Economy 1

Economy

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GDP per capita by country (World Bank, 2011)

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Economy 2

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An economy or economic system consists of the production, distribution or trade, and consumption of limited goodsand services by different agents in a given geographical location. The economic agents can be individuals,businesses, organizations, or governments. Transactions occur when two parties agree to the value or price of thetransacted good or service, commonly expressed in a certain currency.In the past, economic activity was theorized to be bounded by natural resources, labor, and capital. This view ignoresthe value of technology (automation, accelerator of process, reduction of cost functions), and creativity (newproducts, services, processes, new markets, expands markets, diversification of markets, niche markets, increasesrevenue functions), especially that which produces intellectual property.A given economy is the result of a set of processes that involves its culture, values, education, technologicalevolution, history, social organization, political structure and legal systems, as well as its geography, natural resourceendowment, and ecology, as main factors. These factors give context, content, and set the conditions and parametersin which an economy functions. Some cultures create more productive economies and function better than others,creating higher value, or GDP.A market-based economy is where goods and services are produced without obstruction or interference, andexchanged according to demand and supply between participants (economic agents) by barter or a medium ofexchange with a credit or debit value accepted within the network, such as a unit of currency and at some free marketor market clearing price. Capital and labor can move freely to any area of emerging shortage, signaled by risingprice, and thus dynamically and automatically relieve any such threat. Market based economies require transparencyon information, such as true prices, to work, and may include various kinds of immaterial production, such asaffective labor that describes work carried out that is intended to produce or modify emotional experiences in people,but does not have a tangible, physical product as a result.A command-based economy is where a central political agent commands what is produced and how it is sold anddistributed. Shortages are common problems with a command-based economy, as there is no mechanism to managethe information (prices) about the systems natural supply and demand dynamics.

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RangeToday the range of fields of study examining the economy revolve around the social science of economics, but mayinclude sociology (economic sociology), history (economic history), anthropology (economic anthropology), andgeography (economic geography). Practical fields directly related to the human activities involving production,distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods and services as a whole, are engineering, management, businessadministration, applied science, and finance.All professions, occupations, economic agents or economic activities, contribute to the economy. Consumption,saving, and investment are variable components in the economy that determine macroeconomic equilibrium. Thereare three main sectors of economic activity: primary, secondary, and tertiary.Due to the growing importance of the financial sector in modern times,[1] the term real economy is used byanalysts[2][3] as well as politicians[4] to denote the part of the economy that is concerned with actually producinggoods and services,[5] as ostensibly contrasted with the paper economy, or the financial side of the economy,[6]

which is concerned with buying and selling on the financial markets. Alternate and long-standing terminologydistinguishes measures of an economy expressed in real values (adjusted for inflation), such as real GDP, or innominal values (unadjusted for inflation).[7]

EtymologyThe English words "economy" and "economics" can be traced back to the Greek words οἰκονόμος (i.e. "one whomanages a household"), a composite word derived from οἶκος ("house") and νέμω ("manage; distribute") by way ofοἰκονομία ("household management").The first recorded sense of the word "economy" is in the phrase "the management of œconomic affairs", found in awork possibly composed in a monastery in 1440. "Economy" is later recorded in more general senses, including"thrift" and "administration".The most frequently used current sense, denoting "the economic system of a country or an area", seems not to havedeveloped until the 19th or 20th century.[8]

History

Ancient timesAs long as someone has been making, supplying and distributing goods or services, there has been some sort ofeconomy; economies grew larger as societies grew and became more complex. Sumer developed a large-scaleeconomy based on commodity money, while the Babylonians and their neighboring city states later developed theearliest system of economics as we think of, in terms of rules/laws on debt, legal contracts and law codes relating tobusiness practices, and private property.[9]

The Babylonians and their city state neighbors developed forms of economics comparable to currently used civilsociety (law) concepts. They developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete withcourts, jails, and government records.The ancient economy was mainly based on subsistence farming. The Shekel referred to an ancient unit of weight andcurrency. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. and referred to a specific mass ofbarley which related other values in a metric such as silver, bronze, copper etc. A barley/shekel was originally both aunit of currency and a unit of weight... just as the British Pound was originally a unit denominating a one poundmass of silver.For most people the exchange of goods occurred through social relationships. There were also traders who bartered in the marketplaces. In Ancient Greece, where the present English word 'economy' originated, many people were

Economy 4

bond slaves of the freeholders. Economic discussion was driven by scarcity.

