ENGLEZA 10

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10

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I. THE NOUN..............................................................................................................................................................................21.1. Kinds and function.............................................................................................................................................................21.2. Gender................................................................................................................................................................................2

1.3. Plurals................................................................................................................................................................................31.3.1. Uncountable nouns (also knon as non!count nouns or "ass nouns#........................................................................$

1.%. T&e for" of t&e 'ossessie)*enitie case...........................................................................................................................+

1.,. Use of t&e 'ossessie)*enitie case and of - noun........................................................................................................ ...+1.. /E0IN ! NOUN..........................................................................................................................................................1.$. /EIKN TUNNE4.........................................................................................................................................................1%

1.+. 5H4E/ I6E 7I8GE........................................................................................................................... .......... .....1II. TI54E/....................................................................................................................................................................... ......1$

2.1. T&e definite article...........................................................................................................................................................1$2.2. O"ission of t&e.............................................................................................................................................................. ..12.3. T&e indefinite article..................................................................................................................................................... ...222.%. T&e 9ero article.................................................................................................................................................................22

2.,. /E0IN ! TI54E....................................................................................................................................................232.. 5ENT4 TE:) (7i* 8i*#............................................................................................................................. ........22.$. /UN/HINE /K:;: 7I8GE........................................................................................................................... .........2+

III. 8<E5TI6E/..................................................................................................................................................................... ..2

3.1. Kinds of ad=ecties...........................................................................................................................................................23.2. Order of ad=ecties of >ualit?..........................................................................................................................................3@

3.3. 5o"'arison.................................................................................................................................................................... ..323.%. 5onstructions it& co"'arisons................................................................................................................................... ...333.5. Possessie ad=ecties........................................................................................................................................................3%3.. /E0IN ! 8<E5TI6E...............................................................................................................................................3,3.$. G7IT 6I8U5T.....................................................................................................................................................3+3.+. /;N HIGH 80............................................................................................................................................... .......%@

I6. 86E7/..................................................................................................................................................................... .......%1%.1. Kinds of aderbs..............................................................................................................................................................%1%.2. Aor" and use....................................................................................................................................................................%1%.3. 5o"'aratie and su'erlatie aderb for"s.....................................................................................................................%%%.% Position of aderbs............................................................................................................................................................%%

%.,. Inersion of t&e erb........................................................................................................................................................%%.. /E0IN ! 86E7....................................................................................................................................................%$%.$. THEE GOGE/ 80.................................................................................................................................... ......... ....%%.+. 5ITI5OP 5ENTE..................................................................................................................................................... ..,1

6. THE PONOUN................................................................................................................................................................. ...,2,.1. Personal 'ronouns............................................................................................................................................................,3,.2. Uses of it..........................................................................................................................................................................,%

,.3. Possessie 'ronouns.........................................................................................................................................................,,,.%. 8e"onstratie 'ronouns............................................................................................................................................... ...,,,.,. efleBie 'ronouns........................................................................................................................................................ .,,.. Interro*atie 'ronouns................................................................................................................................................... ..,,.$. elatie 'ronouns.................................................................................................................................................. .........,$,.+. Indefiite 'ronouns......................................................................................................................................................... ...,$

ll /o"e None............................................................................................................................................................,+,.. /E0IN C PONOUN............................................................................................................................................ ....,+,..1. /E/ TO;E...........................................................................................................................................................$,..2. PETON/ TO;E/.................................................................................................................................................+

6I. PEPO/ITION/...................................................................................................................................................................$@.1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................$@

.2. /E0I ! PEPO/ITION..............................................................................................................................................$

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I. THE NOUN

1.1. Kinds and function

A There are four kinds of noun in English:

Common nouns: dog, man, table

ro!er nouns: France, Madrid, Mrs Smith, Tom

A"stract nouns: beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy

Collecti#e nouns: crowd, ock, group, swarm, team

1.$. %ender

A &asculine: men' "o(s and male animals )!ronoun he/they).

*eminine: +omen' girls and female animals )!ronoun she/they).

Neuter: inanimate things' animals +hose se, +e don-t kno+ and

sometimes "a"ies +hose se, +e don-t kno+ )!ronoun it/they).

E,ce!tions: shi!s and sometimes cars and other #ehicles +hen

regarded +ith aection or res!ect are considered feminine.

Countries +hen referred to "( name are also normall( considered

feminine.

The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.

Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.

/ &asculine0feminine nouns denoting !eo!le

1 ierent forms:

boy, girl

gentleman, lady

son, daughter

bachelor, spinster

husband, wife

uncle, aunt

bridegroom, bride

man, woman

widower, widow

father, mother

nephew, niece

duke, duchess king, ueen

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prince, princess

earl, countess

lord, lady

$ The ma2orit( of nouns indicating occu!ation ha#e the same form:

artist cook driver guide assistant dancer doctor etc.

&ain e,ce!tions:

actor, actress

host, hostess

conductor, conductress

manager, manageress

heir, heiress

steward, stewardess

3ometimes !person is used instead of !man, !woman" salesperson,

spokesperson.

C omestic animals and man( of the larger +ild animals ha#e

dierent forms:

bull, cow

duck, drake

ram, ewe

stallion, mare

cock, hen

gander, goose

stag, doe

tiger, tigress

dog, bitch

lion, lioness

1.4. lurals

A The !lural of a noun is usuall( made "( adding s to the singular:

day, days

dog, dogs

house, houses

! s is !ronounced 0s0 after p' k or f sound. Other+ise it is

!ronounced 050.

6hen s is !laced after ce' ge' se or ze an e,tra s(lla"le )0i507 is added

to the s!oken +ord.

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Other !lural forms

/ Nouns ending in o or ch' sh' ss or x form their !lural "( adding

es:

tomato, tomatoes

brush, brushes

bo#, bo#es

church, churches

kiss, kisses

/ut +ords of foreign origin or a""re#iated +ords ending in o add s onl(:

dynamo, dynamos

kimono, kimonos

piano, pianos

kilo, kilos

photo, photos

soprano, sopranos

C Nouns ending in y follo+ing a consonant form their !lural "( dro!!ing

the y and adding ies:

baby, babies

country, countries

y, ies

lady, ladies

Nouns ending in ( follo+ing a #o+el form their !lural "( adding s:

boy, boys

day, days

donkey, donkeys

guy, guys

T+el#e nouns ending in f or fe dro! the f or fe and add ves. These

nouns are calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife,

wolf"

loaf, loaves

wife, wives

wolf, wolves

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Nouns

The nouns hoof, scarf and wharf take either s or ves in the !lural:

hoofs or hooves

scarfs or scarves

wharfs or wharves

Other +ords ending in f or fe add s in the ordinar( +a(:

cli$, cli$s

handkerchief,

handkerchiefs

safe, safes

A fe+ nouns form their !lural "( a #o+el change:foot, feet

louse, lice

mouse, mice

woman, women

goose, geese

man, men

tooth, teeth

child children

o#, o#en.

Names of certain creatures do not change in the !lural. %sh isnormall( unchanged' %shes e,ists "ut is uncommon. 3ome t(!es of

8sh do not normall( change in the !lural:

&arp pike salmon trout cod plaice suid turbot

mackerel "ut if used in a !lural sense the( +ould take a !lural #er".

Others add s:

crabs herrings sardines eels lobsters sharks'eer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.

The +ord game, used "( s!ortsmen to mean an animal0animals

hunted' is al+a(s in the singular and takes a singular #er".

Collecti#e nouns' crew, family, team etc.' can take a singular or

!lural #er"9 singular if +e consider the +ord to mean a single grou!or unit:

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(ur team is the best or !lural if +e take it to mean a num"er of

indi#iduals.

(ur team are wearing their new jerseys.

Certain +ords are al+a(s !lural and take a !lural #er":

&lothes, garments consisting of t+o !arts breeches pants

pyjamas trousers etc. and tools and instruments consisting of

t+o !arts:

)inoculars pliers scissors spectacles glasses scales

shears etc.

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A num"er of +ords ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics,

hysterics, mathematics, physics, politics etc.' +hich are !lural in

form' normall( take a !lural #er":

*is mathematics are weak. /ut names of sciences cansometimes "e considered singular:

Mathematics is an e#act science.

6ords !lural in form "ut singular in meaning include news"

The news is good

And certain diseases:

mumps rickets shingles

and certain games:

billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes

$ The 8rst +ord is made !lural +ith com!ounds formed of #er"

er

nouns ad#er"s:

hangers!on lookers!on runners!up and +ithcom!ounds com!osed of noun !re!osition noun: ladies!

in!waiting sisters!in!law wards of court

4 Initials can "e made !lural:

M+s )&em"ers of arliament7 -+s )#er( im!ortant !ersons7

(+s )old age !ensioners7 /F(s )unidenti8ed ;(ing o"2ects7

1.4.1. Uncounta"le nouns )also kno+n as non<count nouns or mass

nouns7

1 Names of su"stances considered generall(:

)read, cream, gold, paper, tea, beer, dust, ice, sand, water,

cloth, gin, jam, soap, wine, co$ee, glass, oil, stone, wood

0 A"stract nouns:

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advice, e#perience, horror, pity, beauty, fear, information ,

relief, courage, help, knowledge, suspicion, death, hope, mercy,

work

4 Also considered uncounta"le in English:"aggage' damage' luggage' sho!!ing' cam!ing' furniture'

!arking +eather

1.=. The form of the !ossessi#e0geniti#e case

A -s is used +ith singular nouns and !lural nouns not ending in s:

a man1s job the people1s choice

men1s work the crew1s uarters

a woman1s intuition the horse1s mouth

the butcher1s 2shop3 the bull1s horns

a child1s voice women1s clothes

the children1s room 4ussia1s e#ports

/ A sim!le a!ostro!he )-7 is used +ith !lural nouns ending in

s:

a girls1 school the students1 hostel

the eagles1 nest the Smiths1 car

C Classical names ending in s usuall( add onl( the a!ostro!he:

+ythagoras1 Theorem rchimedes1 5aw Sophocles1 plays

Other names ending in s can take -s or the a!ostro!he alone:Mr 6ones1s 2or Mr 6ones1 house3 7eats1s 2or 7eats13 poems

1.>. Use of the !ossessi#e0geniti#e case and of noun

A The !ossessi#e case is chie;( used of !eo!le' countries or

animals as sho+n a"o#e. It can also "e used:

1 Of shi!s and "oats: the ship1s bell, the yacht1s mast

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2 Of !lanes' trains' cars and other #ehicles' though here the of

construction is safer:

a glider1s wings or the wings of a glider

the train1s heating system or the heating system of the train

4 In time e,!ressions:

a week1s holiday, today1s pape, tomorrow1s weathe, in two years1

time, ten minutes1 break, two hours1 delay,

%. 6ith for noun sake: for heaven1s sake, for goodness1 sake

, In a fe+ e,!ressions such as:

a stone1s throw journey1s end the water1s edge

. 3ometimes certain nouns can "e used in the !ossessi#e case

+ithout the second noun' a8the

baker1s8butcher1s8chemist1s8orist1s etc. can mean -a0the

"aker-s0"utcher-s etc. sho!-.

3imilarl(' a8the house agent1s8travel agent1s etc. )o?ce7 and the

dentist1s8doctor 1sivet1s)surger(7:

7ou can buy it at the chemist1s. *e1s going to the dentist1s.

1.@. 3E&INA < NOUN

EBECI3E 1. 9ouns ending in <f0<fe form their plural in <fs0<fes or

<#es or both. :ive the plural form of the following nouns and noun

groups into the respective three categories"

Half' cu' +olf' "elief' leaf' scarf' chief' calf' cli' shelf'.d+arf' self'

thief' safe' gulf' !roof' loaf' +ife' roof' handkerchief' knife.

EBECI3E. a7 ;rite the singular of"

allies countries ta,es do#es shoes toes

alle(s enemies ta,is hal#es kangaroos !otatoes

dresses skies si5es !ies #al#es

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houses skis "u55es e(es !orches

"7 ;rite the plural of" !otato' radio' hero' cargo' echo' tango' "ualo'

concerto' Negro' #olcano.

EBECI3E . Turn into the plural"

1. Englishman $. 3!aniard 4. Chinese =. *renchman >. ole @.

3+ede

. Nor+egian D. %erman . utchman 1F. Italian 11. omanian 1$.

ussian

14. %reek 1=. Australian 1>. Ga!anese 1@. ane 1. *inn 1D.

Irishman 1. 3cot $F. akistani.

EBECI3E &hoose the right form of the verb "

1.a7 The committee )consist' consists7 of 1$ mem"ers.

"7 The committee )has' ha#e7 come to a common !oint of #ie+.

$.a7 &( friend-s famil( )is' are7 small.

"7 The famil( )+as' +ere7 aslee! +hen +e arri#ed.

3. a7 The !ress )is' are7 kindl( reuested to lea#e the Conference

Hall'

"7 The !ress )is' are7 al+a(s !resent on such occasions.

4. a7 The audience )+as' +ere7 taking their seats.

"7 The audience )+as' +ere7 a!!lauding enthusiasticall(.

,. a7 The mo" )has' ha#e7 "een 8ghting among themsel#es for some

time'

"7 A mo" )is' are7 a disorderl( cro+d.

