Educating Educating Children for the Children for the

2121st Centuryst Century

培育培育 2121 世纪人才世纪人才

Ed Nicholson,Guangdong University of Foreign Studies

What teachers and What teachers and parents need to know parents need to know about the brain and about the brain and

learninglearning

甄开心甄开心 广东外语外贸大学教授、博士广东外语外贸大学教授、博士

家长老师需要了解什么？ 关于脑科学与教学的新知识

Ed Nicholson

The brain and learning大脑与语言学习大脑与语言学习

这个演示将会向我们展示我们所知道的最这个演示将会向我们展示我们所知道的最新的关于大脑如何学习语言的知识或者理新的关于大脑如何学习语言的知识或者理论与这些信息怎样在教学中运用的关系论与这些信息怎样在教学中运用的关系

This presentation will explore the relationship between some of the latest information we know or theorize about how the brain learns and how that information can be used in teaching.

Ed Nicholson

We will also look briefly at what is commonly referred to as the “brain-mind connection” i.e, what knowledge is determined by nature and what part by nurture?

The Brain-Mind Connection大脑与心志的连接大脑与心志的连接

我们将简短地看一下什么是通常意义上的我们将简短地看一下什么是通常意义上的““大脑大脑————意志连接意志连接””

以及哪一部分的语言获得是由先天因素决定的以及哪一部分的语言获得是由先天因素决定的哪一部分是教育所获得的哪一部分是教育所获得的 ??

Ed Nicholson

Research in the areas of Research in the areas of neurobiologyneurobiology, , neuropsychologyneuropsychology and and neurolinguisticsneurolinguistics have have combined to give us a better understanding combined to give us a better understanding of what is happening inside our “black box” of what is happening inside our “black box” when we are learning. when we are learning. Much of this Much of this research is of great interest to early research is of great interest to early childhood teachers.childhood teachers.

神经科学

在神经生物学的研究显示：当我们学习一种语言的时候，神经心理学和神经语言学的共同作用，更好地解释了大脑中的黑匣子正在发生着怎样的运动。有关这方面的决大部分研究引起了早期幼儿教育工作者的极大兴趣。

Ed Nicholson

The suggestions for change will be supported by references to current research on the brain.

最新关于人脑以及语言学习的研究

的相关资料将支持这些改善性的建议

Ed Nicholson

A number of suggestions will be made

that are intended to enhance L2 learning in the EFL/ESL classroom.

Richard Restak referred to brain research as the “Last Frontier” suggesting we

know much more about “outer

space” than we do “inner space”

Restak (1979)

HOWEVER, ALTHOUGH WE HAVE LEARNED A GREAT DEAL ABOUT WHERE AND WHEN THE BRAIN LEARNS LANGUAGE, WE STILL KNOW VERY LITTLE ABOUT “HOW” IT LEARNS AND STORES INFORMATION AND “WHAT” IS THE BEST WAY TO ASSIST THE BRAIN TO LEARN.

THANKS TO fMRI, WE NOW KNOW A LOT MORE ABOUT THIS “INNER SPACE”.

PART 1: RESEARCH INTO PRACTICE

When Should We Begin Learning a

Second Language?

Early Brain Development

This is the neuron, the building block of the brain. In early childhood, our brain develops connections between these brain cells at an astonishing rate.

Peter Huttenlocher found that a newborn had 253 million synaptic connections and only 8 months later the number had exploded to 572 million. At the fastest rate, connections were being built at the incredible speed of 3 billion a second, eventually reaching a total of about 1,000 trillion connections in the whole brain.

Peter Huttenlocher 发现一个新生儿有253 ， 000 ， 000个连接点，在短短 8个月之后，这个数量就会猛增到 572 ， 000，000，在最短的时间，这些连接点将以难以置信的速度达到每秒 3 ， 000 ， 000，000，最终形成一个拥有 1 ， 000 ， 000，000 ， 000 ， 000连接点的整脑 。以同样的速度可以在每秒钟使中国人口翻倍。

语言与人脑发展

Janellen Huttenlocher 在芝加哥大学已经证明在社会经济学要素达到平衡，那些拥有一个更大词汇量，与婴儿交流更多的母亲的婴儿在二十个月大的时候，平均来说，他们获得的词汇量要比其他婴儿多 131个词。在 24 个月大的时候，这个平均词汇量达到

295 个。 (1998)

随着我们的成长 , 这些连接点将逐渐消失。在大约10 岁的时候，现存的一半的连接点完全死掉，剩下500,000,000,000,000 个以常量的形式在人们以后的生活中保存在人脑当中。这些大量的断点死亡现象被称为学习第二语言的临界年龄（ Lennenberg ，1967 年 in second language learning ）

学习的关键年龄学习的关键年龄

Recent research has cast doubt on the validity of the critical age hypothesis (see Robertson, 2002, for a comprehensive review of the literature on this topic.)

