledge respectively (pp.14–15).


Freeman and Richards (1993) refer to three conceptions of teaching: scientifically

based (p.195), theory and value-based (p.201) and art/craft (p.205). The former displays the

shortcoming of being 'deeply rooted in the view of teaching as a process which generates

learning as its product' (p.199). The second has 'a fundamental assumption about the social

nature of education' (p.205). The latter provides 'both the freedom to act and with it the

burden of needing to assess and to understand the consequences of those actions' (p.207).

Referring to Schön's (1983) idea of teachers as reflective practitioners Thornbury (2006

p.194) discusses other teacher development models. These include the 'theory-to-practice'

model where trainee teachers are provided with theory and then evaluated on how well they

are able to apply these theories during their teaching, or the 'apprenticeship' model where

trainees work with experienced teachers, and model their teaching on that of the more

experienced colleague, often referred to as mentors (cf. Malderez and Bodóczky, 1999).

Wallace (1991) points to the intellectual aspect of teacher education: 'people seldom

enter into professional training situations with blank minds and/or neutral attitudes' (p.50).

The literature, in reflecting this, stresses the change-inducing nature of teacher education:

change, which should be deep, substantial and significant. Kennedy (1987) refers to the need

for 'a strong cognitive component to such programmes, so that a change in materials or

methods does not simply operate at a surface level, but represents an increase in

understanding and knowledge' (p.169). Nunan (1989a) posits that 'adults value their own

experience as a resource for further learning and that they learn best when they have a

personal investment' (p.112). In using ' input from teachers themselves' a 'client-centred

approach to teacher development' (p.116) can be achieved, as also advocated by Lamb (1995).

The above paradigms often refer to teacher training and teacher development (see Ur,

1998, for a discussion of the differences and distinctions between the two). Such differences

and distinctions are useful in clarifying the respective characteristics of the two, namely:


'[p]re-set structure versus developmental process… [t]ransmission versus personal processing

of knowledge… [p]rofessional function versus whole person and [o]ne-off versus ongoing' for

teacher training and teacher development respectively (p.21). Wallace (1991) discusses the

same area concluding that 'training or education is something that can be presented or

managed by others; whereas development is something that can be done only by and for

oneself ' (p.3, italics in original).

Grenfell (1998) advocates the 'triangle of training' (p.37). This has craft knowledge at

its apex, a fusion of 'the development practice and tacit knowledge in situ', 'personal

(fundamental) educational theory' won via reflective practice at the bottom right-hand corner,

and, most importantly for the purpose of this literature review, 'educational (theory)

principles' acquired as a result of the teacher training course at the bottom left-hand corner.

This model thus clearly advocates the worth of formal teacher training:

CRAFT KNOWLEDGE

PERSONAL (FUNDAMENTAL)

EDUCATIONAL THEORY

EDUCATIONAL (THEORY) PRINCIPLES

Figure 3 Grenfell's (1998) 'triangle of training'


Training provides actual teaching experience and time for reflection and discussion as

a means of building up both tacit and individual fundamental educational knowledge, but it is

in supplying educational principles that the possibilities of explicit input of information is

most apparent. (p.38) As a result Grenfell's 'triangle of training' exemplifies the blurring of the

distinction between training and elements that could be viewed as developmental.

3.2.6 My understanding of teacher development

The motivations behind a commitment to teacher development are numerous. As Head

and Taylor, (1997) point out 'the teachers themselves decide what they are going to do... an

activity is not likely to be developmental unless it takes on a real personal value for the people

involved' (p. 6). Additionally, and following the notion that teachers need to learn as well as

teach, Underhill (1986) stresses the importance of 'keeping myself on the same side of the

learning fence as my students' (p.4). To support this Head and Taylor (1997) state that

'questions that motivates [such] teachers to go on learning come from the sense that they have

the potential within themselves to become better teachers through deepening their own

understanding and awareness of themselves and of their learners' (p.3). The suggestion by

McGrath (2006), when discussing research into the metaphors used by teachers, is that

'teachers should become students not only of their own metaphors but also those of their

students' (p. 173) reflects this.

On a more emotional level, teacher development can be useful in terms of recognising

where one is and what one can do to move on, or alter one's current circumstances. Just as

language learners often reach a learning plateau, the stage in their learning when they, and

their teachers oftentimes, perceive that no further progress is being made, so too do teachers.


Teachers and their teaching can become routinised, and though seemingly successful, not

necessarily effective for their learners or rewarding for themselves. Head and Taylor (1997)

emphasise this point in terms of there being 'a difference between feeling OK about being

where you are and being in a rut' (p.7).

Teacher development can take many forms, and the literature is replete with

suggestions. Examples such as Allwright and Bailey (1991), Brown and Rogers (2002),

Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000), Denscombe (2003), Freeman (1998), Hitchcock and

Hughes (1995), Nunan (1989b and 1992) as well as Robson (1993) offer a number of possible

ways of pursuing teacher development, as does the more recent work of Richards and Farrell

(2005). Of the research methods suggested by the above authors a number have already been

mentioned in Chapter 1 and they will reappear in Chapter 4 with more detailed consideration.

The choice of these methods is the result of a process of refining and fine-tuning that

has been taking place since the original idea to research my own development via my own

practice in my own classrooms was conceived during the third and four semesters of the

taught component of the ELTE PhD in language pedagogy as described in Chapter 1.

3.3 Teacher training and teacher development

Much confusion surrounds the terms teacher training and teacher development.

Teachers, teacher trainers and trainer trainers, as well as inspectors, assessors, observers and

administrator, and not least trainee teachers, have various interpretations and definitions,

some personal, some more academically founded, of the two terms. This section will attempt

to unpack the interpretations and definitions found in the literature in order to serve two

purposes:


• to compare and contrast the two concepts of teacher training and teacher development

in order to contribute to a better understanding of what each contributes to the

professionalism of the teacher;

• to emphasise that while they are in many ways distinct entities, serving different

purposes and often encountered under differing circumstances, they are, nevertheless,

not always so easily subject to clear delineation.

The two are closely associated with each other, or at the very least should be, and, as

this section seeks to clarify, no teacher can function fully without experiencing each of them,

regardless of to whichever of the two definitions they may personally subscribe.

In effect training and development form a continuum as illustrated below:

training development

Figure 4 The training – development continuum

3.4 Teacher training and teacher development: Historical perspectives

Although the terms 'teacher training' and 'teacher development' are often used

interchangeably, there would appear to exist a dichotomy between the two. Taking a historic

perspective Richards (2002) notes that during 'the early 1970s, learning to teach English as a

second language was a process of acquiring a body of knowledge and skills from an external

source, i.e. from experts'. Such a top-down approach placed great emphasis on demonstrations

of good practice 'built around a standard or recognized teaching method'. This meant that to


become a teacher of language entailed the acquisition of 'a set of discrete skills - lesson

planning, techniques for presenting and practicing new teaching points and for teaching the

four skills'. As a consequence, the courses offered to graduates of the time 'consisted of a

limited diet of theory courses, mainly confined to linguistics (syntax, morphology, semantics),

phonetics, English grammar and sometimes literature, plus the study of methodology' (p.27).

However, over the last three or so decades 'a sub-field of language teaching has

emerged now known as second language teacher education' (p.28). The practical

exemplification of which can be seen in the theories and practices of teacher development for

language teachers as discussed by the likes of Gebhard and Oprandy (1999), Bailey et al.

(2001) or more recently Richards and Farrel (2005).

During this same period there has grown up 'a substantial industry devoted to

providing language teachers with professional training and qualifications' (Richards, 2002,

p.28). Grenfell (1998), for example, discusses this in great detail in terms of the experience of

preparing teachers for state educational institutions in England and Wales. Moreover, even a

cursory examination of the literature reveals the international scale of the proliferation of such

training and qualifications: the conference proceedings of IATEFL conferences (Beaven,

2005, pp.170–171 and 2006, pp.157-161) are good illustrations of the international scope of,

and interest in, the discussion.

Both Grenfell (1998) and Richards (2002) refer to the shift in emphasis and

understanding of what is meant by the (initial) preparation of language teachers. Both

describe how teacher training, and as a result language learning, was once dominated by

discrete and prescriptive lists of knowledge and skills to be mastered and put into subsequent

practice. However, more recently the notion of the development of the teacher has gained

wide credence and won for itself a more central role (Richards, 1998).


Nevertheless, opinions remain doggedly divided in regard to what constitutes the

essential knowledge base for language teachers. Richards (2002) refers to a number of

questions, the answers to which remain contested:

• Is language teaching a branch of applied linguistics or a branch of education?

• How much linguistics do teachers need to know and whose linguistic theories are most

relevant?

• What are the essential subjects in a pre-service or in-service curriculum for language

teachers?

• Do teachers need to know how to carry out research? If so, what kind of research? (p.

28)

Due to these dogged differences of opinion, the 'professionalisation' (Grenfell, 1998, p.

43) of teachers varies considerably from country to country or even from institution to

institution within a country (Richards, 2002, p.28).

3.5 Teacher training and teacher development: Examining the differences

According to Richards (2002) training can involve such processes as:

• understanding basic concepts and principles as a prerequisite for applying them to

teaching;

• expanding one’s repertoire of routines, skills and strategies;

• trying out new strategies in the classroom;

• monitoring oneself and getting feedback from others on one’s practice. (p.28)


Teacher development meanwhile can be seen to serve longer-term goals in terms of

seeking 'to facilitate growth of the teacher's general understanding of teaching and of himself

or herself as a teacher. It often involves examining different dimensions of one's s own

practice as a basis for reflective review, and can hence be seen as "bottom-up" ' (p.29).

By way of exemplification, the following could serve as developmental goals for

teachers:

• understanding how the process of second language development occurs;

• understanding the kinds of decision-making that occurs during lessons;

• reviewing one's own theories and principles of language teaching;

• developing an understanding of different styles of teaching;

• determining learners' perceptions of classroom activities;

• acquiring the skills of a mentor. (p.29)

It is interesting to note that the use of words such as 'understanding', 'reviewing',

'developing', 'determining' and 'acquiring' sit well with the underpinning philosophies,

theories and practical applications of teacher development as manifested in the likes of

Allwright (1999b), Fanselow (1987) and Malderez and Bodóczky, (1999) to name but a very

small number of the authors writing in the field.

Comparing the two Freeman (1982) pointed out that '[t]raining deals with building

specific teaching skills: how to sequence a lesson or how to teach a dialogue…' whilst

development 'focuses on the individual teacher - on the process of reflection, examination,

and change which can lead to doing a better job and to personal growth and professional

growth'. A result of such a dichotomy, '[t]raining assumes that teaching is a finite skill, one


which can be acquired and mastered', thus implying that the ' teacher… learns to teach in the

same way s/he learned to tie shoes or to ride a bicycle'. Development meanwhile views

teaching as (p.232). a constantly evolving process of growth and change…', that is as 'an

expansion of skills and understanding, … in which the teacher is responsible for the process

in much the same way students are for learning a language' (pp.21-22).

Kennedy (1993), echoes this, describing training 'as reflecting a view of teaching as a

skill which has finite components which can be learnt', whereas development 'focuses much

more on the individual teacher's own development of a 'theory' through personal reflection,

examination and intelligent analysis' (p.162). Richards (1998) differentiates clearly between

teacher development and what is often construed as its polar opposite, training, and their

different relationships to the wider cast net of teacher education.

3.6 Teacher training and teacher development: Definitions

Some current views of teacher training seek to decry it as an unthinking, mechanistic

enterprise. While clearly not doing so herself, Ur (1996) illustrates why such an attitude may

be so prevalent: ''training' has a specific goal: it prepares for a particular function or

profession' (p.3). By implication it would appear to lack the broad sweep and rounded features

of (an) education. As Ur goes on to say 'we normally refer to 'an educated person', but 'a

trained scientist/engineer/nurse'' (p.3) and thus tied to function and/or profession. Training

then is clearly necessary for a variety of professional occupations; however, equally clearly it

is not a sufficient enough basis in its own rights, neither in the short nor in the long term. The

professions mentioned by Ur are generally accepted to be ones of which some form of further

or continued knowledge acquisition is expected, purely by virtue of being a scientist, an

engineer, or a nurse. Teachers as a profession can join such a list. While we should avoid

getting stuck in the morass of technical terminology and jargon, it is important to distinguish


the basic features of the two terms, even if we later agree that there are areas of overlap and

crossover. Ignorance of their individual characteristics will make it all the more difficult to

identify them in those situations (when they appear to) merge.

As we have already seen, numerous authors consider teacher training and teacher

development to be two areas which are subsumed within the broader rubric of teacher

education, for example Grenfell (1998), Richards al. (1992) and Thornbury (2006). Section

3.1.2 provided detailed examination of this.

Woodward (2004) concedes that '[t]he phrase "Teacher Training" has come, in some

people's eyes, to carry associations of unthinking and rather mechanistic work with pre-

service teachers'. However, the point is also made that teacher training 'is no longer

universally understood to include teacher education, mentoring and professional development'

(p.2).

However, not all authors subscribe to this view: Ur (1996) is one such dissenting

voice. While there is recognition of the fact that the interchangeable use of the terms 'teacher

training' and 'teacher education' to refer to the same thing, that is to 'the professional

preparation of teachers', is inappropriate, 'training' is nevertheless seen as 'the process of

preparation for professional teaching, including all aspects of teacher development'. On the

other hand, 'education' is seen as 'the more varied and general learning that leads to the

development of all aspects of the individual as a member of society' (p.3). Similarly, Ur

(1998) discusses the apparent differences and distinctions between the two, before positing

the artificiality of such and advocating a synthesis more appropriate to the needs of current

practice.

In spite of the need to accommodate such opposing views, it is without the scope of

this thesis to discuss the broader issue of education for all society's members per se. We shall,


perforce, limit ourselves to teacher training and teacher development within the field of

English language teaching, and learning where relevant.

Although referring to job training in the context of vocational education rather than to

teacher training, Duke (1990) does make an illuminating comment regarding his

understanding of training as a focus 'on a specific set of skills necessary to perform a

particular set of functions'. As a result, training thus defined has no place in education per se

(pp.198–199). However, still referring to training in the same context he goes onto emphasise

that 'training need not reduce an individual's options. A certain part of every student's

education must involve training' (p.199). Such a seeming contradiction serves to highlight the

role of training, and, by extension, development in the general education of those who wish to

become teachers. Despite protestations to the contrary the distinction between the two is far

from clear, with each displaying elements of the other depending on the circumstances.

In very rough and ready terms, two characteristics of teacher training seem to emerge

from these definitions. Teacher training is generally:

• oriented towards the acquisition of subject knowledge and teaching skills and

techniques;

• experienced prior to formal classroom teaching.

That is an extension of the winning and mastery of the techniques and knowledge

required to meet the experience of real-time teaching, and thus indispensable to survival in the

classroom. Such treatment of development as a mere add-on to (initial) teacher training is

fully misplaced.

On a more salutary note, Senior (2006), writing about the experience of Australian

private sector teacher training, draws our attention to the pivotal role of motivation. The

importance of the individual teacher's motivation in regard to how they perceive their own


professionalism be it in terms of (initial) training and any subsequent professional

development is made vividly clear:

[i]n view of the fickle nature of the profession and the relative lack of career paths, it is not surprising that many teachers are not particularly interested in working towards achieving a high level of professionalism. After all, there are plenty of jobs to be had and, in the words of a contributor at a language teaching conference, 'Casually employed teachers tend to teach casually. (p.59)

This then is a most salutary warning, if ever one were needed, against the adoption of

too rose-tinted a view of teacher training, teacher development and teacher professionalism.

3.6.1 In-service teacher training (INSETT)

Teacher training strives to address a wide range of issues, such as teaching and

learning situations, and the roles of teachers. However, the investigations of Lamb (1995) into

the long-term effectiveness of in-service teacher training courses once the glow of 'the

positive evaluations' (p.72) is gone, suggest that 'what the tutors had said was not necessarily

what the participants had heard, or remembered later' (p.73). The cause of this phenomenon

rests with the 'mental parameters' (p.73) (italics in original) within which teachers

conceptualize their own teaching and learning processes, one result of which is the way

teachers interpret the ideas taught. The presentation of ideas on the course by the course

leaders, that is what is referred to as 'research theory' (p.73), did not always accord with those

of the 'individual teacher's theory' (p.73). What such courses may lack is a tangible connection

between the content presented and teachers' own experience: 'participants needed to see… or

even experience… the practical manifestation of many ideas before they could fully

understand, and so accept them' (p.74). The ' 'Jet-In, Jet-Out Expert' ' (Alderson and Scott,

1992, p.300) or 'a FIFO (a Fly In Fly Out trainer) (Woodward, 2004, p.2) can frequently

assume that trainees are empty vessels or be unaware of their true pedagogic needs and thus


have no lasting effect or influence on the subsequent teaching and pedagogic behaviour of the

course participants they worked with. Woodward therefore advocates that '[w]e thus have to

think about how people actually learn teaching and thus what core tasks we are involved in'

(p.3).

Practising teachers would, therefore, be able to attend an in-service course, enjoy the

social and learning environment, and then leave with their own conceptions, views and

practices unchanged. Ramani (1987) attributes this to the fact that 'in-service teachers, who,

given the constraints they work within, are the least inclined to look at 'theory' ' (p.8).

Ignoring the teachers' contribution means that 'contradictory approaches may

temporarily co-exist in a teacher's classroom routine' (Lamb, 1995, p.78) following a training

course, or that 'what was taken up was reinterpreted by teachers to fit their own beliefs and

their own concerns about what was important to them and their students' (pp.78-79).

Essentially the 'focus of the short INSET course, where experienced teachers already have

well-developed mental constructs of teaching, should be the teachers' beliefs themselves'

(p.78). Moreover, awareness-raising activities offer the possibility for 'participants [to]

confront their own routine practice and the values it is intended to serve' (p.79). That is 'it

should be the participants themselves who, on the basis of this expanded awareness of their

own practice, determine the specific areas of their teaching they wish to develop and to

formulate their own agenda for change in the classroom' (p.79).

Therefore, a teacher training 'course could serve not only as an intense learning

experience in itself, but could also enhance the learning value of all the many occasions when

teachers are exposed to new ideas – in the classroom, at conferences, during staffroom

conversations, and when reading journals' (p.79). Such training should not be looked upon as

a quick fix or an entertaining interlude, but as a springboard. Significantly for trainers a

'course which is seriously concerned with long-term change in teachers' practice will have to


take these beliefs into account' (p.72). As Freeman (1982) emphasises development 'speaks to

broader, long-term concerns: how a teacher can be encouraged to grow, to explore new

avenues and ideas, and, thereby, to avoid professional atrophy or the feeling that one has done

it all before' (p.22).

For Gebhard (1996) such development in the guise of INSETT is all about teachers

taking responsibility for their own teaching (p.14). In essence, this means development refers

to self-development (Edge, 1992b, p.62). As Gebhard (1996) and Gebhard and Oprandy

(1999) suggest this involves systematic reflection through such means as 'self-observation,

observing others, keeping a teaching journal and engaging others in talk about teaching'

(Gebhard, 1996, p.14).

However, before INSETT can become development trainers must themselves be aware

of what Freeman (1982) refers to as 'The integration of approaches: A hierarchy of needs'

(p.26). This posits an implicit hierarchy responsive 'to the differing needs of the teacher as

s/he moves from training to development'.

As should be clear from the above discussion of the PRESETT scenario, for a

beginner teacher the question of 'What do I teach?' is of crucial importance. However, for the

trainer, and the trainee, this question is easily answered by reference to course books, syllabi

and curricula. Yet just as the teacher gets answers to this their primary question, they begin to

ask themselves another question: "How do I teach what I teach?". This question, though

clearly more involved with the first, still belongs to the PRESETT scenario and concrete

answers can be provided, again by the trainer, or it is hoped the trainee. However, the third

question which follows subsequent practice: "Why do I teach what I teach, and why do I teach

it the way I do?" (p.27) is one more suited to teacher development in an INSETT context:

there is no one clear-cut answer. It is significant for the purposes of this thesis, that just as the


concerns of the trainee change over time, and as a result of experience won via practice, so do

those of the trainer.