. a7 The Education /oard )is' are7 arguing a"out the cost of

te,t"ooks'

"7 The 3election /oard )has' ha#e7 selected the "est !u!ils from

the candidates.

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$. a7 The go#ernment )has' ha#e7 announced further +age rises.

"7 The go#ernment )stand' stands7 8rm in refusing to make

further concessions.

D.a7 The ne+ Ca"inet )+as' +ere7 the result of his "argaining +ith

the

center<left !arties'

"7 The ne+ Ca"inet )is' are7 reluctant to look into it.

.a7 A ;ock of shee! )has' ha#e7 in#aded m( garden.

"7 ook outJ our ;ock )is' are7 stra(ing in all directions.

1F. a7 The Arm( )has' ha#e7 sei5ed !o+er.

"7 The in#ading Arm( )+as' +ere7 defeated.

11. a7 Canada )is' are7 "ilingual.

"7 Canada )has' ha#e7 got into the semi<8nals again.

EBECI3E . &hoose the singular or plural form. Translate into

4omanian"

1.colour a7 I sim!l( hate this ....

b# ou must stand still +hen the countr(-s ... is "eing raised.

c# &( fa#ourite . .. are "lue and "eige.

$.custom a7 ou ha#e to declare e#er(thing at the ....

b# 3he +as !ri#ileged to get acuainted +ith this ... of the

/urundians.

c# Hand shaking is one of the most freuent... in Euro!e.

4.damage a7 I-ll ha#e to !a( for the ...

"7 In case of 8re the insurance com!an( +ill !a( the ....

=.ground a7 ou must ha#e solid ... if (ou +ant to ask for a

di#orce.

b#6hat +as the ... of this uarrelL

c# Children ha#e taken good care of their s!orts . . .

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>.minute a7 Ho+ man( . . . does it take to get to the o?ceL

b# 6e +anted him to read the ... of the !re#ious meeting.

c# 6ait a . . . J

@.!ain a7 3he feels no . . . no+.

b#6hat do (ou recommend for stomach . . . L

c# ou do take great. . . +ith (our +ork.

.scale a7 &( neigh"our has "een !ractising ... for hours.

b#id (ou kno+ he could !la( +ith a 8sh . . . . L

c# The ... of this s!ecies of 8sh are !hos!horescent.

d#On to! of the Court House one can notice a scul!tured ...of Gustice.

D.term a7 6hen does . . . endL

b#Are (ou on good . . . L

c# 6hat are the ... of the treat(L

.s!ectacle a7 It +as a terrif(ing. . .

"7 6h( not +ear .. . L

1F. s!irit a7 That-s the right. . .

b# Ho+ can (ou "elie#e in ... L

c# I shall ne#er touch . . . again.

d# Is there no ... in (our lighterL

EBECI3E . Form feminine nouns from the following masculine

nouns using the following su<#es" <ess' <i,' <a' <ine:

Actor' host' she!herd' administrator' sultan' god' lion' !rior'

negro' hero' !rince' tiger' heir' +aiter.

EBECI3E . a7 :ive the corresponding masculine nouns of the

following feminine nouns= b3 then give the generic term, if any"

&OE: M a7 mother M father

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"7 mother M father M !arent

ueen' +oman' +ife' daughter' nun' lad(' sister' goose' "ee' duck'

granddaughter.

EBECI3E . 5ist the feminine nouns in the 0nd column and the

generic nouns in the >rd column so as to correspond to the

masculine nouns in the ?st column"

hog mare !ig0s+ine

cock #i,en deer

hound hen dog

"uck e+e o,

"ull "ee horse

drone "itch fo+l

stallion hind fo,

fo, co+ shee!

ram doe deer

stag so+ cattle

EBECI3E . :ive the masculine of"

/ride' girl<friend' maidser#ant' female candidate'

!olice+oman' lad( foot"aller' +oman di!lomat' lad( s!eaker'

s!inster' lad(' nurse' female student.

EBECI3E . rrange the following nouns into two columns according

to their usual gender when personi%ed in poetry, etc. 4emember

that the masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting

strength, harshness, cruelty, and negative features while those

denoting delicacy, feebleness, tenderness and other positive

features are feminine. (n the other hand, the distinction

sometimes depends on the author1s imagination or intentions"

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*riendshi!' anger' "oat' fur(' shi!' terror' car' crime' moon'

s!ring' storm' morning' thunder' e#ening' slee!' night' sun' !ride'

time' truth' fear' soul' death.

EBECI3E 4. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional

genitive forms. The former are generally used with animate nouns,

mainly with persons, with collective nouns 2e.g. government,

company3, and with certain kinds of inanimate nouns denoting" a7

geographical names 2continents, countries, cities, towns3= "7 locative

nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions 2e.g. the

region1s welfare, the earth1s core, the sun1s impact, the &lub1s band39

c7 temporal nouns 2e.g. yesterday1s reception, this year1s

anniversaries39 d7 nouns of the type" body, mind, science, life, treaty,

play, book, car, ship etc. 2e.g. the play1s success, the ship1s captain,

science1s progress3"

1. The ne+ car of his friend is a *iat 1$>. $. 6hat do (ou kno+

a"out the climate of this countr(L 4. I admired the hats of the ladies.

=. He has "een stud(ing the folklore of 6 Tales for three (ears. >.

6hat-s the name of the ne+ t(!ist of the managerL @. This is the

most im!ortant museum of0in ondon. . The !arents of all the other

girls are !resent. D. 6hat are the 8rst signs of s!ringL . These are

the "est !aintings of Turner. 1F. He +on-t sa( a +ord a"out the

!ur!ose of his life. 11. The interests of the %o#ernment lie

else+here. 1$. 6hat do (ou kno+ a"out the 6ar of a Hundred earsL

14. The future of Africa is in the hand of its o+n !eo!les. 1=. The

"louses of the sho!<girls are the "est ad#ertisment. 1>. /o" doesn-t

e#en kno+ the time<ta"le of his child. 1@. Is it !ossi"le to track the

ra(s of the sunL 1. He is !roud of the !erformance of his car on the

road. 1D. o (ou dou"t the good intentions of m( relati#esL

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1.. 3EIKAN TUNNE

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: Honshu and Hokkaido' Ga!an

Com!letion ate: 1DD

Cost: P "illion

ength: 1='$=F feet )44 miles7

ur!ose: ail+a(

3etting: Under+ater

&aterials: 3teel' concrete

Engineer)s7: Ga!an ail+a( Construction Cor!oration

In 1>=' a t(!hoon sank 8#e ferr( "oats in Ga!an-s Tsugaru 3trait and

killed 1'=4F !eo!le. In res!onse to !u"lic outrage' the Ga!anese

go#ernment searched for a safer +a( to cross the dangerous

strait. 6ith such un!redicta"le +eather conditions' engineers agreed

that a "ridge +ould "e too risk( to "uild. A tunnel seemed a !erfect

solution. Ten (ears later' +ork "egan on +hat +ould "e the longest

and hardest under+ater dig e#er attem!ted.

Engineers couldn-t use a tunnel "oring machine to car#e the 3eikan

Tunnel "ecause the rock and soil "eneath the Tsugaru 3trait +as

random and un!redicta"le. Instead' tunnel +orkers !ainstakingl(

drilled and "lasted 44 miles through a ma2or earthuake 5one to link

the main Ga!anese island of Honshu +ith the northern island of

Hokkaido. Toda(' the 3eikan Tunnel is the longest railroad tunnel in

the +orld at 44.= miles in length' 1=.4 miles of +hich lie under the

Tsugaru 3trait.

Three stories high and DFF feet "elo+ the sea' the main tunnel +as

designed to ser#e the 3hinkansen' Ga!an-s high<s!eed "ullet train.

Unfortunatel(' the cost of e,tending the 3hinkansen ser#ice through

the ne+ tunnel !ro#ed to "e too e,!ensi#e. In fact' air tra#el

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toda( "et+een Honshu and Hokkaido is uicker and almost as chea!

as rail tra#el through the tunnel. es!ite its limited use' the 3eikan

Tunnel remains one of the greatest engineering feats of the $Fth

centur(.

*ast *acts:

• &ore than $'DFF tons of e,!losi#es +ere used in the

construction of the tunnel.

• One hundred si,t(<eight thousand tons of steel +as used in the

construction of the tunnel.

• The rail+a( track runs D feet "elo+ the surface of the sea'

making it the dee!est rail+a( line in the +orld.

• uring construction in 1@' tunnel +orkers hit a !atch of soft

rock +ith disastrous results. 6ater gushed into the tunnel at a

+ho!!ing rate of DF tons !er minute. It took more than t+o

months to control the ;ood. uckil(' no li#es +ere lost.

1.D. CHAE3 IE /I%E

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: /oston' &assachusetts' U3A

Com!letion ate: $FF1

Cost: PD@.= million

ength: 1'=> feet

T(!e: 3us!ension )ca"le<sta(ed7

ur!ose: High+a(


ongest 3ingle 3!an: => feet

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In 3e!tem"er $FF1' /oston' &assachusetts' +ill un#eil its cro+n

2e+el << the Charles i#er Ca"le<3ta(ed /ridge. The "ridge

+ill "e the 8rst of its kind e#er "uilt << a Qh("ridQ ca"le<

sta(ed "ridge made of "oth steel and concrete. T+o !lanes

of steel ca"les +ill su!!ort the =><foot<long' 1D4<foot<+ide

main s!an' and the side s!ans +ill "e constructed of !ost<

tensioned concrete.

The Charles i#er /ridge is "eing "uilt +ithin a congested

trans!ortation region in the cit(' an area that alread( houses

Interstate 4 and the &assachusetts /a( Trans!ortationAuthorit(-s )&/TA7 Commuter ail and Orange ine. In order

to suee5e the "ridge into such tight uarters' architects

came u! +ith a "rilliant solution. The( designed the "ridge to

"e su!!orted "( t+o in#erted <sha!ed to+ers. The legs of

the concrete to+ers actuall( straddle the &/TA tracks at a >><

degree angle' allo+ing !lent( of room for the Orange ine andits #entilation "uildings.

6hen com!leted in $FF1' the "ridge +ill carr( 1F lanes of

tra?c: eight through the legs of the t+o to+ers and t+o

cantile#ered o the east side. Not onl( is this design uniue'

it-s !ractical as +ell. The as(mmetrical design ga#e engineers

the freedom to construct such an enormous "ridge +ithin

inches of a ma2or ele#ated high+a( +ithout interru!ting the

;o+ of tra?c.

*ast *acts:

U!on com!letion in $FF1' the Charles i#er Ca"le<3ta(ed /ridge

+ill "e the +idest ca"le<sta(ed "ridge in the +orld.

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It +ill also "e the onl( as(mmetrical ca"le<sta(ed "ridge in the

United 3tates.

II. ATICE3

$.1. The de8nite article

A *orm

the is the same for singular and !lural and for all genders:

the boy the girl the day the boys the girls the days

/ Use

The de8nite article is used:

1 6hen the o"2ect or grou! of o"2ects is uniue or considered to

"e

uniue:

the earth the sea the sky the euator the stars

$ /efore a noun +hich has "ecome de8nite as a result of "eing

mentioned

a second time:

*is car struck a tree= you can still see the mark on the tree.

4 /efore a noun made de8nite "( the addition of a !hrase or clause:

the girl in blue the man with the banner the

boy that - met the place where - met him

= /efore su!erlati#es and %rst, second etc. used as ad2ecti#es

or

!ronouns' and only"

the %rst 2week3 the best day the only way

C the singular noun can re!resent a class of animals or things:

The whale is in danger of becoming e#tinct.The deep!free@e has made life easier for housewives.

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/ut man, used to re!resent the human race' has no

article:

-f oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse.

the ad2ecti#e re!resents a class of !ersons: theold R old !eo!le in general

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E the is used "efore certain !ro!er names of seas' ri#ers'

grou!s of islands' chains of mountains' !lural names of

countries' deserts' regions:

the tlantic the 9etherlands the Thames the Sahara

the @ores the &rimea the lps the 4iviera

and "efore certain other names:

the &ity the Mall the Sudan the *ague the Strand the

7emen

* the is used "efore the ad2ecti#es east8west etc. noun in

certain names:

the Aast8;est And the Aast8;est -ndies

the 9orth8South +ole

"ut is normall( omitted:

South frica 9orth merica ;est :ermany

% the +ith names of !eo!le has a #er( limited use. the !lural

surname can "e used to mean -the . . . famil(-:the Smiths B Mr and Mrs Smith 2and children3

$.$. Omission of the

A The de8nite article is not used:

1 /efore names of !laces e,ce!t as sho+n a"o#e' or "efore

names of !eo!le.

2 /efore a"stract nouns e,ce!t +hen the( are used in a

!articular sense:

Men fear death "ut

The death of the +rime Minister left his party without a leader.

4 After a noun in the !ossessi#e case' or a !ossessi#e ad2ecti#e:

the boy1s uncle R the uncle of the boy

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-t is my 2blue3 book B The 2blue3 book is mine.

= /efore names of meals:

The Scots have porridge for breakfast "ut

The wedding breakfast was held in her father1s house., /efore names of games: *e plays golf.

/efore !arts of the "od( and articles of clothing' as these

normall( !refer a !ossessi#e ad2ecti#e:

4aise your right hand. *e took o$ his coat.