Language and the developing brain

However, there is support for the idea that correct pronunciation of a foreign language may be related to the age of the learner.

(Hirsch, 1997)

Nurture and the Brain

In this slide we have a very graphic illustration of what happens when a brain does not receive proper nourishment. In the United States, alcohol related birth defects are the # 1 cause of preventable mental retardation in children.

Lately, neurologists have been focusing on two key areas of the brain: Broca's area which plays a role in our ability to speak, and Wernicke's area which assists in understanding words spoken to us.

Kuhl, (2000)

(listening)

Auditory comprehension

(speaking)

It's still not clear just why child and adult language acquisition take such divergent neurological paths. But Hirsch and her colleagues speculate that infants, with relatively 'plastic', still-developing brains, may easily adapt to two incoming language patterns, incorporating both into the same storage space within Broca's area.

The Bilingual Child

See Wang, Y., Sereno, J.A. and Hirsch, J.(2003) and Talukder (2001)

Native speech vocabulary develops extremely quickly in the early years (e.g., from

50 words at 24 months to 1000 words at 36 months) - and there is a “window of

opportunity” here for rapid acquisition of another

language.

Language and the developing brain

Early Brain Development

This is the neuron, the building block of the brain.

In early childhood, our brain develops connections between these brain cells at an astonishing rate.

早期大脑的发展

这是神经元，正是它们相互连接构成了大脑。

在早期童年，这些神经元之间的连接点以惊人的速度飞速扩展

Knowing how, not knowing what

In the past our schools have placed too much emphasis on teaching children what to think rather than emphasizing how to think. We must emphasize process not product.

过去我们的学校过分强调告诉孩子们要想什么 , 而不是怎么想 . 现在我们必须强调关注的是过程 , 教授孩子们如何学习的过程 ; 而不是教育的产品 , 不是孩子们能够用大脑记多少东西 .

怎样做，而不是叫什么

“It is not enough to develop the intelligence of the individual child in our classroom; we must also help him to achieve wisdom. The wise child knows how to apply their knowledge correctly in any life situation,thus achieving his true potential.”(Nicholson, 1999)

他将会怎么样呢他将会怎么样呢 ?? What will he become?

孩子们可以学得各种各样的知识，但是他们真正懂得它们的应用吗？遇到困难的时候他们会对症下药吗

可见，我们需要交给他们的是怎样在实际生活中运用各种知识，或者说怎样把各种知识运用到生活中去，而不是单纯地把知识塞给他们。

因为他们最终要面对的不是简单的课本和几场考试而是复杂多变的现实生活。

Ed Nicholson

Bilingual people have more gray matter in key area of the brain. LONDON -. Scientists now have new evidence to explain why children are so much better than adults at mastering a second language. They found that people who speak two languages have more grey matter in the language region of the brain. The earlier they learned the language, the larger the grey area.

“The grey matter in this region increases in bilinguals relative to monolinguals,” said Andrea Mechelli, a neuroscientist at University College, London. “Learning another language after 35 also alters the brain but the change is not as pronounced as in early learners. This suggests that it is better to learn early rather than late because the brain is more capable of accommodating new languages by changing structurally.”