Thus does Freeman (1982) describe the teacher trainer as offering a 'Supervisory

Approach' in order to answer the first question, an 'Alternatives Approach' for the second, and

a 'Non-Directive Approach' for the third (pp.26-27). The trainer clearly needs to work in

different ways depending on the different (developmental) stages of the trainee:

The role of authority or arbitrator found in the Supervisory Approach may no longer be fruitful. Instead, the trainer/observer can become a resource, a provider of alternative perspectives. Working in this way, the observer broadens the choices open to the teacher. As the teacher explores these alternatives, individual criteria start to develop and eventually the teacher begins to set his/her own goals. The choices raised by the Alternatives Approach lead to a third question.… [to which there is no one answer]. At this third stage, then, the trainer/developer can assume a supportive role in the developmental process. Through the Non-Directive Approach, the observer can help the teacher to clarify the significance of the teacher’s own experience in the light of his/her own goals. (pp.26–27) Teacher development, and here for present purposes it is the trainer to whom reference

is made, can thus be characterised as a long-term undertaking: the means cited above do not

lend themselves to yielding instant results. This may well differ from the likes of action

research (Burns, 1999) where problem identification and the supplying of a solution or

solutions occur more quickly. Teacher development thus implies a commitment and

concomitant burden of time on the part of teachers wishing to self-develop.

Such development may well mean novice (but not exclusively) teachers going through

the chronology of classroom experience. In concrete terms, this could imply a gradual

reduction in their dependence on the techniques learnt from pre-service programmes, on

course books or on supervisors, as well as overcoming the daily drama of surviving the

classroom, as described by Freeman (1982) above. Reference has already been made to the

description by Cohen et al (1996) of a similar process for newly qualified primary and


secondary teachers (pp.20-29), referring specifically to a 'sequence for developing

competences' (p.27). Moving on from these concerns to considerations of how students learn

and how teaching influences this learning process reveals the pivotal importance of teachers

making informed decisions inside the classroom. Such decision making when added to the

already considerable burden borne by most practising teachers is clearly time-consuming.

This implies a clear commitment on the part of the teacher, be they a novice or a more

experienced teacher. This is illustrated by Johnson and Golombek (2002) who provide a

collection of highly personalised teacher narratives and so reveal the teachers′ own ways of

understanding and knowing to a wider teacher audience.

Action research can reflect a problem solving approach to classroom activities

(McKernan, 1996, p.32); and in a similar way development can bring about change or solve

perceived problems, but unlike action research the intention is not to find instant solutions or

bring about immediate change. Development is a longer, potentially more incremental

process, the end of which may well not be in sight at the beginning of the undertaking. A

related issue could be that of development based not on such outcomes as in action research,

but undertaken purely for the sake of curiosity, purely out of interest in seeing what happens.

Fanselow (1987) discusses this notion in considerable depth.

Development can be a process of review and recycling. Teachers return to the basics

and review, revise and recycle knowledge and practice with a possible view to doing things

differently in the future. Furthermore, undertaking to self-develop implies that teachers

actively seek out opportunities and circumstances to do so. By returning to basic or first

principles in different conditions teachers pursue self-development in new environments

thereby potentially offering up new opportunities.


3.7 Language classroom research

Allwright and Bailey (1991) offer the view that classroom research, or '[c]lassroom-

centred research is just what it says it is – research centred on the classroom' (p.2, italics in

the original). Echoing Edge (1992b) and Gebhard and Oprandy (1999), Field (1997, p.192)

warns that '[c]lassroom research in ELT is not a hobby: it is a professional imperative'.

Moreover, it is only by undertaking classroom research that teachers will be able to extend

their knowledge of the impact of their teaching on the learning processes of their students. In

examining our everyday practice we may have findings of general application or specific to a

particular course, group or individual. Moreover, deciding to embark upon a classroom

research project as a form of teacher development militates against the sense of

disempowerment referred to previously by Bowen and Marks (1994). As argued by Head and

Taylor (1997) 'teachers need to convince both themselves and others that they are doing a job

which is valued, and that they can take control of the direction of their own development'

(p.8).

Language classroom research offers the teacher a variety of choices. Such research can

serve as a means for teachers to contemplate their work in terms of reflective practice, seek an

understanding of what they do, that is exploratory practice, or bring about change as in action

research. According to Chaudron (2000) teaching practitioners who have adopted language

classroom research have 'dramatically expanded the scope of their research to address critical

areas of practices and problems in language acquisition and use in classrooms' (p. 1).

For Allwright (1999b) contemplation, as opposed to action, may lead to an

understanding of a situation which proves useful for possible further action thus providing

teachers with contemplation for understanding (p.4). While action can be taken to implement

change, however, it also can be undertaken in order to gain a deeper understanding of a

phenomenon, an understanding that contemplation (and its complement, discussion) alone


may not yield, this is action for understanding (pp.4–5). Action for change results from action

for understanding, and implies the making of some form of change. Alternatively such

understanding may dictate that the action for change be that no change is necessary (p.5).

Underhill (1992) refers to 'the disparity between the effect I think I am having and the

effect I am actually having, so building an increasingly accurate understanding of how my

practice is, and of the effects of my practice on other people' (p.74). In order to examine such

a disparity mention is made of the need to explore 'my actions, my behaviours, my teaching

techniques and procedures, my attitudes, the psychological atmosphere I create, and the

totality of the effects of all these on people whose learning I am trying to facilitate' (p.74).

Allwright (1999b) uses 'teacher development' (p.2) in a broad sense, yet operates the

caveat that teacher development, training and education are conceptual notions rather than

direct correlates to real-world experience. The all encompassing nature of development, as

alluding to the (non-technical sense of) 'acquisition of practical skills', 'knowledge' and

'understanding' (p.2), reveals that training, education and development cannot be fully

delineated from each other: they border on and impinge upon each other in mutually

beneficial ways.

The following sections discuss three possible approaches to language classroom

research: action research; reflective practice; and exploratory practice.

3.8 Action research

Action research, as its name would imply, concerns itself with taking action. Nunan

(1989b) refers to it as a form of 'teacher-research… distinguished from other forms of

research by its practical focus. Teacher-research should grow out of the problems and issues

which confront teachers in their daily work' (pp.15-16). Wallace (1998) stresses 'the


systematic collection and analysis of data relating to the improvement of some aspect of

professional practice' (p.1). Field (1997) considers action research as 'a small-scale

investigation undertaken by a class teacher' (p.192). It is significant that the broad scope of

the definition includes references to both reflection and understanding:

a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social (including educational) situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social and educational practices, their understanding of those practices, and the situations in which the practices are carried out. (p.192)

Warning of the dangers inherent in a narrow and strict definition of an action research

cycle, namely that it 'be addressed to practical problems and should have practical outcomes'

(Wallace, 1991, p.56), Field proffers alternative names such as 'teacher-led research' or

'classroom research'. Edge (1999) sensibly draws our attention to the fact that '[o]ne of the

wonders of action research is that it can help you realise that some of your so-called problems

are not problems at all, not in the sense that they have potential solutions' (p.7). This real-

world potentiality may best be suited to reflective or exploratory practice than to action

research (see Allwright 1999b). Cajkler (1997) refers to an 'action research cycle involving

discrete stages of reflection, experimentation and evaluation' (p.8) somewhat reminiscent of

the exploratory cycle as detailed below.

An aspect of action research stressed by Kemmis and McTaggart (1982) points to its

being unsuitable for the purposes of the research proposed here is the:

importance of the group in action research cannot be overemphasised. Activities where an individual goes through cycles of planning, action, observation and reflection cannot be regarded as action research. Action research is not individualistic. To lapse into individualism is to destroy the critical dynamic of the group and to risk falling victim to the fallacious liberal notion that all educational practices and values which they purport to realise are equally defensible. ( p.15)

Given the circumstances in which I work, it has not been feasible to engage in group

action research. As result, the review will now consider reflective practice and exploratory


practice and examine the opportunities they offer for more individual research work.

However, it should not be assumed that action research is the preserve of groups rather than

individual teachers. Unlike Burns (1999) and Edge (1992a) the collaborative nature of some

action research is not overemphasised by Thornbury's (2006) definition:

Action research is a form of teacher-driven research, the twin goals of which are to improve classroom practice and, and to 'empower teachers', ie, to give them greater control over their working lives. Action research is typically motivated less by the desire to answer the 'big' questions (such as How do people learn?) than by the need to solve a specific teaching problem in the local context. (Why are my learners having difficulty with this kind of activity?). It involves cycles of action and reflection. Having identified a problem, the teacher, either alone, or in collaboration with colleagues, follows an experiential learning cycle of planning ð acting ð observing ð reflecting, which in turn leads to another research cycle. (p.3, italics, bold and arrows in original)

3.9 Reflective practice

Kullman (1998) regards reflective practice as today's 'most widely promoted model in

English Language Teacher Education and Development' (p.471). Indeed, referring to the roles

and responsibilities of mentors, Cohen et al. (1996) consider them to have responsibility for

the professional development of their mentee since it is the mentor who 'has a significant role

to play in the student teacher's development as a reflective practitioner' (p.30). In addition,

Cohen et al. refer to the 'responsibility upon student teachers to nurture their own

development as reflective practitioners, constantly aware of the shifting current of debate and

practice, and becoming increasingly able to exercise autonomy, collegiality and professional

judgement in schools' (p.37). For Allwright (1999b) the central idea of reflective practice, 'the

real-world exemplar of contemplation for understanding' (p.7), is that teaching is a cerebral as

well as an active profession (see also Gebhard and Oprandy, 1999, xi). Richards (1998) sees

reflection, indeed critical reflection, as 'an activity or process in which an experience is


recalled, considered, and evaluated, usually in relation to a broader purpose' (p. 21). Bartlett

(1990) goes further maintaining that critical reflection implies that teachers:

transcend the technicalities of teaching and think beyond the need to improve [their] instructional techniques. This effectively means [they] have to move away from the how to questions, which have a limited utilitarian value, to the what and why questions, which regard instructional and managerial techniques not as ends in themselves but as part of broader educational purposes. ( p.205, italics in the original)

Bowen and Marks (1994) put it slightly differently but share the basic sentiment,

namely that the 'the focus on the how rather than the which, and on looking at the people in

the classroom, is an expression of an interest in the process which goes on within and

between the participants in a lesson', and moreover that 'the teacher is working in accordance

with some personal knowledge of 'what to do' in a particular context… depending crucially on

the teacher's awareness of that context, not as a 'setting for implementation', but as a

'framework for knowing' (pp.14-15). For Thornbury (2006) reflection implies thinking back

on one's teaching 'in order to understand it better, and to take steps to improve it' (p.194).

However, it 'involves more than simply remembering. It means being able to think critically

about experience, identify problems, and to 're-frame' these problems, ie, to consider them in

a new light, in order to identify possible solutions, and to formulate these as a plan of action'

(p.194). Thornbury refers to the claim that 'self-directed reflection is a characteristic of

professional expertise' (p.194). Whilst this is touched upon elsewhere in this chapter, see Tsui

(2003) for a thorough treatment of the field.

Richards and Nunan (1990) point out 'that experience alone is insufficient for

professional growth, and that experience coupled with reflection is a much more powerful

impetus for development' (p. 201). Richards and Lockhart (1996) emphasise that:

teachers develop routines and strategies for handling the recurring dimensions of teaching. However, research suggests that for many experienced teachers classroom


routines and strategies are applied almost automatically and do not involve much conscious thought or reflection. Experience is the starting point for teacher development, but in order for experience to play a productive role, it is necessary to examine such experience systematically. (p. 4)

Teacher education, used in a broad, non-technical sense, has two principle components

according to Wallace (1991): 'received knowledge' and 'experiential knowledge' (p.17). The

former refers to knowledge won via scholarly and scientific work, the latter to practising

teachers' ongoing experience. However, this experience amounts to nothing if it is not

supplemented by the 'critical examination of our motivation, thinking and practice' (Bailey et

al., 2001, p.39). Such examination (reflection) can be immediate and automatic (p.41) of the

'reflection-in-action' type (Schön, 1983), or it can be long- term and ongoing in nature, more

akin to 'reflection-on-action' type (Schön, 1983) 'informed by public academic theories'

(Bailey et al., 2001, p.42). However, as I endeavour to show, the theories need not be

informed by the academic debate alone; classroom teachers have contributions to make

(Allwright and Bailey, 1991).

However, as Schön (1987) stresses there are two ways to viewing professional

knowledge:

If we see professional knowledge in terms of facts, rules, and procedures applied nonproblematically to instrumental problems, we will see the practicum in its entirety as a form of technical training ….If we focus on the kinds of reflection in action through which practitioners sometimes make new sense of uncertain, unique or conflicted situations, then we will assume neither that existing professional knowledge fits every case nor that every problem has a right answer. (p.39)

The type of teacher we are and the type of teacher we can become depends on which of these

two attitudes we adopt.


3.10 Exploratory practice

Fanselow (1977) talks of 'conceptualizing and describing the teaching act' (p.17) as a

way of revealing its essence. However, 'contradictory and equivocal accounts and

interpretations of an event... ' (p. 18) may well result. How is this dilemma to be overcome?

Exploratory research may offer ways of reconciling this dilemma and providing an answer.

Exploratory practice seeks to avoid teachers being trapped in contemplation (reflective

practice) or leaping headlong from the identification of a (potential) problem to its (potential)

solution (action research). This means that understanding per se can be seen as sufficient:

there is no compulsion to act as a result of achieving understanding. For Allwright (1999b)

reflective practice, exploratory practice and action research can all bring about change.

However, whereas only reflective and exploratory practice can lead to an understanding of a

situation, action research merely formulates a proposal for change, and where circumstances

allow, implements such change. Furthermore, exploratory practice is different from reflective

practice in that it requires the collection of data. Exploratory practice therefore lends itself to

the purposes of the research proposed here.

For Gebhard (1996) teacher exploration, that is exploratory practice, can be presented

as a four-stage cycle:

• collection of teaching samples

• the analysis of these samples

• the appraisal of the teaching in the samples

• the decisions on any changes in teaching behaviour (p. 22).


THE ANALYSIS OF THESE SAMPLES

THE APPRAISAL

OF THE TEACHING IN THE SAMPLES

THE DECISIONS

ON ANY CHANGES IN TEACHING

BEHAVIOUR

THE

COLLECTION OF TEACHING SAMPLES

Figure 5 Gebhard's (1996) The four-stage cycle of exploratory practice

Using this cycle, teacher development activities can involve the likes of peer

observation, writing a teaching diary or talking about teaching with other teachers. All these

activities can be placed within the exploratory cycle depicted above and have been chosen

here because they lend themselves to use by practising teachers. Importantly, unlike action

research, exploratory practice is considerably less intrusive.

Allwright (1999b) sees exploratory practice as:

the deliberate exploitation of standard classroom language learning and teaching activities as the means for collecting data on what happens in the classroom, preferably making at the same time a direct contribution to the learning, and all for the explicit purpose of developing understanding of what is happening in the classroom. ( pp.6-7, italics in original)


The approaches of Gebhard (1996) and Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) for raising

language teaching awareness are non-parasitic in nature and clearly 'out of the morbid shadow

of the theory/application discourses' (Edge, 1999, p.7) common to much academic research as

criticised by Allwright (2003).

Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) perceive their approach as one of 'simply gaining

awareness of teaching beliefs and practices' (xiv). In doing this they propose that description

supplant prescription, that attention needs to be paid to the language and behaviours used to

describe teaching, that ways be found to transcend conventional understanding of teaching,

and that connections be established between teachers’ personal and professional lives (xv-

xvi). They likewise suggest that awareness is reached once 'teachers are provided with even

more opportunity to develop [that is] when they process teaching through multiple activities,

especially if given chances to relate the experience of one activity to that of another' (p.28).

3.11 Conclusion

Teacher development therefore is a long term, personal commitment to bringing about

change. It can be engaged in using a variety of means, none of which can claim universal

approapriacy and relevance. It would be wrong to necessarily equate change only to change in

a concrete sense; change can also mean a change in one's understanding of a certain situation.

or coming to terms with a classroom phenomenon. Teacher development which makes use of

exploratory practice can achieve such understanding by collecting data on the situation that is

to be examined using research methods which are similar if not identical to everyday

classroom activities, they are therefore considerably less intrusive and parasitic than other

research methods. It is for this reason that exploratory practice was chosen as the means of

collecting the data. Chapter 4 now considers the reseach design and method.

Chapter 4 – Research design and method 60

Chapter 4

Research design and method

4.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to describe how the research was designed and how the

study was conducted. Within predominantly quantitative research paradigms, the

conventional, and chief, aim of such sections is to establish the reliability and validity of the

study described; however, here, working within the qualitative research paradigm, the

intention is to establish the credibility of the study. To this end, I shall endeavour to 'show my

workings' (Holliday, 2002, p.23).

This chapter will, therefore, reconsider the research aims of the study before moving

on to examine closely how the research was designed. The description of the research method,

as is usually the case, aims to allow the reader to follow the methodological procedures

undertaken in order, if desired, to replicate the study described here. This description includes

detailed consideration of the tools used as well as dwelling on significant methodological

considerations pertinent to the research endeavour. The data collection procedures are given

careful and thorough consideration. This chapter also includes a description of the data

sources providing further and more detailed consideration

4.2 Research aims

The aim of the research described here is to chart my own development as a classroom

practitioner. While being characterised as a long-term undertaking, teacher development can


also be viewed as a very practical short-term phenomenon. By this I mean that the steps

consciously, or unconsciously, taken by classroom practitioners are oftentimes short ones, yet

if taken frequently they can add up to significant instances which have a clear and

considerable long-term effect. In order to do this I shall chart my own move from being a

teacher to becoming a teacher trainer. What do I want to find out? In essence I want to find

out what is happening in the classrooms where I teach and how such findings can help me,

and others, to become the best possible teachers we can be (Underhill, 1986).

Development can be characterised as a long-term undertaking, for this reason the case

study approach and the resulting research described here will examine a relatively long period

of three and a half year with the data from the classes described in Chapter 1.

As set out in Chapter 1 the research provides for an examination of an instance of

teacher development for the purposes of:

• achieving a better understanding of what teacher development means for the

classroom practitioner conducting the research, including a greater understanding of

the trainee participants;

• sharing the findings with fellow practitioners in the wider professional community;

• validating the case study approach as one means of professional teacher development.


Figure 6 The three ways of examining teacher development

The fact that my area of investigation is my own practice, that is myself in my own

classrooms with my own students, and that the means of conducting the enquiry do not

include the use of statistical tools, I am adopting the naturalistic paradigm, taking the case

study as my approach.

The research questions driving the study are as follows:

Table 2 Research question 1

Research Question 1 (RQ1): How should the teacher trainer share their own teaching

experience and expertise in the delivery of a methodology course?

UNDERSTANDING SHARING FINDINGS

VALIDATING THE CASE

STUDY APPROACH


Sub-questions:

1i How far should the teacher trainer feel obliged to do this?

1ii How can the teacher trainer avoid the temptation to lead trainees down their own

preferred methodological path?


Research Question 2 (RQ2): Trainees on methodology courses often comment that

they have no teaching experience. What does having ‘no teaching experience’ mean?

Sub-questions:

2i What are the implications of this for the teacher trainer?

2ii What counts as experience?


Research Question 3 (RQ3): What is a teaching professional?

Sub-questions:

3i What is ‘classroom culture’?

3ii How are you initiated into the culture of the clasroom?

3iii What is expected of you by your future teaching colleagues, supervisors, mentors


and teacher trainers in terms of knowledge of the classroom?


Research Question 4 (RQ4): How can the course materials, in particular the

readings, best be exploited for maximum comprehension and usefulness?

Sub-questions:

4i How can the theoretical best be linked to the practical?

4ii How can the course materials be made more interactive?

4.3 Research design

The essence of the study is to capture an instance of teacher development. Having

defined what I understand by the term teacher development in Chapter 3 the research

instruments have been specifically chosen to enable me to be both teacher and researcher

(Freeman, 1998) in my own classrooms, examining my own practice, and thus my own

development. Originally I envisaged using myself as the sole data source, and, via the use of

triangulation, lend the findings won from the data the expected degree of validity and veneer

of credibility. This was naïve. In addition to data collected on and by me, data collected from

others is of crucial importance. This importance lies not only with the concept of

triangulation, but also with thick description and the various layers of meaning this entails

(Holliday, 2002).

The literature on teacher research (Bailey et al., 2001, Brown and Rodgers, 2002,

Freeman, 1998, McDonough and McDonough, 1997, Nunan, 1992, Robson, 1993 and

user

what is this?


Wallace 1998) describes a wide variety of data collection methods. The following sections

will now describe these methods more fully.

4.4 Research method

McGrath (2006) proposes that the 'real test of a research method…is its fitness for

purpose' (p. 171) and this section seeks to describe the principal data collection instruments

and their suitability for the research. The tools are as follows:

Figure 7 Research instruments

These will now be described in turn in the following sections.