/ut notice that sentences of the t(!e:

She sei@ed the child1s collar.- patted his shoulder.

The brick hit 6ohn1s face.

Omission of the "efore home, "efore church, hospital,

prison, school etc. and "efore work, sea and town

A home6hen home is used alone' i.e. is not !receded or follo+ed "( a

descri!ti#e +ord or !hrase' the is omitted: *e is at

home.home used alone can "e !laced directl( after a #er" of

motion or #er" of motion o"2ect' i.e. it can "e treated as an

ad#er":

*e went home. - arrived home after dark. - sent himhome. /ut +hen home is !receded or follo+ed "( a descri!ti#e

+ord or !hrase it is treated like an( other noun:

They went to their new home.

;e arrived at the bride1s home.

For some years this was the home of your ueen.

mud hut was the only home he had ever known.

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/ bed, church, court, hospital, prison,

school/college/university

the is not used "efore the nouns listed a"o#e +hen these

!laces are#isited or used for their !rimar( !ur!ose. 6e go:

to bed to slee! or as in#alids to hospital as !atients

to church to !ra( to prison as !risoners

to court as litigants etc. to school8college8university to stud(

3imilarl( +e can "e:

in bed, slee!ing or resting in hospital as !atients

at church as +orshi!!ers at school etc. as students

in court as +itnesses etc.

6e can "e0get "ack )or "e0get home7 from

school8college8university.

6e can leave school, leave hospital, "e released from prison.

6hen these !laces are #isited or used for other reasons theis necessar(:

0 went to the church to see the stained glass.

*e goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.

C sea

6e go to sea as sailors. To "e at sea R to "e on a #o(age )as

!assengers or cre+7. /ut to go to or "e at the sea B to go to or"e at the seaside. 6e can also li#e by8near the sea.

work and oce

work )R !lace of +ork7 is used +ithout the:

*e1s on his way to work. *e is at work.

*e isn1t back from work yet. Note that at work can also mean

-+orking-9 hard at work B +orking hard:

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*e1s hard at work on a new picture, o<ce )R !lace of +ork7

needs the: *e is at8in the o<ce. To "e in o<ce )+ithout the)

means to hold an o?cial )usuall( !olitical7 !osition. To "e out of

o<ce B to "e no longer in !o+er.

E town

the can "e omitted +hen s!eaking of the su"2ect-s or s!eaker-s

o+n to+n:

;e go to town sometimes to buy clothes.

;e were in town last Monday.

$.4. The inde8nite article

Its omanian eui#alent: un' o.

is used in front of consonants: e.g. a good man' a ma!' a

+indo+ and an is used in front of #o+els: an a!!le' an im!ortant

issue.

• The inde8nite functions as a numeral: one hundred S a hundred

• Used to sho+ the num"er of ha!!enings during a gi#en !eriod

of time: once a +eek' one a!!le a da(

• Used +ith nouns denoting 2o"s +hen after the #er" to "e: I am

a la+(er. )eu sunt a#ocat7

• 6hen the noun is uniue' then it doesnt need the inde8nite

article: He is chairman.

• Used as a!!ositions: Ir#ing' a !rose +riter' ..

• Used in e,!ressions: for a time' lend me a hand' once u!on a

time' to set an e,am!le' to !a( a call on' to ha#e a mind to'

once in a "lue moon.

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$.=. The 5ero article

Vero article is used to e,!ress generalities' +hole categories and

not indi#idual items.

Children +ill "e children

Clothes do not make the man

/arking dogs seldom "ite.

• 3u"stance names: Oil is lighter than +ater9 /lood is thicker

than +ater.

• 6ith a"stract nouns: o#e is a no"le feeling9

• /efore human names: &ichael' %eorge' ais(

• Names of continents' countries' !ro#inces' regions' counties'

to+ns' cities' #illages: Euro!e' Africa' 6allachia S e,ce!tions:

the Ukraine' the United 3tates' the Argentine' the Congo.

• &onths of the (ear' da(s of the +eek

• E,!ressions: from time to time' "( means of' at random' "(

sea' on sale' at da+n.

$.>. 3E&INA < ATICE

EBECI3E 1. -nsert de%nite or inde%nite articles.

1. I ha#e ordered . . . +ashing machine and . . . +ashingmachine has come. $ . . . climate does not suit me. 4. Ho+ did . . .

!ress recei#e itL =. 3ince lunch +as not read( (et' m( hus"and

read . . . !a!er for a +hile' then he rose from . . . armchair and

turned on . . . tele#ision. >. I mentioned "ridge9 he +as #er( good

at. . . game. @. %i#e me . . . ne+s!a!er to clean the mirror +ith. .

%i#e me . . . ne+s!a!er' I +ant to ha#e a look at the ads. D. . . .moon rose out of the sea. . Is there . . . moon tonightL 1F. The

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door o!ened and . . . teacher came in. 11. The door o!ened

and . . . headmaster came in. 1$. I heard on . . . radio that the(

ha#e come to . . . truce. 14. . . . man has called and left. . .

!resent for (ou. 1=. . . . moon goes round . . . earth and . . . earth

goes round . . . sun. 1>. Ho+ ha#e m(ths come into . . . +orldL

EBECI3E $. Supply the necessary article2s3" @ero 2C3, the or alan,

used in their generic function. Make any necessary changes"

1. . . . #erdict has to "e unanimous. $. . . . tiger is larger than . . .

l(n,. 4.. +itness ma( tell onl( +hat he himself kno+s to "e true.

=. . . . *rench ha#e good +ines. >. . . . leo!ard is a cat. @. . . .

leo!ard is the fastest cat. . He-s +asted his life in search of . . .

unusual. D. ou-re rather !artial to . . . as!aragus' and . . . trout. .

The( ha#e a 8ne taste in . . . music and . . . literature. 1F. The

res!onsi"ilit( of. . . !arents is stressed in the eclaration on the

ights of. . . Child. 11. . . . fello+ does a lot of cra5( things +hen

he has "een drinking. 1$. . . . man has left his im!rint here too.

14. 6hat can . man do +hen he is cast on a far<o islandL

1=. . . . ru""er t(re dF do not make a noise. 1>. . . . 8rst oender

should "e treated +ith s(m!ath(. 1@. . . . rich ha#e al+a(s

e,!loited . . . !oor.

EBECI3E 4. Supply the necessary article" @ero )F7' a8an

1. He had ser#ed his countr( as . . . &inister of *inance and . . .

Am"assador to *inland. $. 3he +as . . . t(!ist "( trade. 4. Can

(ou act as . . . guideL =. 6ho is going to hold the o?ce of. . .

secretar(L >. /e . . foster !arentJ

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. He had the hel! of t+o de!uties' the economist &ark 6e"ster' .

. . irector of the U.N. o!ulation i#ision and o( 6ilkins' . . .

career U. N. o?cer.

$. ou can get a 2o" as . ... +aiter. D. He-ll "e acting the !art of . . .

solicitor ne,t +eek. . The castle in +hich &ar( . . . ueen of

3cots +as im!risoned is +orth a #isit. 1F. He "ecame . . .

un+illing sailor. 11. He full( +ell deser#ed to "e a+arded the

rank of. . . general. 1$. He s!ent his adolescence as . . .

seaman' . . . !ros!ector and . . . 8reman. 14. He +as . . . 8rm

"elie#er in the trium!h of good. 1=. He has "een elected . . .

resident of the Conference. 1>. No+ he-s had a go at sol#ing a

di?cult case' he might turn . . . detecti#e. 1@. I rather dou"t he-ll

remain . . . content accountant all his life. 1. I +on-t ha#e (ou

take her for . . . fool. 1D. 6hat +ith e#er("od( 8nding him ...

indis!ensa"le !ersonJ It-s gone to his head.

EBECI3E =. Supply the necessary article" de%nite or @ero:temaaaa

1. I hate . . . +et +eather. $. I s!ent four hours going from . . .

hotel to . . . hotel' tr(ing to 8nd a room. 4. . . . +inter of last (ear

+as !rett( mild. =. . . . (outh look do+n on oldtimers. >. A

humane leader is lo#ed "( . . . !eo!le. @. That t(!e of . . . skirt is

no longer fashiona"le. . He doesn-t go "( . . . train "ecause he

can ne#er 8nd a seat. D. No"od( liked . . . cheese "ut I9 I thought

it #er( tast(. . 3he has . . . (outh and she has . . . taste. 1F. id

(ou see . . . #an E(ke at the National %aller(L 11. I decided to

sta( in . . . "ed. 1$. He ho!ed he +ould "e inside the har"our

"efore . . . sundo+n. 14. He looked for+ard to lea#ing . . . school

and 2oining . . . arm(. 1=. . . . dinner is "eing !re!ared "( thechildren toda(. 1>. The num"er of. . . smokers has dro!!ed. 1@.

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3he is suering from . . . loss of . . . memor(. 1. The( generall(

ha#e . . . "reakfast out on the !orch in . . . +arm +eather. 1D.

on-t dri#e. Take . . . train. 1. E#er("od( feels . . . s!ring is

in . . . air. $F. There are no ras!"erries on . . . market. $1. Co#er

the roots of the !lant +ith . . . earth. $$. . . . lunch +as good

"ut. . . "reakfast +as a+ful. $4. %rann( +ent to . . . market to

"u( . . . fruit for the famil(. $=. One can get tired of. . . 8sh and

chi!s. $>. . . . health is "etter than . . . +ealth. $@. It is not #isi"le

at. . . night. $. The !art( +ent on far into . . . night. $D. The

!art( started in . . . e#ening and "roke u! after . . . midnight. $.

Around . . . noon he can "e found in his o?ce. 4F. . . .

atmos!heric !olluants turn . . . mar"le into . . . 8ne dust +hich is

+ashed a+a( "( . . . rain.

EBECI3E >. -nsert de%nite or @ero articles before the

geographical names used in the following sentences"

1. . . /ritish Isles ha#e a total area of a"out 1$1'@FF suare

miles. The largest islands are . . . %reat /ritain !ro!er )com!rising

the mainlands of. . ' England'. . . 6ales' and . . . 3cotland7 and . . .

Ireland )com!rising . . . Northern Ireland and ... Irish e!u"lic7.

$. ... Isle of &an in... Irish 3ea and . . . Channel Islands "et+een . .

. %reat /ritain and . . . *rance ha#e administrati#e autonom(. 4.

The latitude of >FW North cuts across... i5ard eninsula and

latitude @FW North !asses through... 3hetland Islands. =. The

"oundaries of this region run from the mouth of . . . T(ne to the

mouth of. . . E,e. >. . . . North Atlantic Current reaches the islands

from across . .. Atlantic. @. . .. Highland /ritain com!rises the

+hole of. . . 3cotland )including the hills and moors of . . .

southern 3cotland as +ell as the mountains of. . . 3cottishHighlands' +hich e,tend from . . . *orth<Cl(de #alle( to the

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e,treme north<+est7' . . . ake istrict in . . . north<+est England'

the "road central u!land kno+n as . . . ennines. . The +hole

of. . . /ritain north of a line 2oining... ri#er Thames and . . . /ristol

Channel +as co#ered "( ice ca!s. D. The red sandstone on . . .

Cum"erland coast and the limestone masses and slates of . . .

em"rokeshire coast in . . . 3outh 6ales are nota"le features of

the #aried coastline. . /et+een 1>F and $FF inches of rain fall

on the summits of . . . 3no+don and .. . /en Ne#is during the

a#erage (ear. 1F. The eastern coast of England "et+een . . .

Hum"er and . . . Thames estuar( is for the most !art lo+<l(ing.

)Ada!ted from Q/ritain<An O?cial Hand"ook 1@DQ7

$.@. CENTA ATE0 )/ig ig7

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: /oston' &assachusetts' U3ACom!letion ate: $FF=

Cost: more than P1F "illion

ength: 1D'=DF feet )4.> miles7

ur!ose: oad+a(

3etting: 3oft ground

&aterials: 3teel' concreteEngineer)s7: /echtel' arsons /rinckerho' uaide ouglas

3ome call the Central Arter(0Tunnel ro2ect in /oston'

&assachusetts' the Qlargest' most com!le, and technologicall(

challenging high+a( !ro2ect in American histor(.Q Others

consider it one of the most e,!ensi#e engineering !ro2ects of all

time. ocals sim!l( call it the Q/ig ig.Q /( the time it-s 8nishedin $FF=' the tunnel +ill "e eight lanes +ide' 4.> miles long' and

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com!letel( "uried "eneath a ma2or high+a( and do5ens of glass<

and<steel sk(scra!ers in /ostons "ustling 8nancial district. 6hat

does it take to dig a tunnel like thisL A lot of hard +ork and a

handful of engineering tricks.

Toda(' engineers use s!ecial e,ca#ating eui!ment' called

Qclamshell e,ca#ators'Q that +ork +ell in con8ned s!aces like

do+nto+n /oston. These s!ecial machines car#e narro+

trenches << a"out three feet +ide and u! to 1$F feet dee! <<

do+n to "edrock. In /oston' engineers are !um!ing liuid slurr(

)cla( mi,ed +ith +ater7 into the trenches to kee! thesurrounding dirt from ca#ing in. Huge reinforcing steel "eams are

lo+ered into the sou!( trenches' and concrete is !um!ed into

the mi,. Concrete is hea#ier than slurr(' so it dis!laces the cla(<

+ater mi,. The side<"(<side concrete<and<steel !anels form the

+alls of the tunnel' +hich +ill allo+ +orkers to remo#e more than

three miles of dirt "eneath the cit(.