Dateline: 2004 10 01 www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6242853/

“在大脑的重要区域，能说两种语言的人的大脑中枢神经系统的灰质要比一般

人多。” MSNBC新闻

伦敦科学家现在有新的科学证据证明：为什么孩子伦敦科学家现在有新的科学证据证明：为什么孩子在学习第二语言时比成人有更为明显的优势？研究表明，能够在学习第二语言时比成人有更为明显的优势？研究表明，能够用二种语言沟通的人在人脑的重要区域，灰质比其他人多很多用二种语言沟通的人在人脑的重要区域，灰质比其他人多很多。越早接触语言，形成的灰质面积越大。。越早接触语言，形成的灰质面积越大。灰质的作用是加速人灰质的作用是加速人们的思考。灰质越多思考越敏捷。们的思考。灰质越多思考越敏捷。

数据来源 : 2004 10 1http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6242853/

因此，早期学习第二语言的效果要比晚学的好很因此，早期学习第二语言的效果要比晚学的好很多，因为人脑更容易在逐渐形成的过程中调整并培养适应新多，因为人脑更容易在逐渐形成的过程中调整并培养适应新语言的大脑环境并语言的大脑环境并拥有更快速、迅捷的思考能力拥有更快速、迅捷的思考能力。。

Andrea MechelliAndrea Mechelli ，伦敦一所大学的神经学家说：，伦敦一所大学的神经学家说：““能说能说两种语言的人比只能说一种语言的人的灰质多很多。两种语言的人比只能说一种语言的人的灰质多很多。 3535 岁以岁以后学习第二种语言仍能改变人脑（灰质）后学习第二种语言仍能改变人脑（灰质）但是但是没有早期会讲没有早期会讲第二语言的人的改变明显。第二语言的人的改变明显。

Zone of Proximal Development最接近的发展区域最接近的发展区域

“The zone of proximal development is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development…We propose that an essential feature of learning is that it …awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers.”

Vygotsky, Lev Thought and Language (1934)

Insert Chinese translation here.

最接近的发展区域是一段距离。是实际发展了的能够独立解决个人问题的能力水平与潜力发展水平之间的距离。我们提议一个学习的必要的特征是：只有当孩子正在他的环境里和他的同等的人合作与人交往时，才能唤醒他能操作的多种内部的发展的过程的能力 .

Therefore…

1. The critical age hypothesis must be taken into consideration if our goal is to speak a “foreign” language without an accent.

2. Although another language can be mastered at any age, the way in which our brain accesses the L2 after puberty is neurologically different.

3. There is compelling new evidence that should we begin L2 instruction in primary school. (See Kim et al, 1997)

Neural Darwinism

Synapses are selectively destroyed or 'pruned', with the most-used synaptic connections remaining and the least-used being removed. In other words, the brain becomes rapidly over-connected but we only keep the useful ones. This has been compared to Darwin’s 'survival of the fittest' maxim and hence has been labeled 'neural Darwinism’.

[Edelman,1987]

Neurogenesis

However, new research indicates neurons may be able to regenerate. Researchers led by Peter Eriksson in Guteborg, Sweden and Fred Gage in San Diego, California have found that neurogenesis occurs in the brains of adults as old as 72 years!

CellBody

Dendrite

Axon

Teenage Brain: A work in progress

New MRI studies are revealing patterns of brain development that extend into the teenage years. NIMH's Dr. Judith Rapoport and colleagues were surprised to discover an overproduction of the brain’s gray matter, just prior to puberty. Previously, research had shown that this event only occurred for a brief period in early childhood and then underwent just one bout of pruning. Researchers are now confronted with structural changes that occur much later in adolescence. Striking growth spurts can be seen from ages 6 to 13 in areas connecting brain regions specialized for language. This growth drops off sharply after age 12, coinciding with the end of a critical period for learning languages.

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2003)

“ Use it or lose it.”

Although the brain does most of the “pruning” at a relatively early age, we can hang to most of our cells by “exercising” the brain. A recent autopsy study at UCLA found that university graduates who remained mentally active in life had up to 40% more connections than the brains of high school dropouts!

Therefore…1. There is no upper limit to our ability to

learn another language (or anything else, for that matter)

2. Our brain continues to learn and grow (and even re-grow) all our lives.

3. As we age, we increasingly ‘interfere’ with our language learning processes.

4. Exercising your brain as well as your body results in a longer, healthier life. (Knowles, 1988)

The Brain/Body Connection

We have known for quite a while now that the brain and the body take ‘turns” growing. One develops quickly while the other is in a resting phase.

SPURTS AND PLATEAUS

We have known for some time now (Shuttleworth,1939) that the brain and the body take “turns” in their respective growth and development. When the brain is growing, the body slows down and vice versa (Epstein, 1974, 2004a)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Between 10 and 12, brain growth for girls is 3x rate for boys

Between 14 , brain g wth f

or boys

is 3x rate for girls.