DIARY WRITING

SURVEY DATA

FEEDBACK


4.4.1 Diary writing as a research tool

Without wishing to go into great detail regarding the different types of diaries and the

difference between diary and journal writing (Bailey, 1990), for this study diaries are seen as

'a place to record our observations of what goes on in our own and other teachers' classrooms,

write about our discussions, consider teaching ideas and reflect on our teaching' (Gebhard,

1996, p.36). There are no hard and fast rules for the keeping of diaries. Entries can be

complete cohesive texts, lists or bullet-points, sketches, transcripts or even visuals. The prime

concern is that writing takes place at regular intervals. Ideally this would be immediately

following teaching (while the experience is still fresh), and entries would be subsequently

read, reviewed, and analysed for 'recurring patterns or salient features' (Bailey, 1990, p.215).

A critical, non-judgmental distance to one’s own practice can be achieved via such reworking,

rethinking and interpreting. The nature of the diary samples in the appendices (Appendix 1)

illustrates the need not just to document evidence, but also to constantly revisit the themes

revealed via the writing in the light of further teaching in order to ascertain their relevance as

research areas.

The literature points to diary writing as being prone to two major problems: the

question of finding the time and quiet to write as soon as possible after the event; and the need

to write in a way which is not just descriptive but also does not succumb to the dual

temptations of overly praising or criticising one's own practice. Both these phenomena proved

to be true for preliminary research from the pilot study research.

The time-to-write factor was solved by liberal use of much self-discipline, that is

forcing myself to sit down and write as soon as possible at set times after the class taught.

Under ideal conditions this would usually mean removing myself from the physical

environment of my office to the peace and quiet of the library where I was generally able to


write undisturbed. However, this was not always possible. For example, when classes are

taught back-to-back this can mean a time lapse of a minimum of 90 minutes, if not (usually)

more. In order to overcome this difficulty and that involved with being unable, for various

reasons, to write at scheduled times, I took to writing field notes (Richards and Farrell, 2005,

p.89) as a means of overcoming the natural phenomenon of forgetting. In addition to field

notes, I have also made use of a number of other techniques: lesson reports (pp. 38-39),

written narratives (p.39) and checklists (pp.41-42). These additional tools, are somewhat time-

consuming in their preparation, for example, a lesson report, being the opposite of a lesson

plan, presumes the existence of the latter. As many practising teachers admit, full-blown

lesson plans are not characteristic of everyday classroom practice. Nevertheless, while not

reverting to the production of copious lesson planning documents, I was forced to pay more

and careful attention to the planning of classes, to the input and output, to the contents and the

objectives. One tangible concomitant was that diary writing meant that I did not just explore

my practice to seek understanding, but that I was able to initiate steps to change it.

4.4.2 Survey data

Surveys, or questionnaires, 'belong to a disparate assortment of data collection

techniques under the rubric of elicitation techniques' and 'are extremely common in language

teaching research' (Nunan and Bailey, 2009, p.124). According to Nunan and Bailey, the

'overall purpose of a survey is to obtain a snapshot of conditions, attitudes, and/or events of an

entire population at a single point in time by collecting data from a sample drawn from the

population' (p. 125). This is almost wholly true for this study, except in terms of a sample

drawn from the population. The study did in fact aim to collect data from the entire population

of trainees, some 240 university students. However, given the exigenicies this was not


possible and some trainees for various reasons, did not or could not provide the data. As can

be seen from Appendix 2, trainees were not obliged to complete the survey questionnaire, nor

were they penalised if they did not; participation was voluntary. The survey used in this study

was a classroom administered survey using the four research questions, along with the sub-

questions given above (see Appendix 2). This survey was adminsitered to each of the 13

methodology classes and to the participants in the methodology lecture. As with any data

collection tool surveys are not perfect instruments and a certain degree of caution needs to be

exercised. For further treatment of the use of surveys and questionnaires see Dörnyei (2003).

Chapter 5 shows the survey piloted in the spring semester of 2005.

4.4.3 Feedback

For the classroom practioner feedback can be an extremely important and useful

source of information. As Foord (2009) states, '[y]ou spend a lot of time feeding your

learners, you deserve the chance to get 'fed back' in return!' (p.37). However, as with any data

collection instrument there are disadvantages, the main one of feedback is that it is of timing,

'it comes too late to be acted upon' (p.37). Feedback comes in various forms and and serves a

variety of purposes: 'Hot feedback'; 'Cool feedback'; 'Feedback on learning'; 'Feedback on fun'

(p.43). The feedback considered here comes from the DEAL semester feedback officially

administered during a 10-15 minute slot (approximately) during the last lesson of every

semester. The feedback sheet is a confidential document handed out by the class teacher but

completed by the students and returned to the departmental office by one of their group. All

the sheets are initially only seen by the head of the department, who collates the information

and presents it at a departmental meeting as soon as is possible. Only then can the teachers

view the data. My initial view of the feedback sheets, around 2000/2001, was very sceptical,


seeing them as serving no real purpose because the group I had taught would never be

assembled again. However, by collecting and analysing the sheets over time it was possible to

discern patterns which could be examined in terms of useful information on my teaching

relevant to all the students I would teach.

4.5 Methodological considerations

This section gives further considerations to the role of students in language classroom

research and the role of the diary as a validation tool.

4.5.1 Students as partners in the research endeavour.

This raises the question of how to make best use of the innate interest, enthusiasm and

curiosity (most) students bring to the types of courses under investigation, that is

methodology foundation and methodology specialisation tier courses. Similarly it raises

questions as to the potential implications, personal, professional and pedagogical, of students

as research partners for themselves, their peers and the teacher-researcher.

Additionally, any utilisation of students as research participants and partners will have

implications in terms of the teaching and training methods of the methodology foundation

and methodology specialisation tier courses?

4.5.2 Validating the case study approach

As Borg (2001) suggests there is potential for validating a research project as one

conducts one’s own research. He proposes taking the process of diary (or journal) writing a

stage further, examining the diary as a tool of professional development rather than just a data


collection instrument. This adds an additional layer to the research and suggests that as a tool

of professional development the diary/journal can be used to validate the diary as a research

tool and the case study as a research approach, one of the aims of the research proposed here.

Given the need for qualitative research to establish it credentials and show its workings

(Holliday, 2002, p.8) this appears to be a most suitable vehicle.

4.5.3 Thick description

Thick description can be defined as 'description which specifies everything that a

reader may need to know to understand the findings' (Robson, 1993, p.405). Since the events

described by the research cannot be reduced to simplistic interpretation, the need for thick

description of the context of the research, as opposed to any attempt at reductionism, is a

given (Cohen et al. 2000, p.22). According to Holliday (2002) thick description therefore

shows 'the different and complex facets of particular phenomena' (p.78) and is achieved by

the establishment of networks of interconnected data, and by the argument/s for, and the

discussion/s of, the data. (p.116). As Cohen et al. point out the aim is to capture 'the diversity,

variability, creativity, individuality, uniqueness and spontaneity of social interactions' (p.39).

This will allow 'events and situations … to speak for themselves rather than to be largely

interpreted, evaluated or judged by the researcher' (p.182).

4.5.4 Grounded theory

The notion of grounded theory is that '[t]heory is emergent and must arise from

particular situations' it ought not to 'precede research but follow it' (Cohen et al. .23). For this

reason the research conducted here is not of the hypothesis testing variety but rather of the


hypothesis generating. Likewise it does not seek to generalise, but to provide for

transferability and comparability as discussed below.

For Denscombe (2003) the grounded theory approach implies that 'the researcher

embarks on a voyage of discovery' (p.111) (italics in the original). It is fundamental, therefore,

that the researcher 'be engaged in fieldwork' and so 'the researcher should undertake data

collection in the field, not only as the starting point of the research but throughout the course

of the research as well' (p.110). However, in doing so it is incumbent upon the researcher 'to

approach the topic without a rigid set of ideas that shape what he or she focuses upon during

the research', that is, such a research approach does not set out to prove the efficacy of one or

other theory (p.111). Nevertheless, the researcher is not expected to be tabula rasa, rather

they should be 'informed about an area, even quite aware of previous theories that might

apply, but does not approach the analysis of data using preordained ways of seeing things' and

so are 'open to discovering new factors of relevance to an explanation of that area' (p.112).

The notion of grounded theory is that '[t]heory is emergent and must arise from

particular situations' it ought not to 'precede research but follow it' (Cohen et al. 2000, p.23).

For this reason the research conducted here is not of the hypothesis testing variety, rather

hypothesis generating. Likewise it does not seek to generalise, but to provide for

transferability and comparability as discussed below.

There is no particular data collection method specific to grounded theory rather,

according to Turner, it is 'the manner in which the information collected is analysed' (cited in

Denscombe, 2003, p.114). Concomitant of this are 'methods that produce qualitative data that

are relatively unstructured' (p.115). In addition, while it is accepted that the researcher will be

influenced by existing knowledge of the research area and by personal experience, they

should treat such knowledge and experience as ' 'provisional' and open to question… They are

simply a tentative starting point from which to launch the investigation' (p.116).


As the research described here does not intend to represent a wider population (see

below), the samples chosen, that is the classes from which data are to be gleaned, are non-

probability samples (Cohen et al. 2000, p.102). This means that the researcher has targeted a

specific group 'in the full knowledge that it does not represent the wider population; it

represents itself' (p. 102). The sampling choices could be described as 'convenience sampling',

since the 'researcher simply chooses the sample from those to whom she has easy access'

(p.102). Because 'the parameters of generalisability… are negligible' in such cases (p.103)

seeking to generalise is irrelevant. Additionally, the sample could be described as 'purposive

sampling' since it 'has been chosen for a specific purpose' (p.103). Once again, in not seeking

to be representative of wider populations such sampling 'is deliberately and unashamedly

selective and biased' (p.104).

However, Allwright and Bailey (1991) stress the need to recognise that such an

approach leaves the research open to criticism 'if we move outside the frame of reference of a

small institution, but still want to make claims about a whole population'(p.49). Proffering an

alternative, they suggest a view implying that 'generalisability has to remain more a matter of

apparent similarity of groups that a matter of statistics'(p.49).

4.5.5 An emic versus an etic perspective

As well as providing thick description, case studies 'can catch and portray to the reader

what it is like to be involved in the situation' (Cohen et al. p.152), that is the emic perspective

'where the concern is to catch the subjective meanings placed on situations by participants'

(p.139). In contrast to an emic perspective, an etic perspective has the researcher seeking 'to

identify and understand the objective or researcher's meaning and constructions of a situation'

(p.139). Moreover, the 'case study is [seen as] the ideal instrument for 'emic' inquiry' [since it]


builds in and builds on the tacit knowledge that the writer and reader bring to the report, and

thereby takes seriously the notion of the 'human instrument' in research, indicating the

interactions of researcher and participants' (p 152).

Given the convenience and purposive sampling outlined above and the nature of the

research into my own development in my own classroom with my own students, an emic

perspective is, whilst a very much desired one, also one by default. An etic perspective would

greatly hinder the information I seek for the conduct of the study described here.

4.5.6 Credibility

The credibility of the research proposed here is open to attack: lacking the validity and

reliability bestowed upon quantitative research via the use of statistics, qualitative research

must seek to establish its credentials differently. One approach is to provide thick description

of all procedures as advocated by Holliday (2002), see above. Another is to share research

findings with fellow teachers so as to ascertain to what extent they would substantiate the

claims made of the data. This procedure would also enable the researcher to deflect claims of

singularity of perspective given that the research data would not be for the sole consumption

of the researcher, but rather available to the wider community to accept, question, sanction or

reject (Freeman, 1998). Making the findings public will enable me to gather feedback on the

applicability, relevance and generalisability of my findings. This will entail a further layer of

data analysis, done parallel to the collection and analysis of primary classroom data via

discussions with colleagues and conference presentations.

Credibility will also be achieved by triangulating the data. Rather than relying on the

researcher alone, data will be collected and then analysed from a number of primary sources:


• diary writing as a means of reconstructing the classroom from the teacher’s

perspective, again fallible, but only one of more data sources;

• survey data from the trainees on certain aspects of the methodology seminars deemed

pertinent by the trainer for purposes of researching langauge classroom, with the aim

of feeding the findings back into the course, as well as for the trainers doctoral

research;

• feedback data as a way to establish retrospectively, in the short-term, how the course

was perceived by the participants, and in the long-term discern patterns in my own

teaching and approach to methodology seminars.

Consequently, the triangulation conditions were established.

4.5.7 Generalisability

Generalisability will be examined here from two angles: firstly with reference to the

methods used in the research, and secondly in terms of the findings.

While claims of methodological weakness, see Allwright and Bailey (1991), could be

levelled against the type of research proposed here, the choice of a case study approach was

made in 'the expectation…that a range of techniques is used in a case study' (Robson, 1993,

p.157) and in so doing nullify, or at least militate against, such assertions of weak

methodology, and this despite McKernan's (1996) claim that '[i]t is difficult to refute concrete

case data' ( p.77). Similarly, as Denscombe (2003) states, the 'value of a case study approach

is that it has the potential to deal with the subtleties and intricacies of complex social

situations' (p.35). As Winter (1988) makes clear there is 'a tension for the case study writer

between achieving validity through the exhaustive accumulation of details and through the


selective organization of those details' (p.232). Thus, a case study approach, in using one

particular case study as a starting point, is able to offer the following examples of how the

findings from the research described here can be generalised:

• while being a unique instance (based on foregoing definitions), a case study is also one

example of a broader phenomenon;

• given the similarity of a case study to other examples, as above, the findings can be

generalised, or if the case is unusual or a clear exception, the findings cannot be

generalised;

• reporting the case in sufficient detail to allow the reader to make informed judgements

about the generalisability of such a case study. (p.232)

The generalisability of the research findings of a case study approach also requires

further clarification. Hitchcock and Hughes (1989) clearly state that 'the case study approach

is one which does not aim for universal generalizations and is focused on specific problems'

(p.217). Nevertheless, once a particular situation has been the subject of a number of case

studies, and as a result teaching practitioners have been able to access such studies, obvious

opportunities exist for comparison and corroboration (p.217). As Head and Taylor (1997)

maintain, '[i]f you keep your ideas to yourself, you are unlikely to be able to push them to the

limits of their potential' (p.18).

Boundedness is, ultimately, characteristic of all research enterprises, it has special

relevance here since a case study will 'concentrate on what is unique' and the 'specific focus of

the case study therefore becomes a positive advantage' when compared to research enterprises

relying on large target populations (Wallace, 1998, p. 161, italics in the original). Denscombe

(2003) is more emphatic and postulates that '[w]ithout some notion of a boundary, it becomes

impossible to state what the case is' (pp.37-38). However, while stating that 'good case study


research needs to contain a clear vision of the boundaries of the case and provide an explicit

account of what they are' (italics in the original) it is conceded that achieving this is 'not as

easy as it seems' and the stress shifts to the use of 'fairly' as in the need for a case study to be

'fairly' self-contained and to have 'fairly' distinct boundaries (p.38). Once again, in terms of

the limits to generalisability McKernan (1996) stresses that 'the temptation to over-interpret

and to generalize beyond the bounded system is very great indeed, but it must be resisted'

(p.78).

In addition, as Wallace (1998) makes clear, a case study may be 'more accessible to

the practising professional' (p.161, italics in the original) and offer 'more human interest than

generalised statistical findings' (p. 163, italics in original). Allwright (1997) refers to similar

concerns.

Allwright and Bailey (1991), referring to naturalistic enquiry, of which exploratory

practice is an example, state that 'generalisability is not always such a primary focus' (p.51).

Moreover, van Lier (1988) contends that 'the first concern must always be to analyse the data

as they are rather than to compare them to other data to see how similar they are' (p.2, italics

in original). Allwright and Bailey (1991) are explicit:

...the whole issue of generalisability looks very different to anyone doing research in the naturalistic tradition… a naturalistic enquirer will claim that whatever understanding has been gained by an in-depth study of a real-life classroom may illuminate issues for other people. (p. 2)

The use of 'may' is significant, since unlike quantitative approaches, a piece of

qualitative research does not aim to generalise from a sample to a wider population; however,

the researching and writing are no less rigorous for that (Holliday, 2002). Tripp (1985)

advocates the establishment of a repository of education case studies, much as there are

repositories of case law or medical case histories, as a means of providing both a location and

access to such research. Hitchcock and Hughes (1989) echo this with their suggestion that


case studies be collected in order 'to build up a bank of information on local practice which

could provide valuable and even generalizable material for comparative studies in educational

practice' (p.216).

4.6 The issue of research ethics

An additional issue, which does not receive adequate treatment to date, is that of

research ethics. Its importance is, nevertheless, growing in numerous countries and will

become an issue within the Hungarian context in the immediate future in the field of

education. Bell (1999) and Oliver (2003), amongst numerous others, are both very clear on

the central and necessary role played by ethics in social and educational research. The

guidelines and recommendations of best practice offered by British Association for Applied

Linguistics (1994) and British Educational Research Association (n. d.) have so far proved

useful in collecting ideas and inspiration.

While I have sought and obtained oral consent from participants and educational

management to conduct the research described here, it was not considered necessary to obtain

written consent. Given the anonymity of the data as presented here this was not a significant

concern. However, in terms of the presentation of the data in this study removing certain

pieces of information such as the date attached to a partiular data item was necessary since

this could ultimately lead to research participants being identified.

Thus consideration of research ethics entailed providing explanations of my research

to students and peers, and seeking their active consent, co-operation and participation, and

thanking them for their time, participation and interest.


4.7 Data collection

Data was collected throughout the course in the case of the diary, at course end in the

case of the departmental feedback and periodically,often in reaction to classroom events, in

terms of the surveys.

The pilot study has shown the importance of establishing a data collection routine, and

the necessity of being systematic in its collection.

4.7.1 Data collection procedures

The pilot study has shown both the importance of establishing a data collection routine

and the necessity of systematic data collection. The following procedure has been refined as a

result of work carried out during the spring semester of 2005:

Write the diary entry for the class just given paying special attention to the Research

Questions – at this stage considerations of style and presentation are less important than

putting pen to paper. Wherever possible judgemental remarks should be avoided, but any data

collection format, for example, description or narration is acceptable, as are mind maps,

sketches, bullet points and jottings. The format of the data’s immediate capture is significantly

less important than its capture (see Appendix 3). A more polished (public) version can follow

subsequently;

Without changing the original texts, make annotations to the diary based on a re-

reading of the the data;

Collect surveys and put information into digital format as quickly as possible. Data

can be grouped by question and by seminar to enable different types of analysis;

Access feedback sheets as soon as possible, this is never immediate, and put into

digital format as with the surveys.


4.8 Data sources

Data will be won from courses taught during the period under examination, the years

2005 to 2008. These are as follows:

• ANN- 462 Methodology Foundation I

• ANN- 464 Methodology Foundation II

• ANN-466 Methodology Specialisation – Focus on the teacher

• ANN-466 Methodology Specialisation – Teaching English for business

• ANN-465 Methodology Specialisation Lecture – Teaching ESP

Based on generic DEAL guidelines in regard to course content, I provided potential

course participants with the following course description documentation:

Table 6 Consideration of ANN- 462 Methodology Foundation I

This course will introduce you to the theory and practice of English

language teaching (ELT) via coverage of the following topics: an introduction to

ELT and ELT methodology; lesson planning; teaching vocabulary; teaching

grammar; teaching the four skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening).

Emphasis throughout will be on practical classroom activities, and will include

the opportunity for you to experiment with your own teaching via in-class peer

teaching. In addition, you will be encouraged to actively reflect upon your own

practice by observing and discussing the teaching of others. This course leads on

to Methodology Foundation II.


Table 7 Consideration of ANN- 464 Methodology Foundation II

This course will serve as preparation for your Teaching Practice (TP) and

as input for your final examination. It will deal with the principles and practice of:

lesson observation; choosing and using the course book; classroom management

(including discipline); error correction; assessment and testing. As with

Methodology Foundation I, emphasis throughout will be on the practical

classroom application of theory. In addition, you will have the opportunity to

experiment with your own practice via in-class peer teaching and presentations.

You will be encouraged to actively reflect upon your own practice and that of

your peers via observation and discussion.

Table 8 Consideration of ANN-466 Methodology Specialisation Tier – Focus on the teacher

The aim of this course is to shift focus somewhat from that of

Methodology Foundation I and II. Placing the teacher centre stage will do this by

offering more detailed consideration of areas that are only touched upon in the

Foundation courses. The course will be comprised of two components. The

introductory core dealing with: teacher research; teacher knowledge and teacher

reflection; the post-method condition; teacher development. The elective part,

which, depending on your particular interests, will offer, for example, coverage of

the likes of classroom observation; group dynamics; the native and non-native

speaker debate; curriculum design; language classroom research; humanistic

language teaching; needs analysis; language policy and planning; communicative


language teaching; language programme evaluation. The emphasis throughout,

however, will be on the teacher. Your suggestions will, therefore, be very

welcome.