As if tunneling "eneath a cit( isnt hard enough' the soil "eneath

/oston is actuall( land8ll << its #er( loose and sogg(. Engineers had

to de#ise a fe+ tricks to kee! the sogg( soil from colla!sing. Their

solution: free5ing the soilJ Engineers !um! #er( cold salt+ater

through a +e" of !i!es "eneath the cit( streets. The cold !i!es dra+

heat out of the soil little "( little. Once fro5en' the soil can "e

e,ca#ated +ithout sinking. Engineers also in2ect glue' or grout' into

!ores in the ground to make the soil stronger and less s!ong( during

tunnel construction.

*ast *acts:

The !ro2ect +ill e,ca#ate a total of 1> million cu"ic (ards of

dirt.


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einforcing steel used in the !ro2ect +ould make a one<inch

steel "ar long enough to +ra! once around the Earth at the

euator.

&o#ing all the dirt in the tunnel +ill take more than >=1'FFFtruckloads.

$.. 3UN3HINE 3K6A /I%E

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: 3t. eters"urg and /radenton' *lorida' U3A

Com!letion ate: 1D

Cost: P$== million

ength: $'F=F feet

T(!e: Ca"le<3ta(ed

ur!ose: oad+a(


ongest 3ingle 3!an: 1'$FF feet

Engineer)s7: *igg X &uller Engineering %rou!

Com!leted in 1D' the 3unshine 3k(+a( is the +orld-s

longest ca"le<sta(ed concrete "ridge. It is !ro"a"l( the "est

kno+n of the se#eral do5en ca"le<sta(ed "ridges that ha#e "een

"uilt in the United 3tates since the late 1Fs. Its !o!ularit( ma(

"e due to its uniue color its ca"les are !ainted a "right ta,ica"

(ello+ "ut the "ridge also "oasts an interesting histor(.

The 3unshine 3k(+a( isn-t the 8rst "ridge to s!an the "road

mouth of the Tam!a /a(. In fact' a four<mile steel cantile#er

"ridge used to li#e +here the ne+ 3unshine 3k(+a( no+ stands.

/ut during a #iolent thunderstorm on the morning of &a( ' 1DF'











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the freighter Summit enture !lo+ed into the cantile#er "ridge.

&ore than 1'FFF feet of the "ridge fell into the "a(' killing 4>

motorists and "us !assengers instantl(.

The *lorida e!artment of Trans!ortation "egan construction

on a safer 3unshine 3k(+a( /ridge onl( da(s later. more than 4FF

!recast concrete segments +ere linked together +ith high<

strength steel ca"les to form the road+a(. rotecting the ne+

"ridge from shi!s +as a "ig !riorit(' so the( installed large

concrete islands' called dol!hins' around each of the "ridge-s si,

!iers to a"sor" un+anted im!act. 3ince it o!ened to tra?c in

1D' the sleek' ne+ 3unshine 3k(+a( has +on do5ens of

engineering and design a+ards.

*ast *acts:

• T+ent(<one steel ca"les su!!ort the road+a(. The ca"les are

sheathed in steel !i!es' nine inches in diameter. The !i!es

+ere !ainted a "rilliant (ello+ to re;ect its location: the

3unshine 3tate.

• *ort(<foot<+ide road+a(s run on either side of the ca"les.

This design allo+s dri#ers to ha#e uno"structed #ie+s of the

+ater.

III. AGECTIE3

4.1. Kinds of ad2ecti#es

A The main kinds are:

(a# emonstrati#e: this, that, these, those

(b# istri"uti#e: each, every 9 either, neither

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(c# uantitati#e: some, any, no 9 little8few 9 many, much 9 one,

twenty

(d# Interrogati#e: which, what, whose

(e# ossessi#e: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their

(f# Of ualit(: clever, dry, fat, golden, good, heavy, suare

/ artici!les used as ad2ecti#es

/oth !resent !artici!les !ing) and !ast !artici!les )ed7 can "e

used as ad2ecti#es. resent !artici!le ad2ecti#es' amusing,

boring, tiring etc., are acti#e and mean -ha#ing this eect-.

ast !artici!le ad2ecti#es' amused, horri%ed, tired etc.' are!assi#e and mean -aected in this +a(-.

The play was boring. )The audience +as "ored.7

The work was tiring. )The +orkers +ere soon tired.7

The scene was horrifying. )The s!ectators +ere horri8ed.7

an infuriating woman )3he made us furious.7

an infuriated woman )3omething had made her furious.7

C Agreement

Ad2ecti#es in English ha#e the same form for singular and

!lural' masculine and feminine nouns:

a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls

The onl( e,ce!tions are the demonstrati#e ad2ecti#es this

and that, +hich change to these and those "efore !luralnouns:

this cat, these cats that man, those men

4.$. Order of ad2ecti#es of ualit(

A 3e#eral #ariations are !ossi"le "ut a fairl( usual order is:

ad2ecti#es of

(a# si5e

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(b# general descri!tion )e,cluding ad2ecti#es of !ersonalit('

emotion7

(c# age

(d# sha!e

(e#colour

(f#material

(*# origin

)h7 !ur!ose )these are reall( gerunds used to form com!ound

nouns: walking stick, riding boots3.

a long sharp knife

a small round bath

new he#agonal coins

blue velvet curtains

an old plastic bucket

an elegant French clock

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4.4. Com!arison

There are three degrees of com!arison:

ositi#e Com!arati#e 3u!erlati#e

dark darker darkest

tall taller tallest

useful more useful most useful

/ One<s(lla"le ad2ecti#es form their com!arati#e and

su!erlati#e "( adding er and est to the !ositi#e form:

bright brighter brightest

Ad2ecti#es ending in e add r and st:

brave braver bravest

C Ad2ecti#es of three or more s(lla"les form their

com!arati#e and

su!erlati#e "( !utting more and most "efore the !ositi#e:

interested more interested most interested

frightening more frightening most frightening

Ad2ecti#es of t+o s(lla"les follo+ one or other of the a"o#e

rules. Those ending in ful or<re usuall( take more and

most:doubtful more doubtful most doubtful

obscuremore obscure most obscure

Those ending in er, y or ly usuall( add er, est:

clever cleverer cleverest

pretty prettier prettiest )note that the ( "ecomes i7

silly sillier silliest E Irregular com!arisons:

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bad worse worst

far farther farthest )of distance onl(7

further furthest )used more +idel(9 see *' %7

good better best

little less least

many8much more most

old elder eldest )of !eo!le onl(7

older oldest )of !eo!le and things7

* farther/farthest and further/furthest /oth forms can "e

used of distances:7ork is farther8further than 5incoln or Selby.

7ork is the farthest8furthest town

"urther can also "e used' mainl( +ith a"stract nouns' to

mean -additional0e,tra-:

Further supplies will soon be available.

Further discussion8debate would be pointless.

II elder, eldest# older, oldest

elder, eldest im!l( seniorit( rather than age. The( are chie;(

used for com!arisons +ithin a famil(: my elder brother, her

eldest boy8girl= "ut elder is not used +ith than, so older is

necessar( here:

*e is older than - am. !elder +ould not "e !ossi"le.7

4.=. Constructions +ith com!arisons

A 6ith the !ositi#e form of the ad2ecti#e' +e use as ... as

in the a?rmati#e and not as/not so . . . as in the negati#e:

boy of si#teen is often as tall as his father. *e was as

white as a sheet. Manslaughter is not as8so bad as murder.

7our co$ee is not as8so good as the co$ee my mother makes.

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


/ arallel increase is e,!ressed "( the com!arati#e . . .

the com!arati#e:

HOU3E A%ENT: 'o you want a big houseD

ANN: 7es, the bigger the better.

TO&: )ut the smaller it is, the less it will cost us to heat.

C %radual increase or decrease is e,!ressed "( t+o

com!arati#es 2oined "( and:

The weather is getting colder and colder. *e

became less and less interested.

the ad2ecti#e +ith a !lural meaningA blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead,

rich/poor, unemployed and certain other ad2ecti#es

descri"ing the human character or condition can "e !receded

"( the and used to re!resent a class of !ersons. These

e,!ressions ha#e a !lural meaning9 the( take a !lural #er" and

the !ronoun is they:The poor get poorer= the rich get richer. the can "e used in

the same +a( +ith national ad2ecti#es ending in ch or sh:

the 'utch the Spanish the ;elsh and can "e used

similarl( +ith national ad2ecti#es ending in se or ss:

the )urmese the &hinese the 6apanese the

Swiss though it is 2ust !ossi"le for these to ha#e asingular meaning.

>.E. ossessi#e ad2ecti#es

my

your

his8her8its

our

your

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their

A ossessi#e ad2ecti#es in English refer to the !ossessor and

not to the thing !ossessed. E#er(thing that a man or "o(

!ossesses is his thing9 e#er(thing that a +oman or girl!ossesses is her thing:

Tom1s father is his father "ut

Mary1s father is her father. E#er(thing that an animal

or thing !ossesses is its thing:

tree drops its leaves in autumn.

happy dog wags its tail. /ut if the se, of the animal iskno+n' his/her +ould often "e used. If there is more than one

!ossessor' their is used:

The girls are with their brother.

Trees drop their leaves in autumn. Note that the !ossessi#e

ad2ecti#e remains the same +hether the thing !ossessed is

singular or !lural:my glove, my gloves his foot, his feet

C To add em!hasis' own can "e !laced after my, your, his

etc. and after one$s:

my own room her own idea own can "e an

ad2ecti#e' as a"o#e' or a !ronoun:

a room of one1s ownNote the e,!ression:

-1m on my own B -1m alone.

4.@. 3E&INA < AGECTIE

EBECI3E 1. &hoose the appropriate adjective. 9ote that %icalternates with %ical with a di$erence of meaning"

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


1. I am fond of classic 0 classical languages. $. Caragiale-s !la(

QThe ost etterQ is a comic 0 comical master!iece. 4. E#er("od(

has reali5ed that "ig cars are not economic 0 economical to run. =.

It has taken long (ears of I historic historical research to gather

all the data a"out this historic 0 historical building. >. The o(al

/allet-s !erformance of QThe Nut<crackerQ +as a classicG classical

one. @. omania-s economic economical !erformance is no

longer considered a miracle. . 3he +as uite a sight +ith that

comic comical old hat on. D. &an( an innocent man has gone to

the electric electrical chair. . He is uite an e,!ert in electric 0

electrical engineering.

EBECI3E $. :roup the adjectives listed below under the three

heads of the table.

Note that there are t+o regular +a(s of marking the categor(

of com!arison in English9 a7 "( means of <er in the com!arati#e

and )the7 <est in the su!erlati#e )the s(nthetic com!arison7 +ith

monos(lla"ic ad2ecti#es9 "7 "( means of the !eri!hrastic forms

+ith more and !the) most )the anal(tic com!arison7' incase of

!luris(lla"ic ad2ecti#es. A series of monos(lla"ic ad2ecti#es' such

as: calm, cross, %t, fond, frank, scarce, grave, prompt dis!la( "oth

!atterns. &an( dis(lla"ic ad2ecti#es dis!la( "oth !atterns too. It is

t(!icall( the case +ith ad2ecti#es ending in <(' <o+' <le' %er suchas: clumsy, sallow, humble, clever, as +ell as the follo+ing

ad2ecti#es: handsome, common, polite, uiet, pleasant, precise,

sincere etc.

sl(' +icked' con#enient' foolish' acti#e' #ague' afraid' common'

red' +ounded' thin' !rett(' startling' stu!id' "ig' health(' correct'

ali#e' fertile' +orth(' !leasant' minute' eager' cruel' tiring'

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


remote' earl(' comic' sim!le' eas(' tender' lo+' calm' sore' fast'

2ust' docile' !ro!er' distinct' high' sincere.

a7 <er "7 moreAd2. Y7 a7 <er9 )the7 <est 0

)the7 <est )the7 mostAd2. "7 more Ad2. )the7

most Ad2.

EBECI3E 4. +rovide the irregular degrees of comparison of the

following adjectives. 4emember that some of them have two

forms of degrees of comparison "

1. %ood<"etter< the "est

$. "ad 0 ill < +orse < the +orst

4. ittle Sless< the least

=. Near< nearer< the neanest)the ne,t7

>. much 0 man( < more< the most

@. far<farther)further7 S farthest)furthest<su!!limentar(7

. late<later<the latest)recentl(7 0the last

D. old<older0elder <the oldest0 the eldest

EBECI3E =. /se the correct form of the adjectives in brackets"

1. 6hat is the )late7 information (ou-#e gotL $. Her )old7 "rother is

called Gim. 4. 6e +ere in a hurr( to catch the )late7 "us. =. 6hich

is )old7 of the t+o L >. 6ho is the )old7 mem"er of the students-

clu"L @. The( got do+n to "usiness +ithout )far7 dela(. . I-#e got

a still )old7 edition of the dictionar(. D. The )old7 sister +as t+ent(

(ears )old7 than the (oungest. . The )late7 half of &a( +as uite

rain(. 1F. I +as told to +ait until )far7 notice. 11. I +ish I had

"ought it at the )near7 sho!. 1$. He !ro#ided them +ith )far7

information as agreed. 14. The )near7 station is Calea ictoriei.