PATTERNS OF MALE AND FEMALE BRAIN GROWTH 3 x girls

3 x boys

Therefore…

1. A ‘uniform’ school curriculum that doesn’t

acknowledge mental growth spurts is not

‘brain compatible.’ Flexibility is needed.

2. Schools should investigate differentiated instruction for males and females to optimize learning potential. (Caine & Caine, 1997)

Recommended reading: Diamond, M., & Hopson, J. (1998)

How do we best utilize class time?

We will now look at brain research related to the six “strands” of language learning:

Listening

Reading

Viewing

Speaking

Writing

Presenting

Studies using fMRI by Kuhl et al (2001), and Wang et al (2003), suggest that the difficulty adult L2 learners may have is not with understanding the words of the new language, but with the motor skills of forming them with the mouth and tongue (cerebellum). This may explain why L2 learners can usually comprehend a question asked in the new language, but often cannot form a quick response.

“ The Audible Classroom”

Thus, for adult English language learners, techniques that emphasize speaking may be more successful than methods that focus more on reading and listening.

For example, rather than lecturing to a class about vocabulary and grammar, a teacher perhaps should encourage her/his adult students to have conversations in English, or to act out short skits incorporating the day's lesson, which would more closely link the students' abilities to understand and speak the new language. Talukder (2001)

ConversationConversation may be the key to may be the key to second language learningsecond language learning

“As we listen to speech, we begin to make a map of possible meanings. We also pick up semantic and syntactic clues from the sentence structure until we have a “match” The more the clues, the faster the match.”

Dahan, D. and Tanenhaus, M.K. (2004)

“Results of this study suggest that when sentence-level context provides the critical information, it largely overrides word association. Thus, higher order cognitive functions override lower ones. The more complex the learning task, the more resources the brain utilizes to accomplish them.

Coulson, S., Federmeier, K., & Van Petten, C. (2005)

Classroom ImplicationsClassroom Implications

less teacher talk; more student talk present vocabulary in context, not

isolation; better context = faster learning

increase ‘wait time’ for student response

use a multimodal approach to teaching

less teacher talk; more student talk present vocabulary in context, not

isolation; better context = faster learning

increase ‘wait time’ for student response

use a multimodal approach to teaching

Increase movement

Movement increases heart rate and circulation, which increases performance (Tomporowski & Ellis, 1986). Encourage students to change their seats and to form different groups..

Ask administrators to provide movable desks or tables for your classroom.

增加活动

请管理者为教室提供可移动的桌椅 .

活动增加心率以及血液循环，用以增加表演性。鼓励学生变换座位，变换组。教室应当采用非固定桌椅的教室活动桌椅可以提高学生的兴奋性和活跃感，使得学生不断处于由于位置变换的新奇感而带来的脑兴奋状态来摄取新信息

Increase movement

Movement gives learners a new spatial reference on the room. The brain forms maps, not only on the basis of the scenery, but also from the body's relationship to the scenery. Changing your “location” provides more unique learning “addresses”. (Fordyce & Wehner, 1993.)

“Sitting in chairs does not discipline children, it annihilates them.” (Montessori, 1986),) p. 797)

增加活动

• “坐在椅子上并不是训练了孩子们而是消灭了他们。”

活动使得教室产生了空间变换。位置使得人脑内部形成一幅地图人位置的变换使得人对事物认识和看法跟着发生变化。使孩子们从幼年就形成多角度认识事物的习惯 (Fordyce & 1993)

Montessori, 1986

What is a ‘brainy” classroom?

Our brains are designed to learn from short bursts of information followed by time to process this information. We need time for memory formation and for "settling." Evidence suggests that time spent not learning new content is also very important.

(Pelligrini et al, 1995)

The hippocampus organizes, sorts, and processes the incoming information before routing it to various areas of the cortex for long-term memory.

Overloading this structure results in no new learning. It is also very sensitive to the learner’s emotional state.

(Jensen, 2000)

In other words ….

The human brain cannot learn an unlimited amount of explicit content. Most educators feel pressured to cover more material in the time allotted, but doing so is a serious mistake. You can pour all the water you want from a jug into a glass, but the glass can only hold so much. (Jensen , 2000)

Utilize class time wisely

Teachers need to keep attentional demands to short bursts of no longer than the age of their learners in minutes. For a college student, that's about 20 consecutive minutes. Teachers should use high attention time sparingly for introductions, key ideas, directions, reviews, stories, and closings. (Thayer,1989).