In all of these courses, but especially in the specialisation tier course, Focus on the

Teacher, I hoped to work together with the student participants in my research and so in their

learning and their researching, thus avoiding Allwright’s (2003) warning in regard to research

of a parasitic kind. All of the above courses, as well as the specialisation tier course Teaching

Business English, had elements conducive to collecting data and discussing the findings from

its collection and so sharing the experience and knowledge won. Such classroom activities as

peer teaching, class discussions and presentations allowed for a range of possible interactions

which could produce a variety of data in a variety of forms. Although not immediately

apparent the ANN-465 lecture did also produce a considerable amount of data.

Table 9 Consideration of ANN-466 Methodology Specialisation Tier – Teaching English for business

This course will provide you with the basic knowledge and abilities to

successfully research, plan, deliver and evaluate your own business English (BE) courses

in a variety of teaching situations.

To achieve this Consideration will be made of the differences between General

and Business English, the function of Needs Analysis and the development of BE within

the wider field of English for Specific Purposes. The course will consider the skills areas

characteristic of BE: meetings, negotiations, presentations, correspondence and


telephoning. We shall also investigate the role of culture in Business and in BE teaching,

as well as looking at how BE can be tested and assessed, and how you can develop as a

BE teacher. All these areas will be examined in terms of content, language and teaching

methodology.

Table 10 Consideration of ANN-465 Methodology Specialisation Lecture – Teaching ESP

This course will introduce you to the teaching of English for Specific Purpose

(ESP) in order to provide you with the background knowledge, and basic skills and

abilities necessary to successfully research, plan, deliver and evaluate your own ESP

courses in a variety of teaching situations. To achieve this we shall examine the

following:

ESP: origins and history;

the role and the function of Needs Analysis in ESP;

the varieties of ESP;

the language skills in ESP;

methodology for ESP;

approaches to ESP syllabus and course design;

materials development and evaluation for ESP;

teaching ESP: from beginner to advanced;

motivation in ESP teaching;

the roles of the ESP teacher;

ESP assessment and testing;


teacher development for ESP.

In addition to the course descriptions, mention must be made of the participants. The

trainees attending the methodology seminars described above were all undergraduates

studying for a Master's degree in English, some also with another major, and wished to

qualify as English teachers by taking the prerequisite number of methodology courses, both

compulsory and elective. All trainees were in their third year or above of study. Over the

course of the three and a half years of the study I taught approximately 240 trainees, the

majority of whom were female. The average seminar sizes was 13 trainees across the 13

seminars examined here. The data used later in the study was collected with the help of these

trainees and as subsequent chapters will reveal most of the trainees when asked were quite

ready to provide data. The one major exception was the methodology lecture alluded to

earlier. Of the 73 trainees registered, 34 did provide data. The reason for this was that

attendance at the course was not compulsory.

4.9 Conclusion

The conditions for researching my development in terms of a move from teacher to

teacher trainer are established. There are research questions, data sources, participants and

data collection instruments. Before examing the results and discussing the findings, Chapter 5

will briefly discuss the baseline data in terms of preliminary research and the pilot study.

Chapter 5 – Baseline data: Preliminary research and pilot study 84

Chapter 5

Baseline data: Preliminary research and the pilot study

5.1 Introduction

Two elements are described here: preliminary research and the pilot study. The former

involved a trial-and-error approach to finding research instruments for language classroom

research. This was to a certain extent encouraged by the tutors who offered the two elective

courses Language classroom research and Teacher development through exploration. This

was an illuminating enterprise in that it emphasised the need to be very selective of one's

research area and to consider the choice of research tools very carefully. The latter, the pilot

study, was the one initiated in spring 2005 following my decision to research my own

development.

5.2 Overview – Preliminary research

Since mid-December 2002, I have been engaged in the process of reflecting upon my

teaching, trying to draw out coherent views of what has happened since I first became

consciously aware of, and interested in, my own personal and professional development (circa

autumn 2000), and what has happened, or not happened, in the classroom as a result of my

having taught there. Essentially this was a process of stocktaking and sense making to tease

out what I had learnt over the course of the various semesters about my own teaching.

Preliminary research conducted with basic versions of the research tools during the autumn of

2003 yielded more concrete data and led to the first tentative and speculative interpretations

and insights.


5.3 Research instruments used prior to spring 2005

Having conducted preliminary research it became evident that certain other tools can

be utilised. These included:

• self-observation;

• questionnaires;

• informal interviews with students and colleagues to collect feedback;

• DEAL feedback schedules;

• lesson plans.

At this stage these tools had not been subject to the same degree of refinement as was

the case during spring 2005. Questionnaires had been used either as part of a classroom

activity, for example as Needs Analysis exercises, or at regular intervals to glean students’

views on the contents and progress of the course as part of the negotiated syllabus approach

mentioned previously. Interviews have been conducted with one colleague and with a small

number of students, but not in any coherent way. As should be evident none of these tools

were used with any great consistency. However, as a result of trying a range of research tools,

it was a relatively easy process to select the tools for the research described here.

In keeping with the notion of non-parasitic research the findings won via language

classroom research would be fed back into the classroom. This would be done by using the

students’ own observations and responses. In addition, on-going student comment and any

data accruing from the day-to-day activities of the classroom would likewise be used.

Integrating such data into the classroom has been carried out on a preliminary basis and has

resulted not only in some changes to course content, but also to the organisation, teaching and

assessment of the courses listed above. This has resulted in a process of constant feedback


reminiscent of the characteristics of the negotiated syllabus. Nevertheless, the process is

fraught with risks, be they personal, pedagogical or moral.

5.4 Themes

As a result of preliminary research the following emerged as areas to be examined as

possible research topics:

• dealing with students who ought not to be in the group;

• giving instructions;

• starting a course;

• finishing a course;

• the effectiveness of feedback (oral and written);

• awarding grades – consistency/favouritism/process vs. product;

• discipline;

• challenges to my knowledge and or authority;

• repeating the same experience rather than moving on;

• opening up (my) classrooms to others.

As can be seen there were a number of themes that have eventually come to constitute

elements of the research proper. Some of these are detailed below.

The brief explanations and annotations provided with each area above revealed that

the process of interpretation had already begun. Naming the areas allowed for them to be

formerly identified and allocated a place in an emerging taxonomy. As with all research these

namings were subject to constant change.


5.5 Choosing and naming

Each of the above categories had been chosen on the basis of their being present, to

varying degrees, in the classroom where preliminary research was conducted. While

participating I was obviously involved in the class and influenced by my taking part. The

observer' paradox was often very much in evidence, that is the phenomenon 'that by

observing, we may change the very thing we wished to observe in its natural occurence'

(Nunan and Bailey, 2009, p.196). As a result, the collected data were clearly influenced by

my recollections of each lesson and my interpretations of the lesson when it was held and any

subsequent retrospective assessment. It is, therefore, impossible to be objective in the choice

of areas, their naming and analysis. However, as a participant in the action recorded and with

a vested interest in the data, objectivity was not not my greatest concern, as Chapter 4

discussed. It is rather the capture and subsequent treatment of the data and the effect they will

have on the trainees and me, the trainer. In the spirit of ongoing research I committed these

observations to paper fully aware that all subsequent observations will colour and cloud them.

By way of illustration of preliminary data collection I shall examine one of my first

concerns, and ironically, an ongoing one, that of the effectiveness of instructions. In the

following I shall attempt to describe the area in detail.

5.6 The dilemma of naming

In giving this category a name, I had assumed that it would help me clarify and

delineate one aspect of what I wished to study and research. However, it only emphasised that

the very naming process itself skews the data from the outset. The use of the word

effectiveness implies an element of ineffectiveness, and in implying this bi-polar relationship

suggests that the instructions have been and will be both effective and ineffective.


5.7 Why effectiveness?

Classroom instruction giving has long been a concern, but came to loom large in my

thoughts during the course of the autumn/winter semester 2002/2003 as a result of having a

teacher colleague in my class. The colleague, from a university outside Hungary, was there

ostensibly to gather data and teaching ideas for her own and her university's work. While

participating in the class as a student I approached her in regard to her being a participant

observer – a role she was prepared to adopt.

From the observations she made and the ensuing discussions we had, she was of the

opinion that instructions were not always communicated effectively and were not always

followed up and/or further clarified. The data collected were thus examined with that

particular area of classroom activity in mind. A certain degree of understanding was achieved

and so efforts were undertaken to improve my overall effectiveness in terms of instruction

giving, something which I still remain very conscious of when in the classroom. Such

preliminary findings illustrate how a theme from earlier research can come to infleunce

subsequent classroom work. Although the present study is not primarily concerned with the

effectiveness of instructions, nevertheless instructions in no small part influence the dynamic

of any classs and so have an effect on the whole lesson event and how I perceive it with

obvious consequences for my interaction with the trainees and for my development.

5.8 The pilot study

Throughout the above, reference has been made to the pilot study conducted during

the spring semester 2005. The purpose of the study, and the reason for frequent reference to it,

was to show that it not only yielded significant findings, but also that it:


• allowed for the testing and refining of instruments, specifically diary writing and

the collection and capture of the survey data;

• helped bring to the surface problems inherent in using the instruments, especially

in regard to wording of the survey and the tendency to be judgemental when

writing;

• revealed how to allocate blocks of time for the significant writing-up the research

required;

• gave an indication of the potential pitfalls than can befall such a research project.

However, researching at the interface of teaching and research has revealed a number

of benefits and drawbacks. These are as follows:

Benefits

• it is good for teacher trainers to talk with trainee teachers about teaching;

• being a participant observer of one's own development is clearly beneficial;

• observing others train and develop even more so;

• involving students as research participants is extremely beneficial.


Drawbacks

• modesty must be the operational byword; over-ambition is a constant threat, there

is the ever-present danger of losing sight of the main focus of the research;

• time-consuming – as given under benefits;

• such research is potentailly face-threatening to all involved;

• there exits a tendency to be judgemental very quickly – reactions need to be more

considered.


5.9 Conclusion

As has emerged from this chapter data collection and analysis is a cyclical process,

and the researcher constantly returns to the same data, but often brings or gains new insights.

It will become clear that these pilot study findings are also refleted in the results of the data

analysis which will now be discussed in Chapters 6 to 9. From a small start examining

classroom instruction giving has emerged a three and a half year research endeavour

involving 14 classes and approximately 240 trainees.

Chapter 6 – Results and discussion of Research Question 1 92

Overview of Chapters 6-9

The data presented here stem principally from the survey data collected from spring

2005 to spring 2008. The data from the teaching diary and the feedback sheets lay two

addditinal layers atop the survey data.

The survey data is presented in two way: the students original comments are in italics,

with minimum changes so as to reflect their originality. Where changes have been made these

are indicated within [square brackets]; such changes overwhemingly serve to ease

incorporation into readable blocks; grammatical and lexical changes were few and far

between. What I consider the salient comments are give prominence by being cited on their

own.

The diary data is presented in bold italics and is made up of entries and subsequent

comments upon these entries. The abbreviation MN signifies ‘Methodological Note’ and

refers to a note-to-self type entry in the diary which relates to one or more of the Research

Questions. By using this abbreviation locating entries for purposes of the research was made

significantly easier.

Feedback data is given as bold underlined.

The data are not necessarily given chronologically for each of the Research Questions.

This is to facilitate overall comprehension rather than present a historical overview or show

the development of the study; the purpose at this stage is rather to provide insights into the

concerns as they arose. In addition, as mentioned in Chapter 4 anonymity of trainee

participants could all to easily be compromised should the data be presented chronologically.


Chapter 6

Results and discussion of Research Question 1

6.1 Introduction

This chapter and subsequent chapters will analyse the survey data won from the

classroom surveys between autumn 2005 and spring 2008. This one focuses on the role of

trainer and their experience and expertise. As already mentioned the data presented here

reproduces the students’ own comments as closely as possible, taken directly from the

original surveys. The data has been analysed by a process of identifying responses which

were allocated to a set of emerging categories, given in bold in the body of the text, which

reflect salient aspects of the research questions and each of the sub-questions.

6.2 Research Question : How should the teacher trainer share their own teaching

experience and expertise in the delivery of a methodology course?

The responses, naturally with a variety of caveats attached, recognised the potential

usefulness and beneficial nature of teachers sharing their experience and expertise with their

students. However, it was important that the contents of the individual lessons did not diverge

from the overall stated aim of the course. It was, therefore, important that the contents of the

lessons be aligned with those of the course, especially in terms of the trainer being able to

plan the lessons according to the principles taught in the course. Consequently, as far as the

sharing of experience was concerned:


[h]e/she should progress with the material systematically, and in connection with the

topics, the teacher trainer can talk about his/her experience.

Thus suggesting that course content and its systematic teaching should be prioritised

over trainers’ sharing of experience. Nevertheless, trainees were clear in stating that the

teacher trainer should refer to their own experience and expertise as part of their classroom

teaching. A division can be made here between participants’ referring to ‘talk’ on the one

hand, and ‘anecdotes and stories’ one the other in the following collection of responses based

on which of the respondents made overt reference to one or the other terms in their answers.

A certain degree of overlap can be assumed here between the two categories.

When talking about their experience teachers could highlight the problematic:

he/she could tell about those fields that caused problems for them & suggest possible

solutions or show methods and techniques which worked for him. However, despite the

perceived benefit that could accrue when [s]/he can share his/her experience by telling

memories and useful advices to us, such advice must be given in a specific way:

[t]hey should talk objectively about their real experience of what worked, of alternatives

and problems

MN Methodological consideration – making unprepared comments

Having viewed a video of a teacher whose performance I judged less than

satisfactory I commented that it is important for the teacher to enjoy their classes and

to keep themselves interested. Equally, they should ensure that their students do not


fall asleep. This judgement was immediately challenged , and came as a shock since I

had not thought it through. This was a pivotal moment and caused me to give more

pause for thought before commenting on anything going on in any classroom.

This entry shows that I was unprepared in terms of sharing, and explaining, my own

views on my approach to teaching. A result of this was the decision to research the move

from teacher to teacher trainer.

As far as anecdotes and stories are concerned, these could make lessons colourful by

telling anecdotes from their teaching experience or it could prove interesting to hear stories

about different people with different experiences. That they have a part to play was

exemplified by the respondent who thought that personal experiences can be implanted in

methodological courses and to hear about how a certain method works in practice is always

useful. Similarly, the view of the trainer could be ascertained via the form of stories and

presenting his own personal attitudes towards a certain issue. In addition, the intrinsic worth

of anecdotes and stories, particularly in relation to the readings, was emphasised by a

respondent’s claim that:

anecdotes help a lot just as well as comments made by the trainer on the readings

In addition to talking about their work, trainees also expected trainers to be able to give

examples of teaching, that is concrete examples of teaching, both good & bad, or both

positive and negative methods, or even for them to demonstrate an efficient and a less

efficient way of teaching for example a grammar point or reading, speaking etc, as well as

examples which were general and specific. Again, the criterion of choice rested on

respondents’ use of the word ‘example’, although it is clear in some instances that an amount


of overlap between these and previous categories exist. Once again, problematising aspects of

teaching was seen as important because [b]y telling examples of their own teaching

experience, [they could…] present[…] practical problems and discuss[…] the possible

solutions with the students. Illustration and sharing experience then are seen as of benefit:

[i]t can help a great deal when talking about a meth[odology] [p]roblem and the teacher

comes up with a situation to illustrate it –sharing teaching exp[erience ] gives a more

practical tone to methodology sessions than are the norm

As well as giving examples, students expect their trainers to set examples of

appropriate practice; this is a category reflecting to some extent that of the alignment between

actual lessons given and planned course contents described above, because, as one respondent

put it, it matters a lot how the teacher holds their own lesson in which I participate.

Interestingly, overt demonstrations of ability may not be necessary since [e]xpertise does not

need to be demonstrated. It comes off pretty well, if they [the teacher] do. As a result, one

respondent recommended that:

[e]very class should contain a sort of 15-20 minutes when the teacher trainer gives a

sample class of teaching one certain element

MN Teacher as exemplar – The role of congruence

Ought I to have mentioned my 'philosophy' of making sure that I enjoy my

classes and have fun in the classroom as a primary goal?!


This did not set a good example to the class. I must make every effort to reserve

making judgemental comments, I OUGHT to know better, just as I want them to do so.

Sharing is again a category based around the respondents' conscious use of ‘share’ in

their answers; and once again a certain degree of overlap exists between this and the

preceding categories as they emerged. Interestingly the first piece of data emphasises that

sharing does not equate with dictating: [s]hare but don’t dictate concrete examples, while in

the same spirit emphasising that the teacher should share them after peer teaching sections

and when relevant topics come up, but first he/she should let students give their own opinion.

By the same token, teachers should [g]et students to share because they should give

opportunity to the students to tell him their ideas and to practise teaching, and he should

correct them and give advice and so demonstrate sharing as a process whereby ideas can be

exchanged and any incorrect ones can be challenged and corrected where need be. Ultimately,

sharing is seen as an indication of the trainer’s trustworthiness and authenticity:

it is very useful to share with the students, as it will make the teachers appear as more

trustworthy and authentic

The use of peer teaching by trainers, as discussed below, was viewed as important,

for example one response succinctly states that I think peer teaching and its criticism is really

a good way. However, as is becoming clear, considerable overlap is already emerging; peer

teaching as a teacher training technique involves the sharing of experience in regard to

student-to-student interaction and its subsequent analysis:

peer teaching concentrating on a difficult task they had to face during their practice and

discussion about it in one methodology class – share experience


Just as course contents need to be considered, so too must the needs and wants of

student teachers, and it is expected that the trainer be aware of these. A clear case therefore

emerges of the need to focus on the student, particularly in terms of student interest and

relevance. The trainer is obliged to establish such needs and wants:

[b]y asking how the students would do something then add their own ideas as well. (But

not saying: ‘This is my idea)’

Unsurprisingly, given the avowed trainee preference for the practical over the

theoretical, as already demonstrated above, the role of theory received only very scant

mention:

[t]o teach theory

Given that the role of the readings should be to represent a significant part of the

input of the course it is disappointing that they merit so few mentions. However, in view of

the previous data entry this is less than surprising. In spite of this, their role is recognised in so

much that the trainer’s shared experience and expertise complement the readings, that is goes

[a]long with the readings, with commenting. More importantly, the readings are seen as a way

to:

add comments on the subjects raised by the readings, with relevant anecdotes

6.3 How far should the teacher trainer feel obliged to do this?


Given trainee recognition that teachers should share their experience and expertise, the

first sub-question seeks to ascertain to what degree students consider this appropriate. In this

section the caveats to the data previously mentioned will now be more closely explored.

Student teachers hold a variety of views regarding the degree to which their trainer should

feel obliged to share as the following data will reveal. For some trainees it is seen as

paramount that the trainer meets this obligation:

[t]hey should feel obliged…

and trainees go on to qualify their clearly expressed point of view with the claim that it

would definitely be useful for the students.

Equally, it is an obvious obligation for other trainees that the trainer shares:

I think he/she should share their own experience as much as possible

Trainees are likewise clear as to the degree of sharing: [v]ery⁄⁄pretty much, Up to the

greatest extent, "quite far"' or, referring to the practical administrative and content

requirements of the seminar, [a]s far as [the]course requires it.

Additional responses offer a variety of reasons for this obligation ranging from a

somewhat vague claim that it is very useful for us, to the far more explicit reasoning behind

such questions as [v]ery much. Otherwise what is the point in teaching “teaching”?, to such

pertinent observations of the like of [v]ery much! Since our training is only the first step to

become professional, we should find opportunities to share ideas from the very beginning.


Such views reveal that trainees are very much aware of the situation in regard to their own

classroom experience and the pressing need to gain as much exposure to ideas from as many

alternative sources as possible.

As already exemplified above in relation to trainee views on the role of theory and the

role of the course readings, trainees continued to display a bias towards the practical over the

theoretical in their expressed agreement in regard to the obligation of trainers to share

experience of teaching: I think this kind of practical information is more help than any

reading or lecture or whatever. In the same vein devoting classroom time to the practical

rather than just the theoretical is preferred: [s]ince they are the trainers I think they should

feel very obliged to be practical as well and not just theoretical. As a consequence, the data

produced in response to this sub-question can be seen to corroborate the main thrust of the

data yet to be presented and discussed, namely the trainee teacher tendency to prefer the

practical to the theoretical, as exemplified by the following data item:

I think the best they can do for us is share their experiences. The theories we can read from

the books, and we will learn the most from practice, so what we really need is [to]

learn from their experience

A number of equally forthright views cited the common thread of vicarious practical

knowledge available from the teacher trainer in the Methodology Foundation and

Methodology specialisation seminars:

… because you can learn the theory from a book… you attend this course to learn

something about practice


and so would appear to provide justification for attending such courses.