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1=. Gohn-s )late7 no#el +as a )good7 seller and for sure it +on-t "e

his )late7 one. 1>. He is the )little7 +riter of the t+o. 1@. I sa+ him

meet her at the )far7 end of the street. 1. I shall need )far7 hel!

+ith this.

EBECI3E >. Supply the appropriate form of the adjectives given

in brackets "

1. This is the . . . "ook I ha#e read for a long time )good7. $. He

has one of the . . . cars on the road )fast7. 4. The +ork (ou are

doing toda( is . . . than the +ork (ou did (esterda( )eas(7. =. Ann

often +ears . . . dresses than her mother )e,!ensi#e7. >. 6hich is

the . . . !la( (ou ha#e latel( readL )interesting7. @. The actress on

the stage +as the . . . girl I ha#e e#er seen )striking7. . Tom is . . .

than his friend )tall7. D. The( ha#e a. . . garden than ours )lo#el(7.

. He said this +as the . . . da( in his life )im!ortant7. 1F. He +as .

. . than his +ife +hen the child "roke the +indo+ )angr(7. 11. He

+as the . . . man in the +orld to do that )late7. 1$. A: -6hich +as

(our . . . su"2ect at school and +hich +as (our ... )good' "ad7L-

/:-h(sics +as m( . . . and histor( m(.. .-)good' "ad7.- 14. Is

/ucharest or rague the . . . from ondon )far7L 1=. Tom is 1

(ears old' his "rother Gack is 1 and his sister Gane is 1>.

Therefore Gane is the . . . and Gack is the.. . )(oung' old7.

EBECI3E @. Supply the comparative form of the adjectives given

in brackets. Note that the meaning of the !attern the

comparative of djective . . . ' the comparative of djective is cu

cit. . . cu atit"

l. The )long7 the s!eech is' the )tedious7 it is. $. The )+eak7 the

!atient' the )great7 his de!endence on the nurse. 4. The )storm(7the +eather' the )dangerous7 the tri!. =. The )hum"le7 a man is'

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


the )haught(7 her manner "ecomes. >. The )scarce7 the food is

getting' the )+ild7 the "easts "ecome. @. The )!rom!t7 the

ans+er' the )high7 the grade. . The )!ro!er7 the +ord' the

)e,act7 the translation is. D. The )narro+7 the !ath +as getting'

the )hostile7 the horse +as "ecoming. . The )eager7 the child'

the )intricate7 the uestions he asks. 1F. The )fertile7 the land'

the )little7 the amount of fertili5er gi#en to it.

EBECI3E . :ive the correct succession of the adjectives in the

following noun phrases2 size-general-age-shape-colour-

material-origin-purpose 3

1. a0an )"lue' +asha"le' good' cotton7 skirt9 $. )"lue' frightened'

small7 e(es9 4. a0an )Asiatic' large' stri!ed7 uadru!ed9 =. )cold'

tur"ulent' gre(ish' dee!7 +aters9 >. )#olcanic' dark' tall7 rocks9 @.

a )%reek' (oung' "right7 student9 . a0an )8fteen<foot' !ale<red'

age<old7 "rick+all9 D. a0an )little' mar"le' oman' "ro+nish7

statue9 . a0an )intelligent' olish' +ir(' elderl(7 logician9 1F a0an

);u(' orange' +ide' +ollen' eru#ian7 sha+l.

4.. %AA/IT IAUCT

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: &assif Central' *rance

Com!letion ate: 1DD=

ength: 1'D>4 feet

T(!e: Arch

ur!ose: ail+a(

&aterials: 6rought iron

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


ongest 3ingle 3!an: >=1 feet

Engineer)s7: %usta#e Eiel

In the late 1DFFs' a mountainous "arrier "locked the

rail+a(s from reaching 3outhern *rance. *or (ears' engineers

tried to 8gure out a +a( to "ridge the +ind( %ara"it alle( in

*rance-s &assif Central. *inall(' one of the era-s "est

engineers' %usta#e Eiel' came u! +ith a "rilliant solution. He

"uilt a huge +rought<iron arch in record time +ith 2ust a minimal

amount of material. Ho+ did he do itL

ather than "uilding his "ridge +ith thick' solid "eams' Eiel used

"eams +ith lots of holes < holes in the sha!es of triangles. Eiel

kne+ that if his "ridge +as made of thick' solid "eams' it +ould

"e #er( hea#( and the "eams +ould rattle in the +ind. /ut if he

used a series of o!en triangles' called a truss' the gust( +ind in

the #alle( +ould "lo+ right through them. Not onl( is the truss

!attern light+eight9 its #er( sta"le as +ell. e!ending u!on the

!osition of a train on the "ridge' the connecting #ertical and

diagonal segments are !ulled into tension and !ushed into

com!ression < forces that resist one another. A !ush on one

segment is resisted "( an o!!osite !ull from another' all along its

length. 3o the "ridge remains strong and rigid' des!ite its

lightness.

*ast *acts:

• It took 4D tons of red !aint to coat the entire "ridge.

• *or man( (ears' the %ara"it iaduct remained the tallest

"ridge in the +orld. The single railroad track crosses the

%ara"it alle(' =FF feet a"o#e the Tru(ere i#er.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#wrought


http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#truss

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#stable

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#tension

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#compression

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#strong

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#rigid

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#wrought


http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#truss

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#stable

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#tension

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#compression

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#strong

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/glossary.html#rigid

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


• %usta#e Eiel-s tremendous success +ith the %ara"it

iaduct' and later +ith the frame+ork of the 3tatue of

i"ert( and aris- Eiel To+er' earned him the nickname

Qmagician of iron.Q

4.D. S;9 *-:* 'M

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: As+an' Eg(!t

Com!letion ate: 1F

Cost: P1 "illion

eser#oir Ca!acit(: >. trillion cu"ic feet

T(!e: Em"ankment

ur!ose: *lood control' h(droelectric !o+er' irrigation

eser#oir: ake Nasser

&aterials: ock' cla(

Engineer)s7: !lanned "( a team of /ritish engineers9 "uilt "(

a team of 3o#iet engineers

In the middle of the arid Eg(!tian desert lies one of the

largest em"ankment dams in the +orld. It is called the As+an

High am' or 3aad el Aali in Ara"ic' and it ca!tures the might(Nile i#er in the +orld-s third largest reser#oir' ake Nasser.

/efore the dam +as "uilt' the Nile i#er o#er;o+ed its "anks once

a (ear and de!osited four million tons of nutrient<rich silt on the

#alle( ;oor' making Eg(!t-s other+ise dr( land !roducti#e and

fertile. /ut there +ere some (ears +hen the ri#er did not rise at

all' causing +ides!read drought and famine. In 1>$' Eg(!tian!resident %amal A"dal<Nasser !ledged to control his countr(-s

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


annual ;ood +ith a giant ne+ dam across the Nile i#er. His !lan

+orked.

The As+an High am ca!tures ;ood+ater during rain(

seasons and releases the +ater during times of drought. The dam

also generates enormous amounts of electric !o+er < more than

1F "illion kilo+att<hours e#er( (ear. That-s enough electricit(

to !o+er one million color tele#isions for $F (earsJ

Unfortunatel(' the dam has also !roduced se#eral negati#e

side eects. In order to "uild the dam' F'FFF Eg(!tian !easants

had to mo#e. To make matters +orse' the rich silt that normall(

fertili5ed the dr( desert land during annual ;oods is no+ stuck at

the "ottom of ake NasserJ *armers ha#e "een forced to use

a"out one million tons of arti8cial fertili5er as a su"stitute for

natural nutrients that once fertili5ed the arid ;ood!lain.

I. AE/3

=.1. Kinds of ad#er"s

&anner: bravely, fast, happily, hard, uickly, well

lace: by, down, here, near, there, up

Time: now, soon, still, then, today, yet

*reuenc(: always, never, occasionally, often, twice

3entence: certainly, de%nitely, luckily, surely

egree: fairly, hardly, rather, uite, too, very

Interrogati#e: whenD whereD whyDelati#e: when, where,

why

=.$. *orm and use

The formation of ad#er"s +ith ly

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


A &an( ad#er"s of manner and some ad#er"s of degree are

formed "( adding l( to the corres!onding ad2ecti#es:

%nal, %nally immediate, immediately slow, slowly

3!elling notes

(a)A 8nal y changes to i: happy, happily.

(b)A 8nal e is retained "efore ly: e#treme, e#tremely.

E,ce!tions: true, due, whole "ecome truly, duly, wholly.

(c)Ad2ecti#es ending in a consonant le dro! the e and add (:

gentle, gently simple, simply

Note that the ad#er" of good is well.

/ Ad2ecti#es ending in ly

daily, weekly, monthly etc.' kindly and sometimes

leisurely can "e

ad2ecti#es or ad#er"s' "ut most other ad2ecti#es ending in ly,

e.g.

friendly, likely, lonely etc.' cannot "e used as ad#er"s andha#e no

ad#er" form. To su!!l( this de8cienc( +e use a similar ad#er"

or

ad#er" !hrase:

likely )ad2ecti#e7 probably )ad#er"7

friendly )ad2ecti#e7 in a friendly way )ad#er" !hrase7

C 3ome ad#er"s ha#e a narro+er meaning than their

corres!onding ad2ecti#es or dier from them. coldly, coolly,

hotly, warmly are used mainl( of feelings:

;e received them coldly, )in an unfriendl( +a(7

They denied the accusation hotly, )indignantl(7

She welcomed us warmly, )in a friendl( +a(7

/ut warmly dressed R +earing +arm clothes.

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


coolly & calmly/courageously or calmly/impudently:

*e behaved very coolly in this dangerous situation.

presently & soon: *e1ll be here presently.

Ad#er"s and ad2ecti#es +ith the same form

A back hardH little rightI

deepI highI long shortI

directI ill low still

early justI much8more8mostI straight

enoughkindly nearI well

far lateI prettyI wrongI

fast left

Used as ad#er"s: Used as ad2ecti#es:

&ome back soon. the back door

7ou can dial 4ome direct. the most direct route

The train went fast. a fast train

They worked hard, )energeticall(7 The work is hard

an ill!made road 7ou look ill8well

Turn right here. the right answer

She went straight home. a straight line

*e led us wrong. This is the wrong way.

/ 3tarred +ords a"o#e also ha#e ly forms. Note the

meanings. deeply is used chie;( of feelings:

*e was deeply o$ended.

'irectly can "e used of time or connection:

*e 1?? be here directly, )#er( soon7

The new regulations will a$ect us directly8indirectly.

(ighly is used onl( in an a"stract sense:

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


*e was a highly paid o<cial. They spoke very highly of

him.

ustly corres!onds to the ad2ecti#e *ust )fair' right' la+ful7' "ut

*ust can also "e an ad#er" of degree.

+ately & recently: *ave you seen him latelyD

=.4. Com!arati#e and su!erlati#e ad#er" forms

A 6ith ad#er"s of t+o or more s(lla"les +e form the

com!arati#e and su!erlati#e "( !utting more and most

"efore the !ositi#e form:

ositi#e Com!arati#e3u!erlati#e

uickly more uicklymost uickly

fortunately more fortunately most fortunately

3ingle<s(lla"le ad#er"s' ho+e#er' and early, add er,

est:hard harder hardest

early earlier earliest )note the ( "ecomes i7

/ Irregular com!arisons:

well better best

badly worse worst

little less least much more most

far farther farthest )of distance onl(7

further furthest )used more +idel(7

=.= osition of ad#er"s

Ad#er"s of mannerA Ad#er"s of manner come after the #er":

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


She danced beautifully or after the o"2ect +hen there is

one:

*e gave her the money reluctantly. They speak Anglish

well.

o not !ut an ad#er" "et+een #er" and o"2ect.

/ 6hen +e ha#e #er" !re!osition o"2ect' the ad#er" can

"e either "efore the !re!osition or after the o"2ect:

*e looked at me suspiciously or *e looked suspiciously at

me. /ut if the o"2ect contains a num"er of +ords +e !ut the

ad#er" "efore the !re!osition:*e looked suspiciously at everyone who got o$ the plane.

Ad#er"s of time

A afterwards, eventually, lately, now, recently, soon,

then, today, tomorrow etc. and ad#er" !hrases of time: at

once, since then, till )@.FF etc.7 These are usuall( !laced at the #er( "eginning or at the #er(

end of the clause' i.e. in front !osition or end !osition.

Aventually he came8*e came eventually.

Then we went home8;e went home then.

;rite today. -1ll wait till tomorrow.

Ad#er"s of freuenc(

(a# always, continually, freuently, occasionally,

often, once, twice, periodically, repeatedly,

sometimes, usually etc.

(b) ever, hardly ever, never, rarely, scarcely ever,

seldom

A Ad#er"s in "oth the a"o#e grou!s are normall( !laced:

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


1 After the sim!le tenses of to be:

*e is always in time for meals.

$ /efore the sim!le tenses of all other #er"s:

They sometimes stay up all night.4 6ith com!ound tenses' the( are !laced after the 8rst

au,iliar(' or' +ith interrogati#e #er"s' after au,iliar( su"2ect:

*e can never understand.

7ou have often been told not to do that.