Middle agesIn Medieval times, what we now call economy was not far from the subsistence level. Most exchange occurredwithin social groups. On top of this, the great conquerors raised venture capital (from ventura, ital.; risk) to financetheir captures. The capital should be refunded by the goods they would bring up in the New World. Merchants suchas Jakob Fugger (1459–1525) and Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (1360–1428) founded the first banks.[citation needed]

The discoveries of Marco Polo (1254–1324),Wikipedia:Disputed statement Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) andVasco da Gama (1469–1524) led to a first global economy. The first enterprises were trading establishments. In1513 the first stock exchange was founded in Antwerpen. Economy at the time meant primarily trade.

Early modern timesThe European captures became branches of the European states, the so-called colonies. The rising nation-statesSpain, Portugal, France, Great Britain and the Netherlands tried to control the trade through custom duties and taxesin order to protect their national economy. The so-called mercantilism (from mercator, lat.: merchant) was a firstapproach to intermediate between private wealth and public interest. The secularization in Europe allowed states touse the immense property of the church for the development of towns. The influence of the nobles decreased. Thefirst Secretaries of State for economy started their work. Bankers like Amschel Mayer Rothschild (1773–1855)started to finance national projects such as wars and infrastructure. Economy from then on meant national economyas a topic for the economic activities of the citizens of a state.

The industrial revolutionThe first economist in the true meaning of the word was the Scotsman Adam Smith (1723–1790). He defined theelements of a national economy: products are offered at a natural price generated by the use of competition - supplyand demand - and the division of labour. He maintained that the basic motive for free trade is human self-interest.The so-called self-interest hypothesis became the anthropological basis for economics. Thomas Malthus(1766–1834) transferred the idea of supply and demand to the problem of overpopulation. The United States ofAmerica became the place where millions of expatriates from all European countries were searching for freeeconomic evolvement.The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture,manufacturing, mining, and transport had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting inthe United Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. Theonset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human history; almost every aspect of daily lifewas eventually influenced in some way. In Europe wild capitalism started to replace the system of mercantilism(today: protectionism) and led to economic growth. The period today is called industrial revolution because thesystem of Production, production and division of labour enabled the mass production of goods.

After World War IIAfter the chaos of two World Wars and the devastating Great Depression, policymakers searched for new ways of controlling the course of the economy. This was explored and discussed by Friedrich August von Hayek (1899–1992) and Milton Friedman (1912–2006) who pleaded for a global free trade and are supposed to be the fathers of the so-called neoliberalism. However, the prevailing view was that held by John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946), who argued for a stronger control of the markets by the state. The theory that the state can alleviate economic problems and instigate economic growth through state manipulation of aggregate demand is called Keynesianism in his honor. In the late 1950s the economic growth in America and Europe—often called Wirtschaftswunder (ger: economic miracle) —brought up a new form of economy: mass consumption economy. In

Economy 5

1958 John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006) was the first to speak of an affluent society. In most of the countries theeconomic system is called a social market economy.

Late 20th - beginning of 21st centuryWith the fall of the Iron Curtain and the transition of the countries of the Eastern Block towards democraticgovernment and market economies the idea of the post-industrial society is brought into importance as its role is tomark together the significance that the service sector receives at the place of the industrialization, as well the firstusage of this term, some relate it to Daniel Bell's 1973 book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, while other - tosocial philosopher Ivan Illich's book Tools for Conviviality. The term is also applied in philosophy to designate thefading of postmodernism in the late 90s and especially in the beginning of the 21st century.</ref> but the term cameto common usage to describe the growth of economies like the Chinese at the period (the term is specifically used byBill Clinton in a speech about Republic of China in 1998).With the spread of Internet as a mass media and communication medium especially after 2000-2001 the idea for theInternet and information economy is given place because of the growing importance of ecommerce and electronicbusinesses, also the term for a global information society as understanding of a new type of "all-connected" societyis created. In the late 00s the new type of economies and economic expansions of countries like China, Brazil andIndia bring attention and interest to different from the usually dominating Western type economies and economicmodels.