Having made such a claim, it is important to bear in mind that trainees are also keenly

aware that the sharing of experience and expertise must be done in a considered and

measured way by their trainer. They accept that the trainer experience should be shared, but

are quick to attach their own clearly thought-out provisos:

I think (s)he should share any experience he had but with objective criticism (tell us it that

was wrong/good because…)

However, the notion of [b]attlefield experience, of which more in other data sets, casts

doubt on the very idea of trainers being able to transmit their experience and expertise to their

trainees: Battlefield experience is useful, but I cannot see a way to hand it down effectively. It

is refreshing to see such a healthy dose of scepticism and temperance on the part of trainees.

This may result from a rational analysis of their own situations, potentially a consequence of

their having reviewed their own teaching experience and practices, or of having reflected

upon their time spent in classrooms, behind rather than in front of the desk, that is their

'apprenticeship of observation' (Lortie, 1975, p.62). By the same token, student teachers are

also keenly aware that trainers can exert a significant influence on their trainees, whether

consciously or not, and that they, the trainees, should be suitably cautious in how they regard

the trainer's approach and in how far they make use of it, that is the extent to which they allow

it to influence their subsequent practice. Trainers are encouraged to be aware of their own

practice and be balanced in their delivery:


[i]t is very difficult to decide, but harmony should be kept, because your teaching style may

have an influence on your students

Once again, trainees are able to perceive that not everything that the trainer advocates

may be appropriate, and that alternatives are welcome: [d]on’t give the feeling that theirs is

the only option. By the same token more sharing of trainer experience may not necessarily

mean better, that quality should be preferred to quality: Some ‘real’ examples but too much

would make the lesson like story telling. Similarly trainees points to the need for trainers to be

self-aware in regard to their views, experience and expertise in order to be able to temper

themselves. They ought not to go too far. The comment that:

[s]tories about teaching can be funny and instructive maybe

implies the possibility of restraint, the requirement for trainers to limit the number of

instances when they should input their own experience and expertise. For trainers to talk

about their own practice merely for the sake of doing so is not perceived as acceptable by

trainees.

Trainees are therefore forthcoming in expressing the need for restraint: [h]e/she

should tell his/her views but not force personal approaches on trainers or that experience be

shared [t]o an extent that helps students to have an idea of this experience. Moreover, there

appears to be an acute awareness that trainers need to be genuine in how they present their

experience: [a]s far as it comes spontaneous and doesn’t take too much time (e.g. the whole

class), pointing to the potential pitfalls of presenting contrived content.


Student perceptions of the role and status of the trainer aside, the trainer is seen by

some as a member of the whole group and therefore is expected to contribute just as they

expect students to do so. This element points to the notion of congruence; as a full member of

the group, the trainer is obliged to behave as he or she expects others in the group to

behave:

[t]hey are not obliged to do that at all but if they ask anybody’s opinion about a topic they

should comment it or share their opinions with the students

Equally, the trainer's opinion/experience counts as they are a group member that is the

teacher trainer is a full member of the group [and] his opinion is equal to that of the others.

6.4 How can the teacher trainer avoid the temptation to lead their students down

their own preferred methodological path?

Having examined the need for, and the potential benefits of, teacher trainers sharing

their teaching experience and expertise, this section seeks to temper the inherent dangers

facing any teacher who uses their own teaching experience as input. As has been

demonstrated already, student teachers, in advocating overt personal contributions from their

trainer, do not wish these contributions to be the only ones they receive; trainees expect

trainers to present them with other, alternative views. It is abundantly clear from the data that

trainees expect their trainer to provide them with information about alternatives approaches

and theories:


[t]he teacher can provide different approaches

Trainees want to be given freedom of choice and [v]ariety, [with the trainer] providing

alternatives [b]y offering two or more options, [b]y [the trainer] presenting the other side of

the coin or [g]iving some alternative ideas. The provision of alternatives should come from

the trainer and the way of doing so should evidence their openness, encouragement and a

willingness to be inclusive of trainees:

[h]e/she should believe in that there[is] more than one good way to follow. Interesting

exercises can show students the diversity of methodological paths. Make it evident that

they have freedom of choice. And encourage students to try out as many approaches as

possible

How trainees envisage this being done can be shown in a number of ways. A basic

approach would involve the trainer [d]rawing attention to other theories or telling objectively

about them (enumerating facts) or making students read different points of view. A slightly

different approach suggests taking this idea a step further to involve trainees exercising

elements of choice:

[b]y presenting many possibilities and letting students to choose the one that suits them

best

However, this notion could be move forward slightly more to involve active trainee

participation, and thus the relinquishing of control to some extent on the part of the trainer.

This could be achieved by, for example, [a]sking students to demonstrate other theories. A


further step, and logical extension of this approach, would be for the trainer to show all the

alternatives, [and] then ask students what they prefer & why, then tell them what he prefers

and why. The outcome of such openness, interaction and sharing of ideas would, it is hoped,

be a situation in which the trainer was able [t]o equip students with different kinds of methods

and thereby put them in a position to exercise their own methodological judgement.

The above notwithstanding, all trainee views were not in harmony with such

sentiments. Should the trainer prove impervious to alternative views, there should be an

option to:

[f]orce him/herself to show many different methods

It is significant that trainees not only consider it necessary to have access to alternate

views but also to the experiences of other teachers. They expect that their trainer is willing

to do this not only [b]y telling his/her ideas about teaching, but telling the ideas of other

people as well that is by telling [trainees about] other teachers’ experiences. Such

contributions could be achieved by the trainer who can organise classroom observations of

other teachers' teaching or use videos to show how other teachers teach.

In addition to such considerations, trainees advocate the presentation of other

teaching methods. Suggestions for the trainer include, for example, using other

methodological activities from recent books and not merely showing their own way of

teaching, or offering tasks with a variety of alternative outcomes, such as pair/group work

offering more freedom in the process of task completion. In order to facilitate this it is advised


that the trainer carry out needs analysis from time to time. This could well include trying out

new ways of teaching: experiment with new methods because they might work.

Despite the rejection of theory already discussed above and the less than favourable

take-up and acknowledgement of the importance of the course readings, some trainees still

suggest their inclusion in a course: [v]ia the readings (if used!). Others go further in

advocating that the teacher trainer should make the trainees read a range [of] different

materials as possible or give articles of authors who follow different methodological paths.

Trainees also propose that the teacher trainer should pay attention to the students.

This data category reflects one already discussed in the previous section and thus corroborates

well its importance for trainees. However, in addition to such corroboration, it is stressed that

such a process should be free from the pressure of the trainer's views, that is, by encouraging

students [to] say their opinion/assumption first before expressing their preference. Moreover,

trainers should be prepared to take something of a back seat, to [l]isten to the students’

opinions and direct experiences and respect them.

Trainees, quite rightly, call for a sense of democracy on the part of their trainers.

They call for a [d]emocratic classroom atmosphere since anything less would surely point to

a loss of trainer trustworthiness and authenticity as mentioned above. Trainers need to be

balanced, open and objective, that is staying neutral and not presenting opinions, but facts

and this can be achieved a [b]y avoiding criticism if other ideas come up along with the

consideration that the teacher can give advice, but he mustn’t constrain it. He can express his

opinion, but he should listen to the other opinions. Overall the trainer should demonstrate

respect for the trainees:


[t]he trainer should know the advantages of the different aspects and should respect them

A further set of data vindicated the importance of trainers using their own

experience and expertise: I’m not sure they should avoid this temptation. In this the trainee

recognises that what trainers do is teach us what they know best. Moreover, they are entitled

to do this because as far as they point out other possibilities, as well, they should not avoid

the temptation of showing us their preferred methods.

MN ought I to have intervened, or commented upon this during feedback. did I

not miss the opportunity to raise the point of every teacher's default position, i.e. we all

have a tendency to teach as we ourselves were taught.

Cracking writing lesson; up to a point. Once we reached the stage of what to do

with the product (the process was good up until then) things got seriously worse.

Failing to realise the potential of students' curiosity, the peer teacher went into 'How-

I-have-been-taught' mode and the class visibly flopped. This is my interpretation –

others would be useful.

Here I was aware of the need to be overt and interventionist, clearly and forcefully

pointing out to the trainee that more forethought was necessary. However, I was reluctant

to do so and may have sold the trainee short by not utilising my experience and expertise

earlier. As with a previous entry I need to grow in confidence and knowledge. This role is

still very much a new one for me.


Trainers can take pride in their experience: the trainer should be proud of their

experience: they should [s]tand on his/her feet steadily on the [pride] of his/her experience.

As always, caveats apply, as is clear from the data immediately above, and trainers should

avoid any temptation to prioritise their own contributions. Although creating trainees in their

own image is not acceptable, it is the duty of the trainer to challenge and correct trainees

when this is called for.

As many of the above data sets point out, it is the trainer's job to train independent

thinking teachers. The trainer is duty-bound to train people who can think for themselves

rather than create clones of themselves. To do this the trainer needs to be exercise a great deal

of control of themselves and be very open-minded in their outlook:

[i]t’s a matter of self-discipline and a question of the objective: Do I want to train people

who think like I do, or do I want to train people who think for themselves

However, should the teacher subscribe to this point of view, the implications are

considerable. Firstly, returning to the sub-question at the start of this section, that is

examining how the trainer can avoid leading trainees down their own preferred

methodological path, one respondent quite simply questioned whether they need to?

Similarly, reflecting data points already cited, there is the clear notion that the trainer should

not avoid to express his preferred path but give the freedom of choice to trainees. Moreover,

having established that it is the role of the trainer to train and teach what they know best, it is

therefore appropriate for the trainer to challenge trainees' existing perceptions, or

established teaching behaviour: [i]f a [s]t[udent] already has had a so-called


‘meth[odological] path’ (lucky s/he is) then the T[eacher]T[rainer] shouldn’t be afraid of

changing the [student]’s thoughts. Nevertheless, this may well indicate that such changing of

the trainee's mind may not be completely successful, yet the very process of challenging the

trainee may well provoke further and more profound engagement with the course content

since the [student] might compare the methods and so allow trainees to draw their own

conclusions about teaching methods and the application of knowledge about teaching. Such

an outcome is surely not one to bemoan.

In order for the trainer to be able to rise to the challenge thrown down by the various

trainee comments given above, it is expected that the trainer can reflect on their own

performance, that is [b]y thinking a lot about the classes, by planning, by self-reflection.

MN Teacher doubt

Control? Clarity? Coherene? Much of a muchness. Much of a muddle. Am I

suited to this type of teaching (training? or whatever it may be deemed ) yet?

This entry exemplifies a theme which reappears throughout the data, namely, a

serious concern as to my suitability as a teacher trainer. It has lead to a certain extent to a

return to basics, a return to the texts of my training days and to the use of procedures

common to newer teacher, for example more detailed lesson plans.

In addition, a good trainer just like a good teacher is always critical and sceptical and

so needs to avoid taking things at face value. Moreover, the trainer should endeavour to see

things from the trainees' perspective, to keep considering the methodology students’

experience and to consult with their trainees, by, for example, conducting a N[eeds]


A[analysis] where apposite. As the foregoing clearly demonstrate the role of the teacher

trainer is one which is in a constant state of flux.

Nevertheless, not all trainees are convinced; they prefer a rejection of the need for

the trainer experience, advocating an alternative approach, one avoiding anecdotes and

sticking to a textbook or a pre-planned road.

Trainees are also pragmatic, aware that, for good or bad, trainees will ultimately

follow their own methodological paths. Therefore, as regards the trainer avoiding the

temptation to lead trainees down their own preferred methodological path, it is recognised that

the trainer can't but [it is] not a problem because [s]tudents will apply those things from the

trainer’s methodology which they like and which suits them, and by implication reject those

which they do not like and which do not suit them.

However, this can be taken a step further, going beyond claims that [t]rainees choose

what they like and apply it to more fundamental observations which may effectively render

teacher trainer input insignificant despite the panoply of techniques available to the teacher

trainer. Accordingly, the trainer can [t]ell his/her opinion, and even ask about ours [the

trainees'], but when we will teach we’ll find and develop our own way – no matter what we’ve

seen before. As a result, the trainer must be prepared to [l]et them [the trainees] do their own

ways. However, by now the perceptive trainer should have realised that in the final analysis

trainee teachers go their own way:

[t]rainees adopt their own methods whatever


Nevertheless the final words must go to the perspicacious trainee who warned of the

dangers of resting on one's laurels:

[t]he best way to become a bad teacher is settle down with a particular method

6.5 Conclusion

Having the courage of one's convictions is essential for this role. As the experienced

teaching expert your knowledge is welcome if provided with care, and, moreover your

contributions are expected. Trainees are prepared to learn by example, but they are acute

enough not to be led astray by the trainer who advocates one methodology to the exclusion of

all others. Be considerate in the sense that you consider what you say before saying it. As the

trainer be proactive and intervene when need be. From the student data it is clear that this is

also expected.


Chapter 7


7.1 Introduction

This chapter follows the same format as the previous chapter. However, the focus shifts to

the trainees and asks them to consider their perceptions of themselves as experienced

teachers or not.

7.2 Research Quesiton: Students on methodology courses often comment that they

have no teaching experience. As far as you are concerned, what does having ‘no

teaching experience’ mean?

The data suggests that students do understand what constitutes having no teaching

experience:

[n]ot teaching anybody anything ever

Similarly, no teaching experience is seen as referring to someone [who] has never

taught before, or, put more floridly, has never taught a class in their life. However, there is an

awareness that having no teaching experience is not the norm: [t]hey haven’t done the

teaching practice yet or they have never had a private student or a group – it rarely happens

but still.


The prevailing viewpoint is that it is direct personal experience of classroom teaching

which makes up teaching experience and without having acquired it oneself no one can be

considered to be experienced: [s]omeone has no teaching experience if he/she has never

taught any students/groups or students in class. Trainees therefore seem to have clear

conceptions of what teaching is or is not and make reference to teaching as a profession in

terms of somebody [who] has never taught in class or in other ways professionally or as who

has not taught a group of state school students.

However, these somewhat predictable responses concerning the lack of teaching

experience, I haven’t taught English to a class of students yet, include subtle indications of

what trainees understand by terms such as 'teaching' and 'experience'. The data include

mention of class, students and group. While these are common everyday terms, they are also

characteristic of teacher's jargon and so are assumed to be used by trainees within the specific

context of teaching. For example, trainees predominantly see teaching experience as

classroom teaching:

[i]t means that the student has never stood in front of a group of students and he/she has

never tried to teach a group

and so define their lack of teaching experience as being due to [t]oo little time being in

a “class”. Furthermore, reference is made to the trainee who has never been to a classroom

where he/she instructed students, focussing on the idea that teaching is characterised by

students gathering together in a classroom with a teacher for the purposes of instruction.

While this is accepted and understood as normal and obvious, it again provides an insight into


what trainees understand by teaching experience, or the lack thereof: I have never faced a

group of people who spoke no English with the intention of "teaching " English to them

In addition to the classroom setting there are views that teaching experience has to

reflect a regularity of teaching and have a ‘real’ institutional context. A trainee precludes

themselves if they haven’t taught a whole group or class yet, or at least not regularly or in a

real school with a real group that is, someone who has not taught a group of state school

students.

The importance of regular teaching experience can also be linked to the process of

learning, as with the example of the trainee who talks about [n]ot having taught anyone

regularly, so [not] being part of a learning process of another person.

However, by emphasising classroom teaching to groups of learners, trainees

frequently resort to denigrating one-to-one teaching. References to the significance of the

number of students in the class show that teaching one-to-one, private lessons or private

students tends to be accorded a lower status by trainees:

[i]t means that s[ome]b[ody] has not taught a class or a group. I don’t think my private

students count for teaching experience.

While it is unnerving that some trainees are so dogmatic in their view that one-to-one

does not constitute teaching, another example being the terse 1:1 ≠ teaching per se, it is

equally revealing that trainees frequently make reference during methodology seminars to

their lack of teaching experience in terms of their only having taught one-to-one or private

students: I have nearly never taught in class before, but I have some private students or [f]or

me it literally means that before I started to do my practice at XYZ, I’ve never taught , except

for a private student for 4 weeks. The irony of the low value placed on one-to-one teaching


appears to have been lost on many trainees who cite teaching experience in class which they

then go on to dismiss when providing data for a survey questionnaire. Other trainees'

responses, however, do not do this and prefer to equate the two: [t]hat one has never taught in

a school or never had private students. Nevertheless, there are those trainees who do take

one-to-one or private lessons seriously, and refer to those who have [n]ever taught anybody in

an organised manner, ie private lessons for money at least.

However, while such a dismissal of one-to-one is unsettling, there is obvious

recognition that teaching is a complex undertaking which requires considerable skill and

understanding: It means that I haven’t taught groups, yet I don’t know how they behave, what

should be done differently. One-to-one teaching experience is not comparable to group

teaching.

A perceptive respondent points out the potential danger of resting on one's laurels,

of how teachers may become too comfortable with their experience after a long time spent in

one place: Teaching at one school for many years. If they teach only at one school, they

might not face with difficulties that might come up in less than ideal situations.

A lack of experience can be seen to lead to a lack of confidence for those [n]ot

experienced enough to form ideas about (their own) teaching because they never tried out the

ideas studied. This is clearly of some importance for the trainee as it usually means that they

are not sure about their abilities in teaching. They feel they have not taught enough to form

ideas about it. Inexperience may also have unexpected consequences in terms of building

relationships with one's students:

you are not confident about your own knowledge, you feel very alienated from the students

– lack of contact with younger generations


However, despite the glum acknowledgement of many that they lack experience, other

trainees offer a broader definition of teaching experience which does not necessarily

include classroom teaching and so contend that [e]veryone has had some kind of non-

traditional teaching experience or that most of us have some kind of teaching experience even

if not gained in a traditional classroom. In terms of comparing formalised classroom

experience there is a recognition that other experience is of value, experience that is

unconscious:

I have 1 months of teaching experience "officially", but I’m sure I have taught some things

even without noticing it

Despite the efforts of the trainer, based on feedback and class discussions, the use of

peer teaching did not always meet with a positive reception: [i]t means that we only have one

peer teaching session per person. It is way too few and even it is taught not to “real” students

but to fellow teacher trainees. It means that the student has never taught before. For this

trainee peer teaching as offered by the trainer falls far short of expectations: not only are there

too few opportunities, it is not “real” teaching.

Going from having no experience to experienced status is clearly a process, the

process of becoming a teacher. Trainees appear cognizant of this and are able to express this

clearly, the person never went through a learning-teaching process, aware that it takes time

and effort. Yet they are equally aware that without experiencing the process themselves, [n]ot

having gone through the process of becoming a teacher, they remain inexperienced:


[a] beginner teacher has to go through the process of experimenting with all kinds of

materials and activities to see which work and which don’t. This takes a lot of time

(and effort) until one finds the best method for oneself. I have not done it yet, so I have

no experience.

MN Dealing with inexperienced and difficult, i.e. uncooperative, class

participants

Today is the first peer teaching (PT) session. Going on the lesson plan's use of

such positive adjectives in connection with the results of the lesson I wonder how

realistic a view they have of teaching. Cynic.

However, despite this, a good performance ensues, and when put on the spot,

the peer teacher gives a good account of themself. But then ‘stop’! a fellow student

refuses to play ball. Why are some people so uncooperative? Have they no feeling for

their colleagues, peers or fellow sufferers? Why do the opposite of what is asked of

one in such a situation. They must know full well how difficult it is to peer teach, so

why not co-operate? However, having done what they did, they succeeded in helping

the peer teacher hone their skills with regard to dealing with such participants. Were

they deliberately playing devil’s advocate? I think not!

Feedback was constructive and did provide some clear, honest assessment and

comment. However, it is clear under such occurrences that no great reserves of

teaching experience as such exist.

This entry considers the lack of empathy on the part of one trainee. I interpreted this

lack as a result of the trainee’s own inexperience teaching groups of students. Subsequent


discussion revealed that the trainee did indeed have very limited experience of teaching

except for individual tuition .

7.3 What are the implications of this for the teacher trainer?

The results from this question were expected to give the teacher trainer an indication

of potential strategies that could be used in the seminars for training purposes.