*ave you ever ridden a camelD

Order of ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases of manner' !lace and time

+hen the( occur in the same sentence

E,!ressions of manner usuall( !recede e,!ressions of !lace:

*e climbed awkwardly out of the window.

*e 1d study happily anywhere.

Time e,!ressions can follo+ e,!ressions of manner and !lace:They worked hard in the garden today.

*e lived there happily for a year.

=.>. In#ersion of the #er"

In#ersion of the #er" after certain ad#er"s

Certain ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases' mostl( +ith a restricti#e or

negati#e sense' can for em!hasis "e !laced 8rst in a sentence or

clause and are then follo+ed "( the in#erted )i.e. interrogati#e7

form of the #er". The most im!ortant of these are sho+n "elo+.

The num"ers indicate !aragra!hs +here an e,am!le +ill "e found.

hardly ever on no account

hardly . . . when 7 only by

in no circumstances only in this way

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


neither8nor only then8when

never scarcely ever

no sooner . . . than scarcely . . . when

not only seldom

not till so

nowhere

?. *aven1t got a ticket. J 9either89or have -.

0. - had never before been asked to accept a bribe.

9ever before had - been asked to accept a bribe.

>. They not only rob you, they smash everything too. 9otonly do they rob you, they smash everything too.

K. *e didn 1t reali@e that he had lost it till he got home.

9ot till he got home did he reali@e that he had lost it.

5. This switch must not be touched on any account. (n

no account must this switch be touched.

=.@. 3E&INA < AE/

ALA4&-SA Form adverbs from the following adjectives and nouns

by adding

the su<# !-f or <+ard)s7' paying attention to their spelling.

4emember that certain adverb coincide in form with the

adjectives they derive from"

%a()gail(7' e,treme' "ack)"ack+ards7' sincere' true' sensi"le'

east' +hole' 8nal' due' "eautiful' good)+ell7' sure' home'

!leasant' hungr(' +hole<hearted' dee!' "ad' thankful' late'

de#oted' striking' hard' +est' unha!!(' terri"le' diligent' silent'

fast)fast7' near.

EBECI3E $. &hoose the correct word"

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


1. ou are an e,cellent cook. The food tastes )good' +ell7. $. It +as a

lo#el( da( +ith "irds singing and the sun shining )"right' "rightl(7

and girls +earing )"right' "rightl(7<coloured dresses. 4. I hate

taking medicine. It tastes )"itter' "itterl(7. =. I don-t think he is ill.

His #oice sounds )merr(' merril(7. >. It rains )hea#(' hea#il(7. @. It

is )near' nearl(7 8#e o-clock. . ou must +ork )hard' hardl(7 for

(our e,ams. D. He s!oke so )uick' uickl(7 that +e could )hard'

hardl(7 follo+ him. . 6hen did (ou )last' lastl(7 see himL 1F. I am

)direct' directl(7 interested in +hat (ou think. 11. He couldn-t

mo#e as he +as )dead' deadl(7 tired. 1$. His e(es hurt him )"ad'

"adl(7. 14. &r. Gones held it )tight' tightl(7. 1=. It +as si, o-clock as

)near' nearl(7 as he could guess. 1>. )last' lastl(7 I must account

for m( sister-s "eha#iour.

EBECI3E 4. 4ewrite these sentences substituting <l( adverbs for

the italici@ed phrases"

&OE: -6ho-s afraidL- he said in an uneasy manner. -6ho-s

afraidL- he said uneasil(.

1. He smiled a contemptuous smile. $. I !ick m( sta in a

careful manner.

4.-Oh' Gohn-' she said in a hoarse voice. =. He "ade us fare+ell in

a cold voice.>. 3he cried with bitter tears. @. He came u! to me at

a slow pace. . He s!oke a"out the tri! in an e#cited voice. D.

The( defended their friend in convincing words. . 3he stared at

me with a %#ed look. 1F. The Indians li#ed a simple life, hunting

and 8shing.

EBECI3E =. :ive the degrees of comparison of the following

adverbs"

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&uch<' "rightl(<more<most' uietl(' e,!ressi#el(' "adl(<+orse<

+orst' uickl(' late<later<latest' fast<faster<fastest' high' often<'

+ell<"atter<"est' s+iftl(' far' little<last<least' slo+l(.

EBECi3E >. 4ewrite the following sentences using the adverbs

in parantheses in the correct degree of comparison"

1. In a large cit( (ou must cross the street )carefull(7 than in a

small one. $. He +alked )far<farther7 than I did. 4. lease s!eak

)slo+l(7' so that I can take notes. =. 3he mo#ed )a+k+ardl(7 than

a ele!hant. >. He re#ie+ed her +ork )unfa#ora"l(7 than i,on

did. @. Of the three men' (ou "eha#ed )disgracefull(7. . He-s

"een slee!ing )"adl(<+orst7 than m(self the last fe+ months. D.

Of the ten students he has "een +orking )hard<est7. . I !ick m(

sta )carefull(7 than (ou do9 that-s +h( our results are +orse. 1F.

The ans+er came "ack )uickl(<er7 than I had e,!ected.

EBECI3E @ *ill in the blanks with rather)negati#7 or

fairl()!o5iti#e7:

Note that fairly im!lies the idea of something Qfa#oura"leQ +hile

rather the idea of something Qunfa#oura"leQ. 4ather can "e used

"efore alike, like, similar, di$erent and "efore com!arati#es

con#e(ing the meaning of a little, slightly, )e.g. our e,am!le is

rather similar to mine. The suitcase +as rather hea#ier than I

e,!ected7. Fairly cannot "e used "efore com!arati#es. 4ather can

"e used "efore certain Qfa#oura"leQ +ords such as: good,

well,pretty, clever, amusing, and the #er"s to like, to enjoy, etc.'

its meaning "ecoming nearl( eui#alent to very. )e.g. The

!erformance +as rather good.7

1. This cake is . .fairl( . good' "ut the other is . rather. . sour. $. The(

"eha#ed . .rather . meanl(. 4. ou s!eak English . fairl(. . +ell. =. It

http://fill/

http://fill/

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+as .rather . . stu!id of him to !ro!ose to &ar(. >. 3he looks .

.fairl( . nice. @. esson $> is . .. di?cult "ut esson $= +as .

fairl(. . eas(. . 3he +as . rather0fairl( . kind to me. D. The teacher

+as . rather. . angr( +ith us. . 3he is . rather . tall for her age.

1F. It +as . . . cruel of him to sa( that. 11. The lecture +as . . .

interesting "ut. . . long. 1$.1 didn-t +ant to make friends +ith

them "ut no+ I . rather. . like them.

=.. THEE %O%E3 A&

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: Three %orges' China

Com!letion ate: $FF

Cost: P1<P1FF "illion

eser#oir Ca!acit(: 1.4 trillion cu"ic feet

T(!e: %ra#it(

ur!ose: *lood Control' h(droelectric !o+er' irrigation'

na#igation

eser#oir: not named

&aterials: Concrete

Engineer)s7: Chang2iang 6ater esources Commission9

Vhongnan In#estment X esign Institute9 Huadong

In#estment X esign Institute

Construction is no+ under +a( in China on +hat +ill "e the

+orld-s largest h(droelectric dam. 6hen it is com!leted in $FF'

Three %orges am +ill stretch)a se intinde7 more than one mile

across the angt5e i#er and soar)inaltime7 @FF feet a"o#e the

#alle( ;oor. It +ill "e the largest concrete dam in the +orld' and

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+ill !roduce 1D'FFF mega+atts of electrical energ(' nudging)a da

cu cotu7 /ra5il-s Itai!u am to second !lace.

China-s Three %orges am is (ears from com!letion' "ut

en#ironmentalists and human rights ad#ocates are alread(

concerned a"out the conseuences of such a huge structure. To

make +a( for the enormous !ro2ect' more than one million !eo!le

li#ing on the "anks)tarmuri7 of the angt5e i#er +ill ha#e to

mo#e to higher ground. The 4>F<mile<long reser#oir +ill

su"merge #illages' ancient tem!les' "urial grounds' and the

s!ectacular can(ons that tourists from all o#er the +orld come to

see. En#ironmentalists also argue that the dam +ill +i!e out)a

sterge7 a num"er of rare s!ecies' including the angt5e i#er

dol!hin' and that the reser#oir +ill tra!)a tine7 millions of tons of

ra+)ne8ltrate7 !ollutants s!e+ing)a se re#arsa7 from China-s

largest industriali5ed cit(' Chonging.

6hen 8nished' Three %orges am +ill generate one<ninth of

China-s !o+er. Unfortunatel(' the dam ma( "e remem"ered not

for its h(droelectric !o+er' "ut for its drastic social and

en#ironmental im!act.

*ast *acts:

• A"out $F'FFF !eo!le are +orking nearl( round the clock)7 to

com!lete the 1.$=<mile<+ide structure "( $FF.

• The lake that +ill form "ehind Three %orges am +ill stretch

for a"out 4>F miles < the distance from 3an *rancisco to os

Angeles.

• 6hen it is com!leted in $FF' the enormous Three

%orges am reser#oir +ill actuall( "e #isi"le from

the moonJ

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=.D. CITICO CENTE

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: Ne+ ork' Ne+ ork' U3A

Com!letion ate: 1

Cost: P1> million

Height: 1> feet

3tories: >

&aterials: 3teel

*acing &aterials: Aluminum' re;ecti#e glass

Engineer)s7: 6illiam e&essurier and Associates

*rom the #er( "eginning' the Citicor! Center )toda(' the

Citigrou! Center7 in Ne+ ork Cit( +as an engineering challenge.

6hen !lanning for the sk(scra!er "egan in the earl( 1Fs' the

north+est corner of the !ro!osed "uilding site +as occu!ied "(

3t. eter-s utheran Church. The church allo+ed Citicor! to "uild

the sk(scra!er under one condition: a ne+ church +ould ha#e to

"e "uilt on the same corner' +ith no connection to the Citicor!

"uilding and no columns !assing through it.

Ho+ did the engineers do itL The( set the ><stor( to+er on four

massi#e columns' !ositioned at the center of each side' rather

than at the corners. This design allo+ed the north+est corner of

the "uilding to cantile#er $ feet o#er the ne+ church.

In 1D' the sk(scra!er-s chief structural engineer' 6illiam

e&essurier' disco#ered a !otentiall( fatal ;a+ in the "uilding-s

design: the sk(scra!er-s "olted 2oints +ere too +eak to +ithstand

F<mile<!er<hour +ind gusts. 6ith hurricane season fast

a!!roaching' e&essurier took no chances. He con#inced Citicor!

o?cers to hire a cre+ of +elders to re!air the fragile "uilding. *or

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the ne,t three months' a construction cre+ +elded t+o<inch<thick

steel !lates o#er each of the sk(scra!er-s $FF "olted 2oints'

!ermanentl( correcting the !ro"lem.

*ast *acts:

The Citicor! crisis of 1D +as hidden from the !u"lic for almost

$F (ears.

Citicor! Center +as the 8rst sk(scra!er in the United 3tates to

contain a tuned mass dam!er' a !endulum<like de#ice that

reduces the s+a( in tall "uildings caused "( the +ind.

. THE ONOUN

ronoun is a +ord used to re!lace a noun.

ronouns identif( !ersons' !laces' things' and ideas +ithout

renaming them.

EBA&E: Gohn "roke Gohns arm.

AN36E: Gohn "roke his arm.

The noun that a !ronoun re!laces is the antecedent of the

!ronoun.

EBA&E:

Carmen and Goan +alked into the theatre. It +as so dark that

the( could "arel( see the ;oor.

)Theatre is the antecedent of it. Carmen and Goan are the

antecedents of the(.7

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-he antecedent usuall( a!!ears "efore the !ronoun. ronouns

ma( "e the antecedents of other !ronouns

EBA&E: HE en2o(s HI3 free time. )He is the antecedent of

his7

pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.

If the antecedent is singular' the !ronoun must "e singular. If the

antecedent is !lural' the !ronoun must "e !lural

There are se#en kinds of !ronouns:

!ersonal'

demonstrati#e'

re;e,i#e'

intensi#e'

interrogati#e'

relati#e' and

inde8nite.

>.1. ersonal !ronouns

ersonal ronouns are the largest grou! of !ronouns. The( ha#e

dierent form to e,!ress !erson' num"er' and gender.

E,!ressing !erson

6hen (ou +rite or s!eak a"out (ourself' (ou use 8rst<!erson

!ronouns: I' me' +e' us.

6hen (ou refer to an audience' (ou use the second !erson

!ronoun: (ou.

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6hen (ou refer to other !eo!le or things' (ou use third<

!erson !ronouns: he' she' the(' it' and them.

E,!ressing num"er )are the( singular or !lural7

ersonal !ronouns also indicate +hether the antecedent )the

noun that the !ronoun is re!lacing7 is singular or !lural.

, he, he' and it are 3IN%UA !ronouns.

0e, they and us are UA !ronouns.

1ou can "e EITHE singular or !lural.

E,!ressing gender

ersonal !ronouns e,!ress gender.

(e and (is indicate the masculine gender.

he and (er indicate the feminine gender.

It indicates the neuter gender' +hich (ou use to refer

to things and ideas.