Monday morning listMonday morning list More movement in my classroom! Change groups frequently Change activity after 20 minutes or

less Allow time for reflective activity Go to http://www.brainstages.netbrained2.htm

More movement in my classroom! Change groups frequently Change activity after 20 minutes or

less Allow time for reflective activity Go to http://www.brainstages.netbrained2.htm

Utilize class time wiselyThe rest of the overall learning time (processing, encoding, and "neural rest") ought to be student time, used for processing, projects, discussions, group work, partner work, self-assessment, journal writing, feedback, design, research, mapping, interviews, review, or memorization. (Jensen, 2000b)

Use “energizers”

Our brains produce several chemicals which are natural motivators or “energizers”. Two of the best are noradrenaline (the hormone of risk or urgency) and dopamine (a neurotransmitter producing good feelings). Noradrenaline can be produced through sociodrama, class presentations, achievable but tough deadlines, friendly competitions, or any ‘exciting’ activity. Dopamine can be triggered through social bonding, music, celebrations, laughter, and teamwork.

Dopamine molecule

利用兴奋点利用兴奋点

我们的大脑能够制造几种化学物我们的大脑能够制造几种化学物质用以作为刺激性物质或者兴奋剂。质用以作为刺激性物质或者兴奋剂。 其中最具代表性的是其中最具代表性的是去肾上腺素去肾上腺素（受荷尔蒙的刺激）和（受荷尔蒙的刺激）和多巴胺多巴胺（一种分泌后（一种分泌后能为人提供好心情的神经传递素）。能为人提供好心情的神经传递素）。 去肾上腺素去肾上腺素通过戏剧，课堂表演通过戏剧，课堂表演，以及难以实现的成功，友好竞争或者任何，以及难以实现的成功，友好竞争或者任何兴奋活动产生。兴奋活动产生。 多巴胺多巴胺是通过社交，音乐，庆典，是通过社交，音乐，庆典，大笑和团队合作产生的。大笑和团队合作产生的。

创造一个安全的教学环境

慢速沉思系统用于理性思考后做慢速沉思系统用于理性思考后做出选择性回答，我们要提供的就出选择性回答，我们要提供的就是这样一个系统。是这样一个系统。

The slower reflective system solves challenges that permit a rational consideration of alternative responses. Our classrooms need to provide greater opportunity for reflective thinking.

创造一个安全的教学环境

在语言学习的过程中，犯错误和出现尴尬的场面会影响快速反应系统，使得我们没有机会进一步使用慢速沉思系统做出回应，而使我们的思考返回了母语思考方式。而不能继续使用第二语言进行语言思维。Jensen (1998)

Implications for Learning…学习的暗示

New learning challenges should be carefully introduced to the learner at their demonstrated level of readiness for this learning.

The language of texts and other learning resources should be within the grasp of the student while he or she is under competent instruction.

新的学习的挑战应当在现有的被证明的阅读能新的学习的挑战应当在现有的被证明的阅读能力的基础上小心地灌输力的基础上小心地灌输

语言学习的课本及其他来源应当根据现有学生语言学习的课本及其他来源应当根据现有学生的能力来选择的能力来选择

These energizers wake up learners, increase energy, stimulate thinking and enhance memory.

Research indicates that a little “dynamic tension” in the classroom is a very positive factor in language learning. Our brains enjoy the excitement and challenge of spirited competition. (Dwyer, 2001)

Share the stage!

Research by DeBacker & Nelson (cited in Holloway, 2000) shows that when teachers emphasize learning strategies and the importance of student effort, students gain a greater sense of control over their own learning.

给你的学生玩的时间

• 我们有两种特别的行为：• 1 强烈持久地对后代的关注• 2 一种玩的心态• 哺乳动物越进化，这种行为表现地越显著。• 因此，在过去的 250 ， 000 年，人类从玩的过程中

学了很多关于生存的实质性的东西。

Anderson and Stewart (1997) maintain that effective teachers:

* Encourage student autonomy and initiative.* Ask students to elaborate on their responses.

* Allow wait time when asking questions.* Encourage students to interact with one

another and with their teachers.

* Ask thoughtful, open-ended questions.

* Encourage students to reflect on experiences and predict future outcomes.