What is important is that a very obvious majority of the responses to this sub-question

was wholly in agreement regarding the main implication for the teacher trainer: [t]he teacher

trainer should provide as many possibilities for teaching as possible. From a trainees'

perspective it is clear that it is the trainer’s responsibility to present trainees with ways of

gaining experience. One response stood out in its lucidity, placing the blame for insufficient

opportunities fully at the feet of the trainer:

[m]aybe he/she did not provide enough opportunity for students to practice teaching

Another respondent, seemingly accepting of the status quo, suggested an alternative

standpoint that [u]nder the given circumstances it cannot be solved. For good or bad, at the

time the data were collected, Methodology Foundation teachers only had one 90 minute

seminar per week, so the suggestions that with a twice-a-week seminar it could be done was

not a workable solution. Nevertheless, the data indicate clearly that the provision was viewed

as inadequate by some trainees and that they would have responded positively to an increase

in the provision of teaching opportunities:


[p]rovide opportunities to gain more experience, do more practice, via, e. g. peer

teaching, but not forget such is just a trial on the student’s side

The author agrees with trainees that [h]e/she [the trainer] should involve practice as

much as possible into the classes as well as practical advice etc, particularly when, for

example, trainees complain about the number of more theoretical courses as weighed against

the time spent doing teaching practice.

In practical terms for the trainee increasing the teaching opportunities on a

Methodology Foundation equates with the provision of peer teaching in class: [t]hey[the

trainer] will have to provide opportunities for students to peer teach. The trainees are

therefore very much aware aware that [p]eer teaching is necessary and useful as it offers

trainees the chance to listen to others’ experiences and therefore [p]eer-teaching session have

to be organised The trainer is therefore obliged to give the opportunity to the students for

teaching. (e.g. peer teaching).

It will come as no surprise that there is no call for more provision of theory from the

data given here. However, there is a call to balance theory with practice, that is the trainer

should involve more practical stuff, peer teaching for instance in order to meet the [n]eed to

balance theory and practice.

Moreover, as well as asking for more peer teaching and practice teaching, it is

encouraging that students make requests for the chance to observe others’ teaching or

make visits to schools: [o]rganise ... observations or go to a secondary school to visit

classes.

While the data call for more opportunities for trainees to gain more experience, they

also reveal that trainers’ experience and expertise could be utilised given the potential dearth

of teaching experience within a seminar group of trainees. A number of responses referred to


the use of problem-solving tasks and simulations as a means of students gaining

experience of (classroom) teaching:

[t]hey should bring in problem-solving tasks to initiate certain situations. E.g. a text →

[student]s have to think how they would use it in a classroom. The trainer has to create

life-like situations (misbehaving students etc.).

However, the danger inherent in such an approach is that the trainee may see problems

unrealistically because they have no experience. Consequently, they can only imagine

possible problems and possible solutions but it’s very theoretical, [they] have no real

experience of these problems or opportunities to test solutions.

Such a response lends support to the teacher trainer who decides to use their own

experience in class: the trainer clearly has increased recourse to a range of activities that can

realistically provide trainees with more experience. However, as already discussed in the

previous section, [t]he teacher trainer should also emphasize the difficulties that might come

up in less ideal situations. This demonstrates a heightened awareness on the part of trainees as

to the nature of experience and how it can be created or won within the confines of the

Methodology Foundation seminar room.

While the data call for more opportunities for trainees to gain experience, they also

reveal that trainees can gain valuable knowledge by utilising trainers’ experience and

expertise and so corroborate data already presented. One response lends support to the

teacher trainer who decides to use their own experience in class in that trainees should

[b]elieve those with experience. Furthermore, learning from the trainer has clear pragmatic

benefits given the enormity of the task facing the trainee:


[…the trainer] can help the trainees by sharing the knowledge he has gained through

years of teaching, therefore sparing them time and effort.

However, the next set of responses give pause for the teacher trainer in as much that

they reveal a potential gulf in perceptions between the trainee teacher and the teacher

trainer. Teacher trainers delivering the seminars described in Chapter 1 are working under

considerable pressure to cover a set number of topics in a certain time. As a result,

unfortunately, the trainer may well be, or become, oblivious of the feelings and concerns of

trainees:

(s)he [the trainer] should not expect us to give the perfect/right answers (there is no

perfect answer, after all) for something that we haven’t experienced, yet.

This set of data is a distinct call for teacher trainers to recognise the true nature of

the trainee' situation, namely that the trainer should be aware of the fact that not all

members of the class have taught so far. Consequently the trainer:

shouldn’t take for granted that I know what he knows. Sometimes more basic explanation

is needed

Such recognition may range from being aware that students may be fully ignorant of

the teacher’s job and so uncertain of themselves and their future role, through to the need for

trainers to empathise with trainees and adopt the trainees’ view wherever possible. In

addition, the trainer needs to be, and certainly needs to be seen to be, patient & helping, and


wherever possible the trainer should [t]ry to motivate and encourage their trainees. Trainees

appear very much aware of the notion that teachers make use of a certain amount of jargon, as

is also well illustrated by the observation that trainees [d]on’t have teacherly answers ready

since they have ‘no teaching experience’ to give ‘teacherish’ answers to all the questions.

Similarly, the trainer shouldn’t expect trainees to be ready to give ingenious ideas in class.

While trainees advocate that the trainer provide opportunities to gain more experience, do

more practice, via, e. g. peer teaching as described above, this is qualified by the request that

the trainer should take into account that for trainees peer teaching is just a trial on the

student’s side.

MN Emphasise the need to write appropriate lesson plans with a coherent

linked set of activities around a clear teaching point or points with a stated aim to the

session.

In the whole scheme of things last week's principal devil's advocate got their

comeuppance today. The lesson was not a coherent whole and the lesson plan

reflected this in its being A SET OF UNRELATED ACTIVITIES with none of the

elements characteristic of a formal lesson plan. There was no build up, very little

coherence and no clear language goals were stated, nor were they implied.

The trainee mentioned in a previous entry now gave their own peer teaching session

and this revealed a very serious dearth of knowledge of what is required to plan and teach a

short session and a clear lack of experience in teaching. This ought to prompt trainers to

reconsider their approach to their trainees and teacher training and take time to reflect on

what it means for a trainee to be in training. Part of this reflection should involve

recognition that the trainees are not knowledgeable about what being a teacher entails.


In this case this is exemplified by the comment that:

[the trainer] mustn’t expect that st[udent]ts know anything about being a teacher. They

only know it from the student’s point of view

An alternative perspective is supplied by trainees observing that trainers are prone to

misread situations, assuming potentially negative attitudes on the part of students which could

be all too easily changed for the better with more open discussion and consideration of the

true reality of the situation. The data shows that [s]ome students have serious misconceptions

about teaching and so it is imperative that trainers tackle these head on and address the

discomfort trainees may feel about their lack of experience, real or perceived. This is

necessary because the trainer may misread the situation and wrongly attribute attitudes to

trainees. This is often manifested during Methodology seminars by trainees being unsure of

themselves, their experience and their ideas:

[t]he teacher trainer may think that students are discouraged or they do not want to share

ideas

Feeling embarrassed during peer-teaching, lacking confidence, or just being simply

worried are characteristics of anyone embarking upon something new, they are not to be

equated with ignoring the harsh realities of the classroom as they are wont to be

misinterpreted by the trainer.

Before acquiring status as an experienced teacher, trainees need to be aware of the

great benefit of knowledge won by and for themselves, yet by the same token a greater part


of experience involves coming to terms with the limitations of our knowledge. The trainer

should help trainees improve the relevance and usefulness of their own resources, while at

the same time, as the last comment shows, making them aware of where else to look for help

with their teaching.

In view of some of the constituent parts of experience, students may find the task

daunting and seek comfort in what they know, that is [r]ely on our own learning experience.

Trainers, therefore, must be aware of students' default position: trainees can only use what

they know and have experienced:

[i]n this case we have to rely on or learning experience and one-to-one teaching

experience and believe those who have teaching practice.

As identified above, this may lead to the contradictory situation of students having to

[r]ely on private 1:1 experience despite the view that it counts for little in the mind of many

trainees.

Such reliance on one's own learning experience reflects my own situation described in

Chapter 2 as a Language Assistant in the Federal Republic of Germany in the mid-1980s and

later as a lector in the late 1980s and early 1990 in the German Democratic Republic where I

fell back on the experience gained in the language classrooms where I had been a pupil and

student. Similarly, my initial experience of teacher training during the early 2000s was one

where I imitated people who had trained me rather than allow myself to develop my own

approach.

Trainees are able to prove Lortie (1975) right in that they recognise that observing

others teach does not constitute teaching experience per se. However, the idea of an

apprenticeship of observation does have currency if recognised for what it is. Despite claims


to the contrary, there are potentially beneficial aspects of watching other teachers teach even

though the data item below points to a lack of awareness amongst trainees of what Lortie

described as 'the apprenticeship of observation' (p.61):

[s]tudents do not tend to consider their experience about their former teachers as teaching

experience and also, much practice is needed during the training.

Trainers are well advised to bring this idea to the attention of their trainees, Lortie’s

criticisms notwithstanding, since it allows trainees potential access to a wealth of experience,

some of which they will view positively, some less so. Watching others teach is an example

of a training resource, very largely untapped, available to all in every classroom. If for no

other reason, watching others teach will emphasise the creativity that teaching involves.

7.4 What counts as experience?

According to the data, [a]ny kind of teaching can constitute teaching experience, as

can the realisation that [i]t is hard to determine what counts as experience, 1 year or two

years of teaching. I don’t think there is such a borderline’ It has already been seen above that

some trainees are able to think in broader terms, not confining themselves solely to the

experience of teaching in a classroom. The data from this section attempts to reflect trainees'

views on what constitutes experience.

One obvious but oft overlooked characteristic of being experienced is that of not

being a student any longer. However, as if validating the worthy process of acquiring

experience via an apprenticeship of observation, it is seen that trainees by virtue of being a

student they know what a bad student is! Another comment reflects this same notion: [i]n my


opinion, each student who used to be at school at one time must have some experience…

They may know what is a “bad” teacher like’

MN Teacher expectations

Before I nipped back to the office, I offered the space, i.e. the teacher’s space

at the front of the class, to the peer teacher. On my return the space is empty. Am I in

possession even in my absence? My communication was (could have been) obviously

faulty/unclear, but I can't quite grasp the lack of initiative on the part of those who (at

least appear to) want to become teachers or to teach… Am I being unfair here? Was I

as organised as these people at 21/22/23?

Was I as linguistically competent? Was I as courageous? I don't know. I have

little comparison and my lot was very different. I ought to be more daring with this

class, ask provocative questions, play devil's advocate. It's the perfect forum, perhaps

we'd be the perfect actors.

As this entry reveals, I was puzzled by the peer teacher’s reluctance to take over the

teaching space I had, purposely, vacated for them. However, the event threw back the focus

on myself, causing me to reflect at my behaviour in their position. Hindsight is a great

leveller, but I doubt whether I would have reacted very differently. This entry also prompted

me to ponder the significance of experience as a teacher and what that means in practical

and theoretical terms. As the data from this sub-question reveal, becoming a teacher can

entail a long and hard process of stopping being a student.

This then goes some way to countering what is effectively one trainee’s dismissal of

the experience won by watching others: I don’t think that having learnt English in a school


myself” counts as experience in teaching! Sadly this view is common and causes trainees to

ignore a valuable resource that they can bring to their classrooms, that of the ability to reflect

on their actions in the classroom.

From the data come a range of views which together go some way towards providing

a broad definition of experience for the purposes of teacher training. These can range from

a view of experience which does not focus exclusively on teaching:

your experience as a learner when having English, another foreign language; experience

as a teacher of English or of other languages (including L1) to a group or to

individuals/private students/siblings (for a couple of weeks)

to one which emphasises the practical over the theoretical: [f]or me experience is

when you already had a few lessons taught, and not just planned it on [a] sheet. To the fully

inclusive notion of [a]ny kind of encounter with teaching, either as a recipient or performer

and includes both sides of the process, teaching and learning. Further, data also reflects the

findings from Research Question 2 as well as raising new points, for example the idea that

teaching experience can include more than the transfer of content knowledge or specific

skills. It can also include being in a situation in which one had to teach s[ome]th[ing] which

had an emotional effect on the person, or similarly [s]ituations we remember, can relate to.

The teaching experience should be one where the would-be-teacher acts like a real teacher,

one which allows the would-be- teacher to feel what being a teacher is like.

Significantly, such a broad definition allows every attempt to teach something to

somebody [t]o counts as experience… and [w]e can learn from every attempt. This reference

to making an attempt reveals another important characteristic of the teaching experience: that


of [t]eaching in a conscious way. Experiencing mistakes and correcting them. For the trainee

the experience of teaching can be stimulating:

if you are challenged to do something on your own. Experience a teaching situation from

the teacher’s point of view.

However, for the majority of trainees, experience is gained via real teaching within

the formalised confines of the school classroom through via hard work and application. In this

view peer teaching no longer counts. It is the classroom that is the real “battleground”,

anything else counts for very little:[w]hen the teacher trainee teaches real students, not peer

trainees or reflecting the teaching environments where many trainees succeed in working

teaching in a secondary school. If you don’t know what teenagers are like, you don’t know

how to teach them.

This type of teaching means that the teacher teaches in front of a group without any

supporting background, having been trained in holding and organising a lesson for a

class/group, and in a methodologically based way. This then is achieved because of [t]he

knowledge that have accumulated through the years of practice and practical skills; a wide

range of materials and activities.

This hard won experience is also the result of sustained and regular teaching. Such

sustained regularity of teaching adds to the characterisation of learning to teach as a process,

a process with results and outcomes that need to be experienced. It is this process which must

result from [r]egular (not one-off) teaching. This regularity is variously defined as [t]eaching

a group or a class in school for more than a few times or [h]aving taught for a year at least

more or less regularly.


This process of learning to teach can be supported by an environment that is

designed for learning and teaching along with the inner forces [which] form the group.

Having said that, it is also necessary to be aware of aspects of teaching which do not lend

themselves to easy identification or quantification, that is to be able to handle the

unexpected. Moreover, it is a process that does not end upon completion of a teacher training

course, but involves informal as well as formal elements, that is the exchange of ideas with

others along with more formalised provision:

[t]alking to colleagues as much as possible about their own experience, taking part in

teacher training courses even after graduation.

7.5 Conclusion

Trainees are generally aware of their lack of experience , however, they do not all

agree what constitutes experience or how to go about obtaining it. Peer teaching is advocated

by the trainer but some disparage this option considering it less than the real thing. Despite

the efforts of the trainer to encourage a wide variety of teaching experience this is not always

successful. Surprisingly, one-to-one, the default teachng mode for many students is frequently

given low status, ironically while counting as experience of teaching at the same time.

Trainees need to be proactive in finding teaching opportunities for themselves.


Chapter 8


8.1 Introduction

This question encourages the trainees to reflect on their own experience of the

classroom and consider the qualities of a teaching professional. For many the question is

externalised because they concentrate on teachers they know; for others they visualise

themelves as the teaching professional.

8.2 Research Question: What is a teaching professional?

According to one respondent a teaching professional can be defined simply as:

somebody who makes their living out of teaching

However, his [or her] experience, that is practical experience of teaching, was seen

as paramount, with a teaching professional being variously defined as somebody […] trained

to teach […] professionally, or as [a] person with lots of experience in teaching, that is a

[v]ery good teacher – has teaching experience. However, the professionalism of a teacher

amounts to more than experience; it could include somebody working in a qualified and

quality institution, and so reflect the consideration of the institutional teaching context

discussed. Equally it could refer to [a] teacher whose methods [and] teaching practice [are]


highly respected by other teachers, or likewise to a successful teacher. Meaning that he/she

knows how to help students reach their aims. And does so.☺ What's more, can convey this

knowledge. So, while practical experience is clearly important, the ability to work and interact

on a human level when using this practical experience is also significant:

[i]t is someone who has a lot of practice + has empathy towards students + can get the

sympathy of the students + someone who is not rude, arrogant, author[itarian]

MN Made a lesson plan – leading by example, and I spoke my lesson

preparation onto tape in order to check it against my plan later to avoid it going astray

or being recorded over.

Organised, prepare, clear about what I want to do… and… determined to do it.

Not quite a multimedia performance but by ELTE standards, nearly.

Last night's long preparation (1.5 hrs) was, in fact, worth it Next week I'll see

the fruits of my labours with a double dose of worksheets – reading and writing Dip.

TEFLA-type material! Should be eye-opening a least.

So, on the whole rather happy with myself. And though I know that there is not

a place for judgemental feedback, there is a place for this here. After many of these

classes, I leave with a bitter-sweet taste in my mouth. Some things more and some less

so. Active participation has increased greatly yet I still feel, on occasion that more is

needed in terms of content.

This comment reveals a move by the trainner to reconsider aspects of their

approach. Mention is made of preparation, selection of appropriate materials yet there is


an obvious consideration of the students and learning before the materials. The trainer

appears to be making a concerted effort to provide his trainees with what they need.

In addition to the above, knowledge defines a [v]ery good professional, that is

[k]knowledge of methodology and psychology, as well as the need to be [w]ell-informed, with

up-to-date methods; consciously doing what he has to do. The notion of being conscious is

expanded in terms of [k]knowing what to do & when, being devoted & having responsibility,

which links to the need for [s]haring our knowledge with students in a specific subject.

Overall, the teaching professional should possess:

[k]nowledge in 3 fields: - subject matter, - pedagogical, - human relations

Furthermore, a combination of the above, teaching experience and knowledge of

teaching, that is somebody who has both theoretical and practical experience, was suggested.

The teaching professional possess [t]he skills, knowledge, experiences, and strategies

concerning teaching and therefore:

[s]someone who has a couple of years of practical experience and also knows about the

theory

However, experience of teaching and knowledge about teaching were not seen as

wholly sufficient. As already indicated by the inclusion of such personal attributes as empathy

and sympathy and exhibiting such characteristics as not being rude, arrogant or

author[itarian], the teaching professional needs more than experience and knowledge: a

commitment to teaching one's subject and one's students is also considered necessary:


I think it is when somebody is truly committed to teaching the subject & to the students

Such commitment, exemplified by [s]someone who is very devoted and professional

in their teaching, would also involve sharing, as already discussed, [b]eing ready and willing

to give your students as much as you can as well as a commitment to develop:

[a] person who is dedicated and enthusiastic about teaching + who is willing to perform

self-training and development from time to time

However, such development is seen as more than an occasional undertaking. The

teacher who develops does more than only teaching → they go to conferences, are adopting

new materials, discuss problems with other teachers, and make research. Furthermore,

development is seen as [c]onstant development, trying to do our [best], consulting

colleagues, experimenting with new ideas, keeping up with innovations. Therefore, at the end

of the teacher training process:

a teaching professional is someone, who is trained to be a teacher and engages in

continuous development

In terms of professionalism trainees are variously ambivalent. On the one hand,

teachers are professional, just like doctors or ministers, and teachers carr[y] a huge

[r]esponsibility!, while on the other [t]here is no such thing. Those who speak about

themselves as ‘professionals’ always loses the real meaning of the words ‘profession’ and


teaching. Teachers should not concern themselves with notions of teacher professionalism;

they should simply teach what is prescribed and teach the students. However, defined more

fully, teaching professionalism encompasses knowledge and skills along with [b]eing able [,]

willing and [having the] know how:

[a] teacher is a professional when they consider the methodological aspect for their field

when preparing for the class, they monitor their own performance and constantly

revise their methods and material.

8.3 What is ‘classroom culture’?

Trainees understand classroom culture as a collection of customs, norms, rules and

traditions common to a classroom:

[t]he rules, customs, habits of a particular group which are developed by teacher and

students, preferably by negotiation

It is significant that classroom culture is particular to a group and that it is brought

about by both teacher and students via negotiation, and so could include the way of teaching

students are used to. This depiction is important in terms of the implications it has for the

categories which follow, for example that of group dynamics.

The common rules of a classroom culture can be both written and oral; classroom

culture encompasses the characteristics of both the group and the individual, and so reflects


the ways they [the class] like to do things, for example paying attention to each other, not

talking while the other student is talking. However, classroom culture can also include such

things as students’ family background, intelligence, motivation or the students['] knowledge

of the language, each other, their behaviour, social background. Trainees therefore seem very

much aware that the culture of a classroom is unique to that classroom: [t]he culture where

students live and learn[…and ][t]heir habits and beliefs. As a result a classroom culture

reflects the people, whether as individuals, as members of the whole group or as members of

one of the various sub-groups:

[e]very class has its own ‘way of life’ habits, rituals, spoken & unspoken rules. This is the

culture

Classroom culture can have various manifestations: everything that forms regularity in

a class… a [form of] greeting, the way of talking or some posters on the wall, as well as

rapport in/with the class. The dual nature of the last trainee quotation reflects the multifaceted

nature of classroom culture and hints at the numerous groupings present within a classroom.