>.$. Uses of it

A it is normall( used of a thing or an animal +hose se, +e

don-t kno+' and sometimes of a "a"( or small child: ;here1s

my mapD - left it on the table. 5ook at that bird. -t always

comes to my window. *er new baby is tiny. -t only weighs 0

kilos.

it can "e used of !eo!le in sentences such as: ANN

)on !hone7: ;ho is that8;ho is itD /I: -t1s me. -s

that Tom over thereD 9o, it1s +eter.

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it is used in e,!ressions of time' distance' +eather' tem!erature'

tide: ;hat time is itD -t is si#. ;hat1s the dateD -t1s the

third of March

*ow far is it to 7orkD -t is KCC kilometres.

*ow long does it take to get thereD -t depends on how you

go.

-t is raining8snowing8free@ing. -t1s frosty. -t1s a %ne

night.

-t1s full moon tonight. -n winter it1s8it is dark at si# o1clock.

-t is hot8cold8uiet8noisy in this room.

-t1s high tide8low tide. Note also:

-t1s8-t is three years since - saw him R

I haven1t seen him for three years.

E it/this can re!resent a !re#iousl( mentioned !hrase' clause

or #er": *e smokes in bed, though - don1t like it. 2it R his

smoking in "ed7 *e suggested ying, but - thought it wouldcost too much, Nit R ;(ing7

* it also acts as a su"2ect for im!ersonal #er"s:

it seems it appears it looks it happens

>.4. ossessi#e !ronouns

ersonal ronouns ha#e !ossessi#e forms to sho+ o+nershi! or

"elonging.

EBA&E:

The house is ours.

The !en is mine.

T&e folloin* c&art contains t&e 'ersonal 'ronouns. T&e PO//E//I6E for"s are in 'arent&eses.

3IN%UA UA*I3T E3ON I' me )m(' mine7 +e' us )our' ours7

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3ECON E3ON (ou )(our' (ours7 (ou )(our' (ours7

THI E3ON

he' him )his7

she' her )her' hers7

it )its7

them' the( )their'

theirs7

>.=. emonstrati#e !ronouns

emonstrati#e !ronouns tell +hich one or +hich grou! is referred

to. A list of demonstrati#e !ronouns follo+s: THAT THI3 THE3E

THO3E

THI3 and THE3E !oint to !eo!le or things that are near in s!ace

or time. THAT or THO3E !oint to !eo!le or things that are farther

a+a( in s!ace or time.

EBA&E 1: THI3 is a ne+ "ook.) the antecedent of THI3 is "ook7

EBA&E $: THO3E are rare coins. )the antecedent of THO3E is

rare coins7

>.>. e;e,i#e !ronouns

e;e,i#e ronouns are used to indicate that !eo!le !erform

actions TO' *O' or UON themsel#es. ou form re;e,i#e

!ronouns +ith the su?,es <self' and <sel#es.

*I3T E3ON: m(self' oursel#es

3ECON E3ON: (ourself' (oursel#es

THI E3ON: himself' herself' itself' oneself' themsel#es.

EBA&E 1: /rad "um!ed himself on the knee. )/rad !erformed

the action of "um!ing u!on himself.7

EBA&E $: The Hanson CHIEN "uilt themsel#es a tree house.

)The Hanson children "uilt a tree house for themsel#es7

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>.@. Interrogati#e !ronouns

Interrogati#e ronouns introduce uestions. A list of interrogati#e

!ronouns follo+s.

6ho +hich +hose +hom +hat

EBA&E 1: 6HO +as at the doorL

EBA&E $: 6HICH do (ou !referL

EBA&E 4: 6HO& did (ou electL

>.. elati#e !ronouns

elati#e ronouns introduce ad2ecti#e clauses' +hich are +ord

grou!s that modif( a +ord or a !hrase. A list of re;e,i#e !ronouns

follo+s.

6ho 6hose That 6hom 6hich

EBA&E 1: I kno+ the E3ON +ho li#es here. )E3ON is the

antecedent of +ho7

EBA&E $: He !lanted *O6E3 that "loom e#er( (ear.

)*O6E3 is the antecedent of that7

Zemem"er' that INTEO%ATIE ONOUN3 introduce

UE3TION3 onl(.

>.D. Inde8ite !ronouns

Inde8nite ronouns do not refer to a de8nite !erson' !lace or

thing9 instead the( refer to !ersons' !laces or things in general.

The follo+ing inde8nite !ronouns are singular. The( are used +ith

the singular !ossessi#e !ronouns HI3' HE' and IT3.

Another an(thing e#er("od( neither one

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an("od( each e#er(one no"od( some"od(

an(one either e#er(thing no one someone

EBA&E: Each of the 2o"s has IT3 re+ards.

The follo+ing inde8nite !ronouns are !lural. The( are used +ith

the !lural !ossessi#e THEI.

/oth man( fe+ se#eral

EBA&E: &an( of the #ie+ers e,!ressed THEI o!inions.

The follo+ing inde8nite !ronouns can "e either singular or !lural'

de!ending on their meaning in the sentence.

All 3ome None

>.. 3E&INA S ONOUN

EBECI3E 1. Substitute possessive pronouns for the italici@ed

groups of words"

&OE: His results are more im!ressi#e than my

results. His results are more im!ressi#e than

mine.

1. Gim-s sense of humour is as unusual as her sense of humour.

$. %randmother-s !ears are #er( 2uic(9 our pears are not. 4. Our

em!lo(ers +ill "e as sur!rised as their employers. =. Tom

"oasted to his friend a"out his success and /o" "oasted to his

friend. >. I-m glad I ha#en-t a mind like your mind.

@. ou ha#e (our o+n interests' and I ha#e my interests. . The

/ro+ns took

their t+ins to the Voo' and the Ashtons took their twins to the

circus. D. He-ll

take m( hand and I-ll take her hand and +e-ll start dancing. .

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3he is mad at

her daughter and I am mad at my daughter. 1F. 3cratch m( "ack

and I-ll

scratch your back.

EBECI3E $. /se the possessive pronoun instead of the

possessive adjective"

&OE: He is one of her fans. He is a fan of hers.

1. He is one of m( friends. $. Tom lent his friend one of his

"ooks. 4. I ga#e him one of our dictionaries. =. 3he !la(ed one of her old records. >. 3ome of their neigh"ours had come o#er to

tea. @. He took a fanc( to one of m( cousins. Here' Gohn' meet

one of (our +ell<kno+n commentators. D. Is this another of their

little schemesL . 6as it one of her fa#ourite !unsL 1F. That-s

one of our fa#ourite tunes.

EBECI3E 4. Fill in the blanks with the suitable ree#ive

pronouns"

1. If the child eats so little he-ll make . . . ill. $. Can a 8#e<(ear<

old "o( +ash . . .' dress . . . ' feed . . . L 4. 6e 8nd it still di?cult

to e,!ress ... in English. =. Alice hurt. . . +hen she fell do+n the

tree. >. The( are likel( to ha#e en2o(ed ... at (our !art(. @. Onehas to ser#e ... in that restaurant.

$.&( cousin s+itched the light o and 8nding ... in the dark

"egan to cr(.

+. I +as told (ou ha#e de#oted . .. to science. . 3he cheers ... u!

"( talking a"out her (outh. 1F. I "ought a ne+ +atch for . . .

(esterda(. 11. One can lose . . .uite easil( in ondon. 1$. 6eforced . .. to smile. 14. o !ull. . . togetherJ 1=. The ringleader

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shot .... 1>. I chose to defend . . . against her. 1@. The cat looked

at... in the looking glass. 1. &ake ... at home )!i7. 1D. The( could

onl( s!eak for .. .. 1. 3he cooked ... a good meal and +ent to

"ed.

EBECI3E =. &hoose the necessary pronoun"

Note that !re!ositions denoting concrete s!atial relations are

not follo+ed "( re;e,i#e !ronouns. 6ith the follo+ing

!re!ositions as, like, but, e#cept !ersonal and re;e,i#e !ronouns

are used in #ariation:

1. He "egan to imagine ho+ he might rescue her in s!ite of

)her0herself7. $. The( tried to li#e u! to a lot of !eo!le +ho +ere

"etter o than )them0 themsel#es7. 4. The car +as heading

straight to+ards )them0themsel#es7. =. Then he +ent cra5('

screamed and thre+ )him0himself7 a"out. >. ook a"out

)(ou0(ourself7J @. 3ome"od( like )(ou0(ourself7 should set the

fashion. . I +inced inside )me0m(self7. D. 3he +as "eside

)her0herself7 +ith rage. . &( sister and )I0m(self7 +ent sho!!ing.

1F. o the( ha#e an( mone( on )them9 themsel#es7 L 11. 6hen

he +as )him0himself7 again she +as too ha!!( to uestion him.

1$. 6e-ll !lace our !a!er in front of )us0oursel#es7. 14. I am

dee!l( touched to "e oered hel! "( so eminent a man as

)(ou0(ourself7. 1=. He takes too much u!on )him0himself7. 1>. *or

some"od( like )me0m(self7 this is no sur!rise. 1@. I ho!e it-ll

remain "et+een )us0oursel#es7.

EBECI3E >

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Identif( the t+o !ersonal !ronouns in each of the follo+ing

sentences. Tell +hether each !ronoun is in the 8rst !erson' the

second !erson' or the third !erson.

1. I !icked u! 3ams !a(check and sent it through the mail.

$. I +ould like to tell (ou a"out last summer.

4. It +as a long +inter' and to make the time !ass more uickl(' I

took u! !ainting.

=. He couldnt uite hear +hat (ou said.

>. 6e thought that the team +as out of the running' "ut it came

"ack to +in the !ennant.

@. Is the "ook 3and(s' and does she +ant itL

. 6ill (ou !lease tr( to +rite us more oftenL

D. 6e should not critici5e other !eo!le too harshl(' for those

!eo!le ma( turn around and critici5e us.

. The( sa+ the e,hi"it +hen it +as at the art museum last (ear.

1F. /rad looked at the !ainting' and kne+ it +as his.

EBECI3E @

Underline the !ronouns used in !lace of nouns. Identif( their

antecedents )the noun each !ronoun stands for7

1. Carol(n and Kat( +a,ed their skis.

$. &s. odrigue5 !la(ed the guitar for her class.

4. [Ha#e (ou s!oken to GeanL\ 3heila asked ene.

=. The steam made a hissing sound as it esca!ed.

>. ad and &art( 8nished their !ainting.

@. The &illers mo#ed. Anthon( hel!ed them.

. [Are the glo#es (oursL\ the sales clerk asked Goe.

D. Kim +on a tro!h(. 3he +as e,cited.

. [I +ill +rite the in#itations'\ said Ke#in.

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1F. [6e met Gim at the mo#ie'\ said &ike and Gan.

11. The test took half an hour. It +as sim!le.

1$. The results are in. The( +ill "e !osted later.

14. /o" carried 3ues !icture +ith him.

1=. olores de!osited the mone( in her sa#ings account.

1>. Al and ee are here. id 3arah 8nd themL

EBECI3E

ist the antecedents of the !ronouns in CAITA letters.

1. 3helle(' +ill OU !lease ans+er the !honeL IT has "een ringing

for 8#e minutes.

$. %randmother said that 3HE +ould lo#e to come for dinner

toda(.

4. arr( +ill gi#e (ou the information +hen (ou need IT.

=. Guan should go to the fair "efore IT closes on *rida(.

>. eter and I +ill !ractice our duet "efore 6E come to "and

!ractice on 3aturda( morning.

@. The car!enter !icked u! HI3 hammer.

. ou must +ait OU turn.

D. The columnist +rote HE article.

. T+o mem"ers ha#e not !aid THEI dues.

1F. Nora has im!ro#ed HE grades.

EBECI3E D 6rite a correct demonstrati#e !ronoun for each

sentence.

1.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] is the 8rst Ga!anese restaurant I#e "een

in.

$.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] +ere m( fa#orite stores.

4.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] dont taste as fresh as the others.

=.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] +as a good idea.

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>.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] are m( sisters +ith me.

@.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] o#er there are (ours.

.]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] is his house across the street.

EBECI3E Identif(ing E&ON3TATIE and INTEO%ATIE

!ronouns.

6rite +hether each ca!itali5ed !ronoun is E&ON3TATIE or

INTEO%ATIE.

1. 6HO +as at the doorL

$. Are THE3E left o#erL

4. 6e chose THAT for our theme song.

=. 6HICH of the 2ackets is (oursL

>. 3ara !referred THO3E.

@. 6HO3E is the "lue !enL

. THI3 is "est for e#er(one.

D. 6HAT +as that noiseL

EBECI3E 1F Using Inde8nite ronouns Correctl(.

Underline the inde8nite !ronoun' then underline the correct

!ossessi#e !ronoun.

1. No"od( lost )his or her' their7 !lace.

$. E#er(one has !aid )his or her' their7 fee.

4. &an( of the musicians "rought )his or her' their7 instruments.

=. Each of the t(!e +riters comes +ith )its' their7 o+n carr(ing

case.

>. All of the g(mnasts !racticed )his or her' their7 routines.

@. Neither of the girls "rought )her' their7 s+im suit.

. If an(one is interested' ha#e )him or her' them7 see me.

D. 3e#eral of the containers +ere missing )its' their7 la"els.

. /oth of the stores raised )its' their7 la"els.

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1F. Neither of the scientists com!leted )his or her' their7

e,!eriment.