* Reflect on their own teaching after every lesson

The brain and emotion

According to Bob Sylwester (1995), we have a fast and a slow thinking response system. The fast reflexive system emerged to deal with dangers and opportunities that were clearly immediate.

The slower reflective system solves challenges that permit a rational consideration of alternative responses. Our classrooms need to provide greater opportunity for reflective thinking.

The brain and emotion

In language learning, the fear of making an error and thus risking embarrassment can result in the reflexive system taking over. We are then unable to use the reflective system to help us in processing language, and we quickly revert to the relative safety of our native or ‘mother’ tongue.

Jensen (1998)

Therefore, if we want students to actually “think” in the target language we must provide a safe learning environment with lots of chances

for reflective thought and time to play!

Classroom Implications

Classroom Implications

Create a ‘safe’ classroom for your students.

Stress cooperation Learn your students’ names Allow time for reflection Encourage “playful” learning. Avoid confrontation

Create a ‘safe’ classroom for your students.

Stress cooperation Learn your students’ names Allow time for reflection Encourage “playful” learning. Avoid confrontation

The interactive brainThe interactive brain

Feedback reduces uncertainty.

The brain itself is exquisitely designed to operate on feedback, both internal and external (Harth, 1995).

In other words, our whole brain is self-referencing. It decides what to do based on what has just been done.

The feedback loop enhances long term memory storage and retrieval.

Feedback reduces uncertainty.

The brain itself is exquisitely designed to operate on feedback, both internal and external (Harth, 1995).

In other words, our whole brain is self-referencing. It decides what to do based on what has just been done.

The feedback loop enhances long term memory storage and retrieval.

Provide immediate, frequent feedback.

Provide immediate, frequent feedback.

Several conditions make feedback more effective. Greenough (cited in Jensen, 1998) suggests that immediate and self-generating feedback can come from many sources: posted performance criteria self-checking personal goals interactive computer check with teacher check with peers

Several conditions make feedback more effective. Greenough (cited in Jensen, 1998) suggests that immediate and self-generating feedback can come from many sources: posted performance criteria self-checking personal goals interactive computer check with teacher check with peers

Feedback is much more effective when it comes Feedback is much more effective when it comes from people rather than the air, walls or trees!from people rather than the air, walls or trees!

Implications for language learning…

Students need to practise language for prolonged periods of time

(duration effect) Students need to spend time outside of class using the target language in a variety of social settings

(frequency effect)

"Knowledge needs to be pulled into the brain by the student, not pushed into it by the teacher. Knowledge is not to be forced on anyone. The brain has to be receptive, malleable, and most important, hungry for that knowledge."

Sister Agnes Patricia in "The Man Who Listens to Horses

A final quotation…I believe in intuition and

inspiration . . . at times I feel certain I am right while not knowing the reason. . . Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, but imagination embraces the entire world, stimulating progress, giving birth to evolution.

Albert Einstein

Thank you for listening! You can contact me at:kaixin@mac.com

SELECTED REFERENCES

Anderson, O., & Stewart, J. (1997). A neurocognitive perspective on current learning theory and science instructional strategies. Science Education, 81(1), 67–90.

Berman, D. E., Dudai, Y. (2001). Memory extinction: Learning anew, and learning the new. Science. 291: 2417-2419

Caine, G. & Caine, R. (1997). Education on the Edge of Possibility Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Canli,T., Zhao, Z. Brewer, Z. J. Gabrieli, J. D. E. and Cahill L. (2000) Event-related activation in the human amygdala: Associates with later memory for individual emotional experience. Neuroscience., 20(19): 99R - 99.

Christenson, S.A. (1992) Handbook of emotion and memory: current research and theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Coulson, S., Federmeier, K., & Van Petten, C. (2005) Right hemisphere sensitivity to word- and sentence-level context: Evidence from event-related brain potential. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 31 (1) pp. 129-147.

Courchesne, E. & Allen, G. (1997) Prediction and Preparation, Fundamental Functions of the Cerebellum Learning and Memory, 4, (1), p 1-35

Cummins, J. (1979) Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters.  Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121-129.

.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Dahan, D. & Tanenhaus, M.K. (2004) Continuous mapping from sound to meaning in spoken-language comprehension: Effects of verb-based thematic constraints. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 30 (2) pp. 498-513.