For example, rapport in… the class could indicate the rapport among trainees as a whole, and

could or could not include the trainer, or the rapport amongst certain groups or even

individuals, again possible including the trainer. However, the notion of rapport…with the

class would appear to point to the rapport the trainer has with the trainees. What all these

manifestations point towards is a suitable atmosphere for learning.

As indicated above, the culture of a classroom is influenced by the dynamics of the

group:


[t]he way teacher and students and students among themselves interact

[a]s well as how the group is organized and its atmosphere. Factors which are seen to

engender a group dynamic for the good include shared experiences which form a common

history for the members of the group:

[t]he ideas and stories shared by the members of the classroom which are related to their

common past.

In a similar vein, shared values of “what a class should be like among the students

and the teacher” harks back to a common ancestry of knowledge most likely won from

individuals' previous experiences of the classroom, effectively their 'apprentice of observation'

(Lortie, 1975). Reference to what a classroom ought to be is also found when trainees refer to

behaviour and expectations. These appear to be very closely linked to what is done in a

certain classroom and how it is done. Trainees suggest that this could include [m]aybe the

usual behaviour of a given class or on an individual level, and more tentatively and hence the

question mark, [t]he way I appear and I behave? There is recognition that the classroom

requires behaviour peculiar to itself:

[o]ne has to behave differently in a classroom than on the corridor or out on the street

and that these are behaviours and attitudes that are accepted in the class. There

appears to be an overlap with the customs and the like already referred to above as trainees

mention that [c]lassroom culture includes all the behaviours, expectations, [and] attitudes

that you can expect in a class along with rituals, the way of communication, [and] roles that


characterise the classroom. Most interestingly, there is a significant overt reference made to

the teacher in terms of [h]ow the teacher behaves & dresses in the classroom which would

suggest that classrooms require something not only of the pupils but also of the teacher. In

terms of teacher training this suggests an awareness of what awaits trainees in their future

career choice. Ultimately, the reason for an accepted way of doing something has a purpose:

[t]he accepted behaviour students should follow in order to do[…] effective work.

MN Methodological approach

For many the classroom should be a way of quickly getting the answers. This is

exemplified by a call for pulling activities out of a hat, offering a few tips and tricks or

adopting the tool-kit approach:However, this is not the long-term best solution,

although I know that it will go down well.

Despite witnessing this approach to teacher education, I was concerned from the

very beginning that I should not do the same. However, I was acutely aware that most

students, at least initially, expected this approach to the course. It reveals a clear tension

between student expectations of what this particular classroom will be about and how I

envisage it.

As a particular group within a particular context with its own past and present it is no

surprise that a classroom culture can bring forth group knowledge. This can include a group

[k]nowing in general about habits, customs and rules within the classroom and in the school

itself (eg knowing the official school rules) or a group which has [k]nowledge of all the


important facts of the group life. As with the previous discussion of behaviour and

expectations, the teacher is perceived as one of the participants, like them a user and holder of

group knowledge:

[b]eing used to and knowing well the life of the class including you as the teacher as well

Trainees make mention of the contribution of atmosphere to a classroom culture. The

particular atmosphere of a classroom culture brings together various of the elements already

discussed in this section in as much as it can be shaped by the special age/social group of the

students, [or] influenced also by their background knowledge and needs. Similarly, it is the

reliability and attitude of students which can create an atmosphere. The full beneficial

potential of atmosphere to a classroom culture is described as:

[a] special atmosphere, nothing like other cultures where the most beautiful things take

place learning, thinking

Once again, there is a clear acknowledgement that the teacher, ultimately the trainees

themselves at some future date, has a pivotal role to play:

[i]n a class, there is a different atmosphere, different aims, different coherence in a group

While this acknowledges the importance of the atmosphere created by the teacher, at

the same time it also highlights the concern felt by trainees who perceive a deficiency in their

teacher training, namely that what takes place within seminars, including peer teaching and


discussion, does not reflect what goes on the classrooms they are being trained to enter,

overwhelmingly state secondary classrooms.

Bringing together all of the above categories leads to the realisation that each

classroom culture is unique and that it is incumbent upon the classroom teacher to be aware

of this and behave accordingly: [a] class is like an individual. You should know it before you

deal with it. However, the situation is somewhat more complicated:

[a] classroom is a micro-society with specific socio-psychological processes, however,

also every student should be treated as individually as it is possible. A classroom as a

group will react to the teacher’s personality and work, so it is also a task for the

teacher to make themselves accepted by a class. A class is also a purpose-driven

community, which might be an advantage in studying or on the contrary it might

provoke resistance.

Consequently, trainees should know that a classroom culture is not only a distinctive

entity the characteristics of which reflect the whole group, but one also characterised by its

members, either as individuals or as groupings within the whole group. The teacher has to be

prepared for this situation and must strive to ensure that working with the group is possible

given the dynamics of such a group as outlined above. In addition, since a classroom culture

comes together for a specific purpose this can prove beneficial and so facilitate learning, or

conversely, be more malign and hinder learning as a result. It is for this that the trainee should

be prepared during the process of teacher training.


One consequence of compulsory education is that trainees may have spent so long in

education that some of them are no longer able to rationalise a classroom culture. Having

spent a considerable amount of time in a particular environment, it can often prove difficult to

describe it. One is too close to conduct any profound examination of the situation. Unable to

say what they understood by classroom culture one trainee proffered:

I don’t really know. STUFF I TAKE FOR GRANTED AFTER 18 YEARS OF

EDUCATION, I GUESS.

The use of underlined capital letters in the original emphasises the strong feelings of

the respondent and ought to give pause for thought that overexposure can have a dulling

effect.

8.4 How are you initiated into the culture of the classroom?

Although most trainees did not describe their initiation in such graphic terms as this:

I took a deep breath and minutes later I became a brand new person

the notion of learning to teach by doing or by living it is a strong one. Overall, the data

reveal that for trainees initiation can be a process of self-initiation since [i]t cannot be told or

showed. You can learn this culture only if you are part of the class. So while it is possible that

trainees get advice from others, for example initiation in terms of a teacher who already has

experience with that class, tells you the basics, then you learn it on the way, initiation only


really comes [w]ith the first teaching experience, that is [b]y having experience with a given

class and [b]y paying attention to the students. Despite advocates of [c]lassroom observation,

reading the school rules, talking to colleagues, trainees are aware that more is needed. In the

case that observation is deemed to be useful, trainees are advised to [o]bserve teachers

teaching but still try to remain yourself, a piece of advice which resonates with earlier

responses to Research Questions 1 and 2 in terms of trainees being open to their trainer's

anecdotes, advice and authority, but not to the extent that the trainee negates their own

ideas, experience and knowledge.

The importance of knowing one's students is cited because as a teacher [y]ou have to

be interested in the [studen]ts in the class; likewise, interacting with one's students is key to

understand[ing] the relationship among the students or to building relationships with the

group members. It is also suggested that [teacher]s can take time [with] group building so

they can be part of the C[lassroom] C[ulture] as exemplified in the previous section when

discussing the role of group dynamics. In doing this teachers should be sensitive towards

students['] needs, [and] interests, make activities after class, [and] become a partner in the

learning process. However, such sensitivity and interest can also imply that the teacher

should go further and get involved in the exercises, [and] try to get rid of the teacher-role as

many times as possible. Such advice reflects the attitude of trainees that teacher participation

in classroom activities can be a way to break down barriers between pupils and teachers.

To a certain extent, the new teacher finds that the class is already formed. Under

such circumstances they are faced with a choice, to accept the status quo or break new ground

via negotiation with pupils: [t]he rules are already set up or they are discussed together with

the whole class or you either adopt the already established ones or form new ones with your


students]s. Nevertheless, there is also a recognition that teachers… are always going to [be]

leaders […this means that] they have all the rules & obligations of a leader…[b]ut all groups

have a leader, so they’re part of the ‘culture’ and despite the suggestion of negotiation and

discussion, the teacher's role is also fixed, just as are the established rules. As a result trainees

realise that it falls to the new teacher to set the boundaries of behaviour, interaction,

activities, style, [and] form.

Initiation is seen as a slow and gradual process allowing the teacher to pay attention

to what & how people do in my class. This acclimatisation process allows initiates to get used

to the specific classroom culture after several classes. However, despite the benefits of the

initiation process being done [s]lowly [and] gradually, an initiation which is [t]oo slow (or

no) initiation can be a problem.

Certain trainees saw themselves as being not initiated, and instead maintained that

they:

[s]till have a lot to learn.

This comment should not be seen as an admittance of ignorance, but rather as

recognition of the current level of awareness and knowledge. Being able to admit that one still

has much to learn is an important characteristic which will stand any trainee teacher and

teacher-to-be in good stead in their own practice. Such an admission reflects the

circumstances of those trainees who have not yet had the opportunity to teach their own

classes (or, as above, do not regard peer teaching to be representative of teaching) and so have

not had the advantage of immersion into learning to teach by teaching. However, as with the

notion of being experienced, the state of being initiated is one which may very well accrue


benefit from [s]itting in classrooms for decades along with all attendant implications for the

apprenticeship of observation that such an comment brings with it.

The final word goes to the trainee with an optimistic, proactive outlook who advises

that as far as initiation into a classroom culture is concerned uninitiated teachers should [g]et

to know it, get to love it, get to form it.

8.5 What is expected of you by your future teaching colleagues, supervisors, mentors


The teacher, be they neophyte or old hand, is expected to be a problem solver:

[the teacher is] expected to tackle problems that can occur within any group

In order to fulfil such a role the teacher is expected to know what is going on in the

classroom, among our students under the surface & […] should notice in time every problem

& be able to solve it. In order to do this the teacher is expected to know their students:

I should [k]now my students, I should build up the lessons as taking them into

consideration and consciously

According to trainees, knowing one's students also involves being interested in whom

you teach. Wherever possible this should involve being aware of their students' experiences

(what hobbies, Sports, music etc. they like, who are friends with who), as well as information


about them in terms of their strengths and weaknesses […], names […], level and

knowledge[…], former learning[…], former books, teachers……, relationships among the

[student]s (who likes working with whom) […], how they learn as well as very practical

knowledge in terms of being able to prevent accidents and, as seen previously, the knowledge

of how to be able to be part of it, that is part of the classroom culture. If a teacher knows their

students they are better placed to adapt to their needs, find out their strengths and weaknesses

and use proper procedures with that particular group. Likewise, knowledge of one's students

well greatly facilitate classroom management given that in any teaching context [s]tudents

have to adopt to others and to the teacher especially.

MN Meeting immediate ‘Monday morning’ needs vs. providing the necessary

teacher skills and knowledge

Trying hard to make this class interesting. Already should have known that the

initial draw was the possibility to learn some of the numerous tips and tricks. That, as

always, only a majority had seen the course description on the website CD and that

their quick feedback said as much, I ought to have known. Now I need to get to know

them better, find out what makes them tick and slowly work them round to the

realisation that quick fixes are all well and good, but they are just that, quick! Their

colleagues in scholl will have expected us to have provided them with more than that.

This reflects another entry which revealed that trainees, here a new group, possibly,

perceive teacher training as the acquisition of quick-fix tips and tricks. As a trainer I ought

to be able to dispel that myth or at least encourage realistic consideration of what they are

expected to be and do as a newly qualified teacher.

In addition, the teacher is expected to have content and methodological knowledge

at their finger tips. This includes knowledge of the subject matter and the theoretical


background of teaching […] along with knowledge of current methods, […] ideas, [and]

how to adopt them […], as well as classroom management techniques and their variants. On

the very practical but certainly no less important level the teacher also needs to know where

certain things are (chalk, keys, sponge, TV, other equipment), and where students sit and

who’s who […]. It is equally important that the teacher knows such practicalities as the rules

[and…] the customs of the school (not necessary written rules).

As demonstrated at the end of the previous section, acknowledging one's

shortcomings in terms of knowledge and skills is not to be derided:

[t]o be honestly relevant about your knowledge

reveals a teacher who is willing to learn and thus knowledgeable about themselves.

The role of the teacher as prime mover is seen as important yet nuanced. On the one

hand the teacher is expected:

to be able to handle a bunch of people, and teach them what needs to be taught

since they have an important role as perhaps you [the teacher] have a greater opportunity to

“move the string” within the community. While on the other, [a]s a teacher one has to be

careful to find the balance[to…] be dominant but not overdominating [in] the class. In

addition, it is the teacher who is expected to be able to help [with] the creation of good group

dynamics as well as being co-operative both with them [other teachers] & the students.

The teacher is expected to make a significant contribution to student motivation:


[a] task of the teacher is to motivate students and to teach them as much as they can learn.

In order to achieve this, the teacher is expected to utilise whatever method is appropriate, for

example one trainee suggests that teacher exploit their knowledge of their students to that end:

[i]t’s easier to motivate students through their interests (e.g. in a Hip-Hop cultured class Hip-

Hop music and lyrics used).

From those trainees who had completed their teaching practice came indications of

changing and changed expectations. The experience of having taught classes, albeit under

the supervision of a mentor, heightened their awareness of expectations on the one hand, and

the translation of those expectations into reality on the other:

during your teaching practice you are expected to accept all rules etc. set up by the mentor

teacher; later when you have your own group you can establish [your] own rules in

accordance with the school’s policy

This trainee hints at what happens during the process of becoming a teacher: one

makes the role one's own, one matures into it.

8.6 Conclusion

Trainees have sufficient experience of the classroom to be aware of what constitutes

teacher professionalism, even if a few cast doubt on the very notion. In addition, trainees are

also aware of what contributes to a clasroom culture and how they can contribute also.

Frequent mention is made of the contributin of motivation, group dynamics and the creation

of a positive atmsophere.


Chapter 9


9.1 Introduction

This chapter address a major concern for all teachers, methodology or no, the area of

reading and whether their students, or here trainee teachers, read, and read sufficiently to be

able to make the most of their course.

9.2 Research Question: How can the course materials, in particular the readings,

best be exploited for maximum comprehension and usefulness?

Participants suggested a variety of ways in which the course materials, and the

readings specifically, could be best used. Useful cautions to [a]lways keep an eye on the

students’ level, abilities, interest, etc.’ and to [c]hoose texts, which are interesting (even from

the students’ point of view) were offered. The latter response appearing to suggest that

intrinsic student interest was not considered, at least by them, as significant.

Naturally, some course participants failed to answer the question, and one trainee

response expressed their dislike: [to] tell the truth, I didn’t like the course materials, they

were just words and not much practice for me. An answer which revealed a common concern,

as illustrated below, that the readings were insufficiently practical for many.

In terms of theory and practice course materials:


should be relevant and practical

The approach to using course materials should concentrate on learning about theories

and putting them into practice that is [t]o examine how it works in everyday life, in a

classroom setting. Corroborating previous evidence, the preference is for transferring them

[theories] to practise (even if only talking about it). Again, such comments clearly reflect the

strong tendency to rate practice higher than theory, as seen in Research Question 2

The theory – practice balance tips towards keeping it practical and calls for trainers

to avoid being over-academic & theoretical and, moreover, to reduce the readings to only the

most practical ones.

MN Readings

Surprise, surprise! There is not too much enthusiasm for the Richards and

Rodgers chapters (one lone voice!). I'm pleased I used Post-Its to collect this data. I

want to make more use of classroom data of this sort, I just need to get myself more…

This entry reveals a phenomenon that comes to characterise my experience teaching

methodology over the next three years. The theme of students preferring the inherently

practical (in their view) to the theoretical (again in their view) is to recur throughout the

data analysis process. As will be seen from questionnaire data, comments on the readings

per se are predominantly tinged with the negative.

Various proposals are made as to how this is to be achieved. One suggestion being a

call for close reading and analysis, that is the


[r]eading line-by-line

of course reading materials in order for trainees, and trainer, [t]o know them from the

inside out. Similarly there were suggestions to go [into] them deeply even if it takes more

time, and get feedback […] or to apply […] a step-by-step approach (top → bottom) and

calling attention to different things in texts through, of course, various exercises , then getting

feedback on it through a test, oral or written.

However, while there was agreement that close reading was a necessity, there was

disagreement as to when it and the subsequent analysis should take place: [t]hey should be

carefully read and analysed before using it in class, or […] the whole text can be analysed

during class, so that any possible misunderstanding can be cleared. The important point here

for the trainer is that there should be some form of feedback on the readings.

The data identifies the great significance of classroom discussion or debate of the

readings:

[t]hey need to be discussed thoroughly and from different points of view.

Linked to the point in the preceding section related to the clearing up of

misunderstandings, trainees suggest that they discuss difficult points in readings, [and…] also

share their opinions/ideas/experience which are related to e.g. classroom management

because [b]y [d]iscussing what we read in the articles [… we can] somehow try to

demonstrate them through practice. A change of focus in terms of the content of the

prescribed readings was also put forward. The trainer should choose articles/readings that


contain rather attitudes, approaches, principles and not facts; a more lively discussion is

possible about ways of looking at things than about facts. This reflects some of the findings

from Research Question 3 in terms of trainees not having sufficient teaching experience and

therefore lacking the ability to understand the content of some of the prescribed readings.

A further contribution refers to the use of standard classroom activities, that is lots of

talking […] and exercises and activities to check the understanding. However, the same

contribution adds that a text should be authentic. The classroom implications of this for the

trainer's approach to the readings are discussed in the following paragraph. There were also

suggestions that [t]he teacher trainer should put together a lot of activities [and…] questions

to initiate a debate in class about the readings or that the trainer prepare handouts that

summarise the content or make notes. Fortunately, the same trainee proposes that the trainer

could also have students do them and thus foreshadows the notion that the trainer need not be

solely responsible for all the preparation.

Added to such discussion is the proposal that the situations described in the readings

be problematised: [b]esides discussions, there should be questions related to the problems

that [arose] in the readings or [a]fter reading, we can discuss the main points or the

problematic points of readings. An alternative approach puts some of the onus of thinking and

preparation on the trainees to [p]repare […] at least two questions or problematic issues from

the articles which could be discussed at the first half of the lesson. Alternatively, trainees

could [w]rite a short passage about the readings: what did the students like or dislike about

the text and why […], and thus explore the emotional side to teaching rather than concentrate

solely on content knowledge as is so often the case.


A prescient comment exposes an area of weakness common to many of the course

readings, namely that the readings might often represent ideal situations in [the] classroom.

As a consequence, the same trainee suggests that [t]hey are good starting points for what we

should take into considerations when teaching and so proposes a method for dealing with

some of the prescribed readings in a way that melds theory with practice

Following on from classroom discussion and debate, trainees suggested the use of

reading comprehension tasks, for example:

[s]tudents may be asked to write comprehension check questions about the readings.

(Maybe one students for one lesson and the others answer them in pairs)

For the trainer this is a particularly important suggestion: not only does it place the

onus of preparation with the trainees, it also springs from the trainees themselves and so

provides a very useful example of trainees taking responsibility for their own learning, an

attribute of vital importance to all teachers, not least of all for the newly trained teacher.

A conventional approach to comprehension could entail a formula familiar from the

teaching of reading (as advocated by some of the course materials): [w]ith pre-reading

exercises introducing the topic of the material, then reading for a general idea, discussing

unknown words, reading for details and a follow-up exercise concerning the topic or the

language of the text. As a trainer of teaching methodology there is little to be said against

such a suggested approach; not only does it exemplify real world practice, it also offers

trainees an opportunity to experience such practice and so make their own conclusions as to

its effectiveness.


Naturally there are those who disagree strongly with prescribed course readings and do

not advocate active trainee participation. For some, consideration of the prescribed

readings is misplaced: I believe that it is enough that the students read them at home, the

emphasis should be on peer-teaching, or practice. Once again, given the dismissal of peer

teaching by some trainees this reveals an interesting permutation in regard to the way content

is addressed on methodology courses. As with all teaching situations, it is difficult to satisfy

all participants at the same time. However, raising this point can be used productively within

methodology seminars to alert trainee teachers to just such an eventuality.

For others it is much clearer: [l]ess readings, maybe comprehension check [question]s

for the readings (before the class → printed on the photocopy). While this is obviously a less

welcome response for the author, it represents a view worthy of consideration in terms of

speculating whether prescribed course readings are the only way of providing trainees with

input concerning the theory of teaching. There is a call for fewer or more infrequent texts

based on the possibility of trainees losing interest and not giving the materials the attention

they deserve: [m]aybe not for every lesson… ( after a few weeks we start to feel ‘Oh my God,

another paper, let’s read it as quickly as possible…). One reading per two weeks might mean

that we can concentrate on them more… As with the previous comment, the trainer should

consider hard what implications these responses have for their own practice in the

methodology seminar.