Economic phases of precedenceThe economy may be considered as having developed through the following Phases or Degrees of Precedence.• The ancient economy was mainly based on subsistence farming.• The industrial revolution phase lessened the role of subsistence farming, converting it to more extensive and

mono-cultural forms of agriculture in the last three centuries. The economic growth took place mostly in mining,construction and manufacturing industries. Commerce became more significant due to the need for improvedexchange and distribution of produce throughout the community.

• In the economies of modern consumer societies phase there is a growing part played by services, finance, andtechnology—the (knowledge economy).

In modern economies, these phase precedences are somewhat differently expressed by degrees of activity. [citation

needed]

• Primary stage/degree of the economy: Involves the extraction and production of raw materials, such as corn,coal, wood and iron. (A coal miner and a fisherman would be workers in the primary degree.)

• Secondary stage/degree of the economy: Involves the transformation of raw or intermediate materials intogoods e.g. manufacturing steel into cars, or textiles into clothing. (A builder and a dressmaker would be workersin the secondary degree.) At this stage the associated industrial economy is also sub-divided into severaleconomic sectors (also called industries). Their separate evolution during the Industrial Revolution phase is dealtwith elsewhere.

• Tertiary stage/degree of the economy: Involves the provision of services to consumers and businesses, such asbaby-sitting, cinema and banking. (A shopkeeper and an accountant would be workers in the tertiary degree.)

• Quaternary stage/degree of the economy: Involves the research and development needed to produce productsfrom natural resources and their subsequent by-products. (A logging company might research ways to usepartially burnt wood to be processed so that the undamaged portions of it can be made into pulp for paper.) Notethat education is sometimes included in this sector.

Other sectors of the developed community include :

Economy 6

• the Public Sector or state sector (which usually includes: parliament, law-courts and government centers, variousemergency services, public health, shelters for impoverished and threatened people, transport facilities, air/seaports, post-natal care, hospitals, schools, libraries, museums, preserved historical buildings, parks/gardens,nature-reserves, some universities, national sports grounds/stadiums, national arts/concert-halls or theaters andcenters for various religions).

• the Private Sector or privately run businesses.• the Social sector or Voluntary sector.

Economic measuresThere are a number of ways to measure economic activity of a nation. These methods of measuring economicactivity include:•• Consumer spending•• Exchange Rate•• Gross domestic product•• GDP per capita•• GNP•• Stock Market•• Interest Rate•• National Debt•• Rate of Inflation•• Unemployment•• Balance of Trade

GDPThe GDP - Gross domestic product of a country is a measure of the size of its economy. The most conventionaleconomic analysis of a country relies heavily on economic indicators like the GDP and GDP per capita. While oftenuseful, it should be noted that GDP only includes economic activity for which money is exchanged.

Informal economyAn informal economy is economic activity that is neither taxed nor monitored by a government, contrasted with aformal economy. The informal economy is thus not included in that government's Gross National Product (GNP).Although the informal economy is often associated with developing countries, all economic systems contain aninformal economy in some proportion.Informal economic activity is a dynamic process which includes many aspects of economic and social theoryincluding exchange, regulation, and enforcement. By its nature, it is necessarily difficult to observe, study, define,and measure. No single source readily or authoritatively defines informal economy as a unit of study.The terms "under the table" and "off the books" typically refer to this type of economy. The term black market refersto a specific subset of the informal economy. The term "informal sector" was used in many earlier studies, and hasbeen mostly replaced in more recent studies which use the newer term.

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Notes[1] The volume of financial transactions in the 2008 global economy was 73.5 times higher than nominal world GDP, while, in 1990, this ratio

amounted to "only" 15.3 ( "A General Financial Transaction Tax: A Short Cut of the Pros, the Cons and a Proposal" (http:/ / www. wifo. ac.at/ wwa/ servlet/ wwa. upload. DownloadServlet/ bdoc/ WP_2009_344$. PDF), Austrian Institute for Economic Research, 2009)

[2] "Meanwhile, in the Real Economy" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ marketbeat/ 2009/ 07/ 23/ meanwhile-in-the-real-economy/ ), Wall StreetJournal, July 23, 2009

[3] "Bank Regulation Should Serve Real Economy" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ economics/ 2011/ 10/ 24/boes-haldane-bank-regulation-should-serve-real-economy/ ), Wall Street Journal, October 24, 2011

[4] "Perry and Romney Trade Swipes Over ‘Real Economy'" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ washwire/ 2011/ 08/ 15/perry-and-romney-trade-swipes-over-real-economy/ ), Wall Street Journal, August 15, 2011

[5] "Real Economy" (http:/ / lexicon. ft. com/ Term?term=real-economy) definition in the Financial Times Lexicon[6] "Real economy" (http:/ / glossary. econguru. com/ economic-term/ real+ economy) definition in the Economic Glossary[7] • Deardorff's Glossary of International Economics, search for real (http:/ / www-personal. umich. edu/ ~alandear/ glossary/ r. html#real).