Diamond, M. (2003) Male and female brains. Summary of Lecture for Women's Forum West Annual Meeting, San Francisco, California.

Diamond, M., & Hopson, J. (1998). Magic trees of the mind: How to nurture your child's intelligence, creativity, and healthy emotions from birth through adolescence (p. 37). Dutton

Dwyer, B. (2001) Successful training strategies for the 21st century: using recent research on learning to provide effective training strategies. International Journal of Educational Management 15,(6 ) p. 312-318.

Edelman, G. M. (1987) Neural darwinism. The theory of neuronal group selection. Basic Books, New York. xxii, 371 pp.

Epstein, H.T. (2004) Phrenoblysis: Special brain and mind growth periods: Human brain and skull development. Developmental Psychobiology 7 (3) p. 207 - 21

Epstein, H.T. (2004a) Brain and mind effects in schooling. Brainstages website. Available online at: http://www.brainstages.net/brained2.htm

Fordyce, D. E., & Wehner, J. M. (1993, August). Physical activity enhances spatial learning performance. Brain Research, 619 (1–2), 111–119.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Friederici A.D., Steinhauer K., and Pfeifer E. (2001) Brain signatures of artificial language processing: Evidence challenging the critical period hypothesis. Georgetown University, Department of Neuroscience, Brain and Language Lab.

Gardner, H. (1985). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.

Goleman, D. (1994). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

Hart, L. A. (1975). How the brain works. New York: Basic Books.Hirsch, J. (1997) Differences between early and late language learning. Nature 388(10) p. 171-174)

Holloway, J. H. (2000) How does the brain learn science? Ed. Leadership. 58, (3) p. 85–86

Hooker, J. and Teresi, D. (1986) 3-Pound Universe. NY: Macmillan. Huttenlocher, J. (1998). Language input and language growth.  Preventive Medicine, 27, 195-199.

Huttenlocher, P. (1979) Synaptic density in human frontal cortex: Developmental

changes and effects of aging. Brain Research (163):195-205. Jensen, E. (2000) Moving with the brain in mind. Educational Leadership .58, (3), p.34–37 Jensen, E. (2000a) Brain-based learning: A reality check Ed. Leadership 57, (7) p. 76–80

Jensen, Eric. (1998) Teaching with the brain in mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria, Virginia. Kim, K., Relkin, N., Lee, Kyoung-Min & Hirsch, J. (1997)Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature: 388 (10) p. 1-2.Knowles, M.,(1988) The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Kuhl, P., Tsao, F., Liu, H., Zhang, Y. and Boer B. (2001) Language/Culture/Mind/Brain: Progress at the margins between disciplines. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 935:136-174

Kuhl, P. (2000) A new view of language acquisition PNAS 97 ( 22 )| 11850-11857

LeDoux, J. (1996)The emotional brain:The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life NY: Simon&Schuster

McGaugh, James L. (2000) Memory--a century of consolidation Science, 287, p.248-251

Marshall, B (2000) Is there a `Child Advantage' In Learning Foreign Languages?Education Week, 19 (22), p. 39.

Robertson, P. (2002) The critical age hypothesis. A critique of research methodology. Asian EFL Journal. Available online at http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/marcharticles_pr.html

Restak, R. (1979) The brain: The last frontier.New York: Warner Books

Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Holmes CJ, et al.(1999) In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions. Nature Neuroscience. 2(10): 859-61.

Spitzer, M. (1997). The mind within the net. Cambridge, MA: MIT Books.

Sinatra, S. (1983) Brain research sheds light on language learning. Educational Leadership, May 1983, p. 9-12. ASCD.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Sylwester, Robert. (1995) A celebration of neurons: An educator’s guide to the human brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Talukder, G. (2001) How the brain learns a second language. Available online at http://www.brainconnection.com/topics/?main=fa/second-language

Thayer, R. (1989). The biopsychology of mood and arousal. New York: Oxford University Tomporowski, P., & Ellis, N. (1986). Effects of exercise on cognitive processes: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99(3), 338–346.

Wang, Y., Sereno, J.A., Hirsch, J.(2003) fMRI Evidence for cortical modification during learning of Mandarin lexical tone. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 15:8.

Wegner, D.M. (1989) White bears and other unwanted thoughts: suppression, obsession, and the psychology of mental control. New York: Viking/Penguin.

.