Various other permutations were offered by trainees as to how best to exploit the

prescribed readings, including the personalisation of texts:


I always try to place readings in personal context (i.e. I imagine that I’m in class and that I

try to use the ideas introduced in the texts).

This approach demonstrates the power of trainees using their imagination, something

that may not always be utilised to the full at tertiary level given the focus on the logical and

rational.

Following on from personalisation comes the suggestion of the multiple uses of texts

approach. As with reading comprehension tasks and personalisation, this suggestion reflects

common practice for the teaching of reading and has echoes of the 'change the task not the

text' approach to the use of authentic reading material. In this instance it would seem that this

trainee has also internalised some of the prescribed readings:

One text could be used several times for different types of talks and skills development.

Nevertheless, the same trainee cautions against overuse of the texts, aware of the very

real-world consequences of such practice, namely student boredom and lack of interest: one

text should not be overused because students can get fed up with it

.

9.3 How can the theoretical best be linked to the practical?

‘If I knew, I’d be a millionaire’, was the response of one participant. Whether this

comment be classed as cynicism, flippancy, or merely a healthy sense of humour, the

comment clearly highlights the fallacy of seeking one, ‘best’ way of doing anything.

However, numerous suggestions were forthcoming.


As with the main Research Question, we find that trainees advocate the primacy of

the practical: [p]ractical experience should […] serve […] as a starting point – by

teaching…(experience ), or [i]f something (a practical [ something]) works really well, point

out the principles behind it.

Should theory be dealt with, it should be the practical application that is emphasised

by, for example telling the theoretical points and then show[ing] these in practice or by

analysing situations to which a certain theory can be connected. When addressing theoretical

considerations, the underlying principle should therefore be that:

[i]n every theoretical aspect there has to be a discussion on how it can be used

To do this use can be made of demonstration or examples, e.g. watch […] video

footage and then talk about it, or by giving a practical example for theoretical material.

However, such use must be accompanied by the proviso that the theoretical and practical are

to be used only [i]f they are connected and relevant to each other. A very real consideration

for trainees is that the trainer maintains a sense of realism so that trainees are told what CAN

be used and what is impossible because trainees with no or minimal experience are often

overwhelmed by the prescribed readings and lacking experience have often have limited

awareness of what is a realistic proposition and what is not. A means for trainees to overcome

such limitations could be by linking the two [theory and practice] together in situations which

include proper practising exercises, put into context that fits the students. To return to

Research Question 3 this could involve the use of [p]eer teaching sessions for example.

Additional possibilities, pertinent to the current Research Question could mean utilising

practical articles to be read.


The ultimate arbiter is whether something works for the trainee teacher. Trainees

therefore saw the value of trying things out for themselves because [p]ractice is always

needed to be able to understand the theoretical. It is not enough to have a positive knowledge

in methodological questions, by which is meant that theoretical knowledge alone is

insufficient. This can be achieved by giving the students tasks in which they themselves have

to transfer this to that, that is make use of the theoretical knowledge for a practical

application. Once again, in contradiction to data won via other Research Questions, the […]

given topic for peer teaching[…] is advocated as a means of achieving this. Trainees propose

the likes of [t]rying out […or] using the ideas we read about in the peer-teaching; choosing

ideas that match our personality and collect them to be used later or also [b]y creating an

opportunity for candidates to perform “fake” practices (peer teaching sessions for example).

The process of trying something out serves not only to prove whether a given activity works

or not, but also whether it is appropriate for the trainee:

[o]ne has to try the theory in real life –whether it fits the person, whether it works

This recognition on the part of the trainee shows a welcome level of maturity and

awareness that the success of a learning activity is more than a question of it 'working' or not.

Trainees and trainer alike should be sufficiently aware that success also depends heavily on

the delivery of any given activity and that in turn depends heavily on the extent to which a

teacher feels comfortable with the activity in question. A common characteristic of the

various teachers', publishers' and educational conferences the author has attended is the search

by many participants for a 'first-thing-Monday-morning-activity'. While this is reasonable of

itself, it exposes the fallacy of activities which are said to be good for teachers of all hues.


However well such ideas are sold, adoption of someone else's activity should be done only

after having considered whether it fits rather than just whether it works.

Linking the theoretical and the practical can also be done by talking about and

sharing experience. The suggestion that personal stories & experiences are relevant here

supports the data revealed under the rubric of Research Question 2. This type of talking and

sharing referred to is inclusive of trainees and trainers as both parties are called upon to talk

and to share:

[t]hose who teach can tell the groups about their experience, others also about their

learning experience

While the possibility of a dichotomy between those who teach and others may be

misplaced, it has important methodological implications here that the learning experience is

included. This is an indication on the part of a trainee that teaching and learning belong

together. Despite a reluctance to address theory on the part of many trainees, there is also

recognition that since methodology is a theory in itself, it is only [by] sharing experiences

that [there] seems to be a link.

Trainees make it clear that the course should establish clear links to the contents of

the readings. Given that many of the readings are considered overly theoretical, trainees

propose [c]omparing theory to real-life situations. This can be achieved if

[t]he methods used in the peer teaching etc […]reflect the content of the readings.


MN Reflection on Action in action

Nevertheless,despite my efforts to link classroom content to the content of the

readings, students input was minimal. I have already reconsidered the approach to the

readings – sharing rather than reading all – and will offer this option today. Likewise,

I need to be more concrete, i.e. have hard copy worksheets in the review stage of the

readings, and I need to focus on practical extensions that make use of the material/s

read. This I can do, perhaps by making use of the texts which are not given as

readings.

As with previous trainees state a clear preference for texts which are clearly

practical in nature. However, given the nature of the readings, this is not always possible or

appropriate, and so I need to be pro-active in terms of making the readings, they are

compulsory readings after all, more accessible and more inherently relevant to the needs

AND wants of the trainees.

Alternatively, exercises […] as well as games and activities in connection with the

methods mentioned in the reading, or activities which are connected to the theory could be

devised. However, a more proactive approach would see the trainees encouraged to bring a

sample exercise for each class based on their readings. The rationale for which would be to

demonstrate the understanding of the techniques and methods [from] the article read for that

lesson. This is a further example of trainees taking some of the responsibility for their own

learning, as is taking this proposal further when [s]tudents […] try out in practice what they

were reading about. Specific examples suggested could involve demonstration [when…] the

students can be asked to bring in different kinds of test, then we discuss them and the theory


behind them in class (or the students can be asked to make coursebook evaluation which I

find quite useful).

9.4 How can the course materials be made more interactive/participatory?

As discussed under section 9.2, linking the theoretical with the practical is a question of the

relevance of the one to the other. In terms of how course materials can be made more

interactive or participatory the situation is very similar. It is notable that despite comments to

the effect that many of the prescribed course readings are overly theoretical, trainees have, as

in a number of the preceding sections, made overt use of ideas won from some of these very

course readings.

In the main trainees propose activities which involve matching the theoretical to the

practical, particularly in terms of using the resources available, that is the prescribed

readings:

[f]or example, by first reading Scrivener’s example exercises – try to find out what they’re

examples for…

Once again this is a welcome occurrence as it suggests that trainees are coming to

terms with the readings and to a certain extent making them their own. Similarly, trainees

wish to see practical examples of theories that have worked in practice in order to link

experience & practice to them [the theories]. It is suggested that [i]f there is a text about HLT

[Humanistic Language Teaching], say an example where this really worked. It is quite

understandable that a group of trainees with little or no teaching experience would wish to


know of practical examples of theory being successfully put into practice. A number of other

means of enhancing interaction and participation included the use of [v]ideo footages as

already discussed.

The suggestions that follow are, as mentioned above, reminiscent of activities

discussed in a number of the prescribed readings. The first advocates the use of jigsaw

reading which would entail:

splitting st[udent]s up to read different articles and hold a conference[…]

Such an activity moves away from the notion of everyone having to read the same

prescribed reading. By providing different texts on the same topic different points of view

can be gained and by interacting with other trainees and participating in a 'conference' these

can be compared, contrasted and, potentially, challenged. The discussion of various

perspectives can highlight the advantages and disadvantages of methodological theory as

well as giving trainees a broader perspective on the topic under consideration.

The saw that one learns to do something by teaching it reflects the inclusion of

presentations as a means of making discussions more interactive and increasing trainee

participation in the discussion:

[i]nteractive presentations, elicit answers from peers, see different opinions

Interaction and participation can also be achieved via trainees' own contributions: [s]tudents

can be asked to find relevant material and present it in front of the class. Such an activity, as

well as being a teaching activity involving the likes of preparing handouts also makes use of


in-class discussions, and once more puts the onus on the trainee to take responsibility for their

own learning. Likewise, the use of a short presentation slot [a]t the beginning of every class

[…for] a brief description about the readings […would create an…] open [opportunity for…]

everyone [to…] say his/her opinion and experience. Should the trainer utilise such an open

session it would provide a good opportunity to practice a vital classroom skill along with

encouraging a more open and collaborative atmosphere inside the seminar.

Therefore, active collaborative work [t]hrough the use of pairwork, or group

discussions […] is considered useful because of the recognition by trainees that [i]t is

important to talk about the topic of articles [, …] roleplays [and …] problem-solving

activities make us [trainees] more active. Stronger support of this notion recognises that it is

not so much the material per se that is significant, but the process of collaboration:

[s]ince teaching “teaching” is about practical things, maybe not the materials count the

most, but the common practice together in class, or brainstorming about theoretical

things

MN Methodology

I attempt to draw in the readings (and the readings thereof) into the debate via

a comparison/contrast with the peer session.

I'm still having difficulties here. How to achieve a maximum of participant

comment, engagement and presence without my dominating proceedings but also

without my participation at all.


This links in with the data from Research Question 2 in regard to the level of overt

sharing of trainer experience that should characterise the teaching of methodology. I

certainly do wish to initiate discussion, but by the same token I also do not wish to

dominate. I had expected at this stage that trainees would be willing to discuss the readings

in the light of the peer teaching session. Is this due to their not having read the material?

For some this is most certainly the case. Is it due to a reluctance to speak? This should not

be so at this time in the semester. Is it due to a fear of criticising one’s peers. Possibly, but

then we need to discuss what is meant by criticism especially in light of the suggestions of

collaboration.

Coming to grips with the contents of the prescribed readings under such active and

collaborative work implies a situation where you [may] have to adopt a certain point of view

and argue for it. Such activities not only include a deeper engagement with the prescribed

readings but enhance a number of classroom skills vital for the teacher-to-be, for example

listening to each other’s view about the materials or the ability to form questions based on the

materials, or quite simply [h]ave many questions ready. For the trainer, [m]aking students do

as much of the work in class as possible would be an approach with two positive outcomes.

One being a reduction in the pressure that the trainer may face to lead each and every seminar,

the other to provide trainees with an example of how the trainer, that is the classroom teacher

ultimately, can literally take a back seat and pass on some of the responsibility to the trainees,

or ultimately the student.

Finally, the role of feedback is seen as pivotal in making course materials more

interactive or participatory. The trainer should be prepared to be interactive and participatory

by being flexible in terms of their plans:


[p]lans always have to be revised on the basis of feed-back from students so that theory

can work in practice

and be willing to accommodate student feedback where appropriate and relevant or be ready

to discuss why not if they feel it is inappropriate. One pertinent example of this type of

feedback would be the call to [m]ake [student]s more aware that the materials the[y]

encounter during the course will help them a great deal in the future when they start teaching.

As a result the trainer is asked to choose materials for which this statement is true, that is

content should be relevant + based on facts and experience.

9.5 Conclusion

It is clear that there is an obvious aversion to readings which are overly theoretical.

The emphasis throughout the analysis of the data here has been on readings with a practical

content. There is also evidence that trainees prefer a more cooperative handling of the

readings than solitary reading before class, although this approach does have its supporters. It

is interesting that the suggestions put forward by trainees seem to reveal that they have either

read a reading methodology text, or paid very close attention to their teacher. They have put

forwards a wide variety of activities to facilitate the comprehension and later use of the

readings. While there is a preference for spoken plenary and group tasks this is balanced by

tasks which focus on the personal elements a trainee can take from a text or the different uses

to which one and the same text can be put.

Chapter 10 – Conclusions 163

Chapter 10 Conclusions

10.1 Introduction

This chapter will bring together the conclusions from Chapters 6 to 9 and distill them

into a number of points which should be of interest to those who wish to make the move from

teacher to teacher tariner.

Based on the research conducted in this study using data from a teaching diary,

classroom surveys and end-of-semester feedback sheets the following points can be made to

aid the trainer make the transition:

• have the courage of your convictions, this is essential for your new role, you

are the experienced expert to whom your trainees are looking for help and

advice; however, as Wright and Bolitho (2007) maintain '[w]e do have a

contribution to make – but we try to keep it focused, and derived from a

group's explorations and contributions' (p. 123)

• think very carefully before you make comments, particularly if they could be

seen as judgemental or ill-considered as such remarks can have a detrimental

effect on the course of the seminar. If you wish to be critical, weigh up your

arguments before speaking;

• admit to and learn from your mistakes, there will always be mistakes but they

are an essential part of the learning process;

• be proactive and intervene when you feel the need, as above students expect it

and they cannot learn everything merely by doing it, they need direction and

leadership at certain times;


• trainees are generally aware of their own lack of experience, or not as the case

may be; however, they are undecided as to what constitutes experience. For

some full group classroom teaching is the only possibility, for others one-to-

one suffices;

• encourage trainees to consider gaining a wide variety of teaching experience

because surprisingly, one-to-one, the default teaching mode for many students

is frequently accorded low status; similarly peer teaching, the mainstay of

much trainee teaching, is also not wholly welcome by many;

• trainees need to be proactive in finding teaching opportunities for themselves,

making use of all that come along to derive maximum benefit in terms of their

experience;.

• the trainees generally have sufficient experience to discern professionalism in

a teacher, and that despite the derisory remarks concerning the non-existence

of the teaching professional, as a result trainees know what a good teacher is,

just as much as they recognise a bad one: the same will of course hold for

good and bad trainers;

• if we strive to help our trainees overcome the difficulties inherent in learning

to teach we should see our role as Wright and Bolitho do, namely ''in terms of

supporting and facilitating the process of awareness raising, reflecting and

making meaning which we believe are the key stages in professional learning'

(p.226);

• trainees are also very much aware of what can contribute to a positive

classroom atmosphere and how group dynamics and motivation are key

factors in creating this atmosphere;


• having spent many years in classrooms themselves trainees are very much

aware of what is expected of them, particularly in terms of knowledge and

behaviours, they also realise that the classroom is a particular place all of its

own with its own rules and norms;

• trainees generally do not appreciate heavily theoretical readings, the

preference is for the practical, and the immediately practical at that;

• the data suggests that trainees prefer group plenary and cooperative tasks to

reading alone before the seminar; nevertheless that approach is advocated by

some;

• inspite of there avowed dislike, there is evidence that readings are having an

effect, the suggestions for improvimg the readings themselves being a case in

point;

• trainers need to reconsider there approach to the reading given that the trainees

are no longer a predominantly book-based group. Wright and Bolitho observe

that trainees 'who may have lost the reading habit are often overawed by long

reading lists and may not know where to start, and how to extract what they

need from reading materials. We see it as our responsibility to help them

through guidance and tasks' (p.129);

• trainers and their institutions should also consider using alternatives formats to

paper given the everyday experience of the trainees with information

technology;

• trainers and their institutions should also carefully consider the type of reading

offered. Just as one of the trainees remarked, Wright and Bolitho 'see reading

in much the same light as input from the trainer. Judiciously selected books

and articles can help enormously in the process of making sense of previous


experience (how often we find reassurance and affirmation in our reading!)

and of creating new meanings for ourselves as we consider the implications of

new professional ideas for our future practice' (p.129). However, it is the

judicious selectin that is all important here.

10.2 Conclusion

These then are the findings from the case study approach to teacher development. As a

case study there is not the possibility to use its findings to generalise from it, neither is it

considered to be an objective depiction of the phenomenon examined. The point of a case

study is that it is read and the reader takes from it for their own use, or leaves it, however he

sees fits, that is the beauty of a case study. Similarly, the analysis of the data is closely bound

upwith the researcher, and as pointed out in the dissertation the way data is seen changes over

time. Another practioner seeing this data would draw different conclusions, that is the nature

of such a study, it is open to interpretation. When we interpret we make use of many things,

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Appendices 183

Appendices

Appendices 184

Appendix 1

Diary Sample – main entry plus notes

Diary notes

Paste course outlines* into this journal (Where?)

* reduced in size

Am I pre-empting observer comments here?

I’ve had a long time to plan this one. I started a

week or more before, even before the holidays. Why? Well, as ever I wanted to be prepared, assemble the materials and organize my ideas.

Business correspondence – that’s the well-

trodden path. The problems of the past have been caused by an over-reliance on having materials ‘on file’. Now I want to make sure that:

a) I do have materials on file b) I’ve prepared, i.e. carefully selected and

decided on their use* The word formation exercise was decided upon

for a variety of reasons:

a) it’s time we had some vocab b) it’s useful and I feel that they’ll benefit from it

although it’ll be tough c) it’s (potentially) linked to other classes

(linguistics, other 200 courses + +) d) I like this type of exercise

As usual (when will I ever learn?) it takes far

too long. It was, again, as if I needed to extract blood from a stone, and it was as painful as that sounds.

Despite all that, I did enjoy this exercise: it

enabled me to sound off and pontificate – the ultimate

Methodology notes

Acceptable/ sufficient justification? What’s the pedagogical soundness of this?

Warmers should

not exceed seven minutes – who said that??

Acceptable/sufficient justification?

Appendices 185

Not done!

teacher ego-trip. As a follow-on, next week I’ll put the 15 words

on cards and have a revision exercise par excellence. Also eco-friendly ‘cause I can use those out-of-date business cards.

What to do about late arrivals? Timings – let’s see what Y has to say about

timings… * also planned to write and hand a lesson plan

to the observer

Use and recycle the same exercise in subsequent classes

Have a very

visible tick list and make sure everyone sees what I’m doing? Or confront the issue directly?

Appendices 186

Appendix 2

Methodology Survey Questionnaire

Not to scale

If you would, please answer the following questions as fully as you can. However, if

you do not wish to take part, you are not obliged to. This questionnaire has no bearing on any

of your grades, the final semester grade included. Please DO NOT put your name on this

questionnaire. However, if you wish to look at it once the data has been collected please leave

an identifying mark KNOWN ONLY to you. The data will only be used for the purposes of

language classroom research and my own doctoral studies. Thank you in advance for your

help.

Gordon

1. How should the teacher trainer share their own teaching experience and

expertise in the delivery of a methodology course?

1i.How far should the teacher trainer feel obliged to do this?

Appendices 187

1ii. How can the teacher trainer avoid the temptation to lead their students down their

own preferred methodological path?

2. Students on methodology courses often comment that they have no teaching

experience. As far as you are concerned, what does having ‘no teaching experience’

mean?

2i.What are the implications of this for the teacher trainer?

2ii.What counts as experience?

3.What is a teaching professional?

3i.What is ‘classroom culture’?

3ii.How are you initiated into the culture of the classroom?

Appendices 188

3iii.What is expected of you by your future teaching colleagues, supervisors, mentors


4. How can the course materials, in particular the readings, best be exploited for

maximum comprehension and usefulness?

4i.How can the theoretical best be linked to the practical?

4ii. How can the course materials be made more interactive/participatory?

Appendices 189

Appendix 3

Diary sample – unedited/raw data

Today’s class saw me observed by X. As with every one of these ABC courses I feel

panicky, disorganised and wholly uncertain of what I should do for the first lesson…. So I

purposely sat myself down in front of them and went through the things that needed to be

done in class on the first day. As best as I can recall (12:50 same day) I did (most of) them.

Asking X to look at instructions may have had an unconscious salutary focussing

effect… Nevertheless, the class appears, in retrospect, jumpy and bitty, and I can’t recall there

being a sense of continuity or clarity in regard to what was happening.

The class immediately before this one was one that did not fully fulfil its aims – too

much TTT I felt and little success in activating and motivating the students. At least as I saw

it – what the students’ perceptions are/were I do not know, sadly. Time for a course feedback

session?

Must remember to feedback to the 123 class.

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Doktori (PhD) Disszertáció - ppk.elte.hu · Doktori (PhD) Disszertáció Gordon T. G. Dobson Teacher development: A case study 2010