   • R. O'Donnell (1987). "real and nominal quantities," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 97-98.[8] Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ economy), "economy." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English

Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. 24 Oct. 2009.[9] Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (3), p. 385-391.

References• Aristotle, Politics, Book I-IIX, translated by Benjamin Jowett, Classics.mit.edu (http:/ / classics. mit. edu/

Aristotle/ politics. html)• Barnes, Peter, Capitalism 3.0, A Guide to Reclaiming the Commons, San Francisco 2006, Whatiseconomy.com

(http:/ / whatiseconomy. com/ joomla/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=29)• Dill, Alexander, Reclaiming the Hidden Assets, Towards a Global Freeware Index, Global Freeware Research

Paper 01-07, 2007, Whatiseconomy.com (http:/ / whatiseconomy. com/ joomla/ index.php?option=com_content& task=blogcategory& id=15& Itemid=31)

• Fehr Ernst, Schmidt, Klaus M., The Economics Of Fairness, Reciprocity and Altruism - experimental Evidenceand new Theories, 2005, Discussion PAPER 2005-20, Munich Economics, Whatiseconomy.com (http:/ /whatiseconomy. com/ joomla/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=29)

• Marx, Karl, Engels, Friedrich, 1848, The Communist Manifesto, Marxists.org (http:/ / www. marxists. org/archive/ marx/ works/ 1848/ communist-manifesto/ index. htm)

• Stiglitz, Joseph E., Global public goods and global finance: does global governance ensure that the global publicinterest is served? In: Advancing Public Goods, Jean-Philippe Touffut, (ed.), Paris 2006, pp. 149/164,GSB.columbia.edu (http:/ / www2. gsb. columbia. edu/ faculty/ jstiglitz/ download/ 2006_Global_Public_Goods.pdf)

• Where is the Wealth of Nations? Measuring Capital for the 21st Century. Wealth of Nations Report 2006, IanJohnson and Francois Bourguignon, World Bank, Washington 2006, Whatiseconomy.com (http:/ /whatiseconomy. com/ joomla/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=29)

Further reading• Friedman, Milton, Capitalism and Freedom, 1962.• Galbraith, John Kenneth, The Affluent Society, 1958.• Keynes, John Maynard, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936.• Smith, Adam, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776.

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Article Sources and ContributorsEconomy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=575689618  Contributors: -js-, 158bet, 2602:306:346F:A7B0:44F7:17DB:5ED8:181B, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D, 90, A8UDI,ABF, Abc518, Abce2, Acepectif, Addshore, AdjustShift, Adultsecret101, Ahmad510, Ahoerstemeier, Ajbob1, Aka042, Alansohn, Aleksd, Alexf, Alexislorena, Alfie66, Ali, Altus Prosator,Amdsoftball94, Anarchovegan, Andersmusician, Andonic, Andrewrp, Andy Dingley, Antoni Barau, Anwar saadat, Apparition11, Arda Xi, Arjayay, Arthena, Artoasis, Assyria 90, Atethnekos,Aude, Avoided, Aznboy123, B.d.mills, Banaticus, Barek, Barek-public, Baronnet, Battlecry, Bender235, Bento00, Berserkhobo, Billy Fernandez, Billy jankins, Blanchardb, Blehfu, BlueLint,Bobblehead, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, Bongwarrior, Bookinvestor, Bowlan, Branden Gorecki, Bry0000000, Burntsauce, Bvgfbv, Byelf2007, CHIPG, CHJL, Caarrtteerr, Calliopejen1,Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Capricorn42, Cassiopella, Catgut, Catuireal, Cbriankey, Cchow2, Celarnor, Centrx, Ceodomains, Ceyockey, Cforkash, Chaimu3031,Chowbok, Chris the speller, Christineho115, Chriswiki, Ckl254, Clawz71, Colinistheman, Conskidude, Cool3, Courcelles, Cretog8, CultureDrone, Cybercobra, D. 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