11. E#er(thing +as returned to )its' their7 o+ner.

1$. 3ome of the architects sent in )his or her' their7 designs.

14. None of the sul!hur is in )its' their7 ;ask.

1=. No one oered )his or her' their7 hel!.

1>. Either of the girls can e,!lain )her' their7 ans+er

E,. 11 *ill in the correct self !ronoun )m(self' (ourself' himself'

herself' itself' oursel#es' (oursel#es' themsel#es7 or each other

into the ga!s.

1. /o" cut .. +hile he +as !re!aring su!!er.

$. The t+o clim"ers fell and hurt .. on the rocks.

4. 3and( and her friend &argie looked at . #er(

sur!rised.

=. Qon-t +orr(' &and(. 6e can take care of . .Q

>. &r 3mith is teaching 3!anish "ut he thinks it-s

#er( di?cult.

@. 6hat a nice s+eaterJ < Thank (ou' I-#e knitted it

.. .

. The clock came o the +all . .

D. &rs /ro+n +all!a!ered the li#ing room .. .

. /oth families ha#en-t "een talking to .. since the

"ig uarrel last (ear.

1F. Cath( and Ann are se+ing fanc( costumes for .. .

E,.1$ *ill in +ith relati#e nouns

1. This is the "o( . had an accident.

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$. esterda( I sa+ a car .. +as reall( old.

4. &and( is the girl . I met on *rida(.

=. I ha#en-t seen eter' .. "rother is 8#e' for a long time

no+.

>. The ro""er stole the car. the lad( !arked in front of the

su!ermarket.

@. This is the man . house is on 8re.

. Can I talk to the girl is sitting on the "enchL

D. The "ook .. (ou ga#e me is great.

E,.14 elati#e Clauses' elati#e ronouns

1. 6here is the "ottle of Coke . +ho +hich +hose , I "ought

this morningL

$. I talked to the girl . +ho +hich +hose , car had "roken

do+n in front of the sho!.

4. &r Gones' +ho +hich +hose , is a ta,i dri#er' li#es on

the corner.

=. There is the car . +ho +hich +hose , I-d like to "u(.

>. He cleaned the car . +ho +hich +hose , had an

accident.

@. This is the girl . +ho +hich +hose , comes from 3!ain.

. That-s eter' the "o( . +ho +hich +hose , has 2ust arri#ed

at the air!ort.

D. 6hat did (ou do +ith the mone( .. +ho +hich +hose ,

(our mother lent (ouL

E,. 1= Correct the !ronoun errors.

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1. Keats +rote that Qa thing of "eaut( is a 2o( fore#er.Q He added

that it-s Qlo#eliness increases.Q

$. At some schools' (ou ha#e to take the courses the( tell (ou to

take.

4. E#er(one at the game "rought their Thermos 8lled +ith hot

chocolate.

=. &arie and me +ill go +ith (ou and she to the craft fair.

>. ou ha#e a much higher %A than me.

@. &ake (our reser#ations +ith either ana or m(self.

. On the ten o-clock ne+s' the( announced that ete and her +ill

"e the ne+ delegates.

D. Unless (ou gras! the conce!t' it can "e reall( frustrating.

. &( "ar"er and his "oss are al+a(s arguing9 he told me the(ma( ne#er make !eace.

1F. The "and !la(ed a fanfare for the resident and I as +e

disem"arked from the !lane.

11. ou and me are "est "uds. This makes me #er( ha!!(.

1$. 6hen the( dro#e to California' the( +ere sur!rised at ho+ fastit +ent.

14. The !hotogra!h certainl( did 2ustice to the scener(9 it-s

ualit( +as e,cellent.

1=. ad lo#es the +ide o!en s!aces. That is +h( he mo#ed out of

the cit(.

1>. 3arah sa(s she is going to graduate +ith honors or die tr(ing.

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1@. &ike' 3usan' and I +ashed the ;oor ourself this morning.

1. One of the !lans +ere dra+n "( the architect +ho is more

famous than me.

1D. All of the lum"er +ere +ar!ed "( the hea#( rain.

1. Goe is afraid of dogs' and he is allergic to cats. That is +h( he

doesn-t ha#e a !et.

E,. 1> Q6hoQ and Q6hom'Q Q6hoe#erQ and Q6home#erQ

E,ercises

*ill in the correct form in the follo+ing sentences.

1. ]]]]] kicked the 8eld goalL

$. The go#ernor a!!ointed ]]]]] for the !ositionL

4. I +ill !ick ]]]]]] needs the mone(.

=. an /aker is not onl( the man ]]]]]] +rote the "est<selling

no#el "ut also the e,<con#ict a"out ]]]]]] e#er(one +onders.

>. Trud( and ]]]]]] +ill "e co<chairs of the committeeL

@. ou and ]]]]]] "ought the ;o+ers for ]]]]]] L

. This is the +oman for ]]]]]] the "ell tolls.

D. The student ]]]]]] +as +earing the "lue shorts s+ore that he

+ould !unch out ]]]]]]he could catch.

. God( +ent to the histor( class admiring ]]]]]] could +rite an

QAQ !a!er for that !rofessor' ]]]]]] +as noted for his tough

grading !olicies and a"out ]]]]]] e#er(one +as gossi!ing.

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1F. The cor!oration +as facing "ankru!tc(9 conseuentl(' it could

not ad#ertise for the technicians ]]]]]] +ould "e the most

uali8ed' and the( had to settle for ]]]]]] the( could 8nd that

+ould "e +illing to +ork for lo+ +ages.

11. &artha is a #er( conscientious mother u!on ]]]]]] the +hole

famil( de!ends.

1$. This general' +ith ]]]]]] man( soldiers fought and under

]]]]]] more soldiers +ere trained' ]]]]]] disci!lined soldiers

]]]]]]] diso"e(ed the slightest order' and ]]]]]] challenged

]]]]]] a!!eared to ha#e the faintest s!ark of !romise' died

ingloriousl( (esterda( +hile sitting in his eas( chair in the nursing

home' dreaming of the da(s +hen he could strike fear in the

hearts of ]]]]]] he commanded.

>..1. 3EA3 TO6E

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: Chicago' Illinois' U3A

Com!letion ate: 14

Cost: P1>F million

Height: 1'=>= feet3tories: 11F

&aterials: 3teel

*acing &aterials: /lack aluminum

Engineer)s7: 3kidmore' O+ings X &errill

The 3ears To+er is an e,am!le of the re#olutionar( "undled<tu"e structural design. Tu"e "uildings gain most of their

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structural su!!ort from a rigid net+ork of "eams and

columns in their outer +alls. The rigid outer +alls act like the

+alls of a hollo+ tu"e. The 3ears To+er is actuall( a "undle of

nine tu"es' and is considered one of the most e?cient structures

designed to +ithstand +ind. This is a great design for a

sk(scra!er in Chicago' the Q6ind( Cit('Q +here the a#erage +ind

s!eed is 1@ miles !er hour. As the "uilding clim"s u!+ard' the

tu"es "egin to dro! o' reducing the +ind forces on the "uilding.

The To+er-s hea#( +eight more than ==F million !ounds is also

su!!orted "( 11= !iles sunk dee! into the earth so that the(

stand 8rml( on hard' solid "edrock.

In 1=' the 3ears To+er in Chicago assumed the co#eted title of

+orld-s tallest "uilding' at 1'=>= feet. It held this title for $$ (ears

until 1D' +hen the decorati#e s!ires ato! the etronas To+ers

in &ala(sia sur!assed the 3ears To+er "( 44 feet. Toda(' the

3ears To+er still "oasts the tallest occu!ia"le ;oor and the tallest

sk(scra!er roof in the +orld.

*ast *acts:

● The 3ears To+er contains enough concrete to "uild an eight<

lane' 8#e<mile<long high+a(' enough steel to "uild >F'FFF

automo"iles' and enough tele!hone +iring to +ra! around

the +orld 1.> times.

● On a clear da(' (ou can see four states < Illinois' Indiana'

6isconsin' and &ichigan < from the 3ears To+er isitor

3k(deck.

● At the #er( to! of the "uilding' the ma,imum +ind drift is

2ust one foot.

● 3i, roof<mounted ro"otic +indo+<+ashing machines clean all

1@'1FF +indo+s on the 3ears To+er.

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>..$. ETONA3 TO6E3

ital 3tatistics:

ocation: Kuala um!ur' &ala(sia

Com!letion ate: 1D

Cost: P1.@ "illion

Height: 1'=D4 feet

3tories: DD

&aterials: Concrete' 3teel

*acing &aterials: Aluminum' 3tainless 3teel

Engineer)s7: Thornton<Tomasetti and anhill /ersekutu

Until 1D' the +orld-s tallest sk(scra!er had al+a(s "een in the

United 3tates. /ut that (ear' &ala(sia-s etronas To+ers laid claim

to this distinction.

3ueaking !ast the Chicago 3ears To+er "( 44 feet' the s!ires

ato! the etronas To+ers !eak at an im!ressi#e 1'=D4 feet. et

there-s a contro#ers(. The highest occu!ied ;oor in the 3ears

To+er is actuall( $FF feet higher than the to! ;oor of the

etronas To+ers' and its antennae stretch higher still.

3o +h( are the etronas To+ers considered the +orld-s tallest

"uildingsL According to the Council on Tall /uildings and Ur"an

Ha"itat' s!ires count' "ut antennae don-t. 3!ires do not contain

;oors' "ut the( are counted in the +orld-s tallest "uilding race for

one architectural reason: the(-re nice to look at.

/uilt o#er a former racetrack' the etronas To+ers re;ect a uniue

"lend of religion and economic !ros!erit(. The P1.@ "illion to+ers

contain more than eight million suare feet of sho!!ing andentertainment facilities' underground !arking for ='>FF cars' a

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


!etroleum museum' a s(m!hon( hall' a mosue' and a

multimedia conference center.

Each to+er-s ;oor !lan forms an eight<!ointed star' a design

ins!ired "( traditional &ala(sian Islamic !atterns. The DD<stor(

to+ers' 2oined "( a ;e,i"le sk("ridge on the =$nd ;oor' ha#e

"een descri"ed as t+o Qcosmic !illarsQ s!iraling endlessl(

to+ards the hea#ens.

*ast *acts:

• It takes F seconds to tra#el from the "asement !arking lot

to the to! of each to+er.

• Together' the to+ers ha#e 4$'FFF +indo+s. It takes +indo+

+ashers an entire month to +ash each to+er 2ust onceJ

I. EO3ITION3

@.1. Introduction

re!ositions are +ords normall( !laced "efore nouns or

!ronouns

The student has t+o main !ro"lems +ith !re!ositions. He has

to kno+

)a7 +hether in an( construction a !re!osition is reuired or

not' and

)"7 +hich !re!osition to use +hen one is reuired.

The 8rst !ro"lem can "e es!eciall( trou"lesome to a Euro!ean

student' +ho ma( 8nd that a certain construction in his o+n

language reuires a !re!osition' +hereas a similar one in

English does not' and #ice #ersa: e.g. in most Euro!ean

languages !ur!ose is e,!ressed "( a !re!osition in8niti#e9

in English it is e,!ressed "( the in8niti#e onl(:

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I came here to study

Alternati#e !osition of !re!ositions

A re!ositions normall( !recede nouns or !ronouns. In t+o

constructions' ho+e#er' it is !ossi"le in informal English to

mo#e the !re!osition to the end of the sentence:

1 In uestions "eginning +ith a !re!osition

whom/which/what/

whose/where:

To whom were you talkingD)formal7

;ho were you talking toD )informal7

-n which drawer does he keep itD )formal7

;hich drawer does he keep it inD )informal7 It used to

"e thought ungrammatical to end a sentence +ith a

!re!osition' "ut it is no+ acce!ted as a collouial form.

0 3imilarl( in relati#e clauses' a !re!osition !laced "eforewhom/which

can "e mo#ed to the end of the clause. The relati#e !ronoun is

then

often omitted:

the people with whom - was travelling )formal7 the

people - was travelling with)informal7

the company

from which - hire my T set )formal7 the company -

hire my T set from )informal7

/ /ut in !hrasal #er"s the !re!osition0ad#er" remains after its

#er"' so the formal t(!e of construction is not !ossi"le' the

children - was looking after could not "e re+ritten +ith after

whom and ;hich bridge did they blow upD could not "e

re+ritten +ith up which.

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Time and date: at, on, by, before, in

at daw, at si#, at midnight, at K.>C, at si#teen8at the age of

si#teen, on Monday, on K 6une, on &hristmas 'ay, by the end

of 6uly

C on time, in time, in good time

on time R at the time arranged' not "efore' not after:

The O.?E train started on time. )It started at D.1>.7 in

time/in time for noun R not late9 in good time !for) R

+ith a comforta"le margin:

+assengers should be in time for their train.- arrived at the concert hall in good time 2for the concert3.

)erha!s

the concert "egan at .4F and I arri#ed at .1>.7

I Time: from' since' for' during

from is normall( used +ith to or till/until:

Most people work from nine to %ve

since is used for time' ne#er for !lace' and means -from that time

to the time referred to-.

*e has been here since Monday, )from &onda( till no+7

*e wondered where nn was. *e had not seen her since their

uarrel.

for is used of a !eriod of time: for six years, for two

months, for ever:

)ake it for two hours.

*e travelled in the desert for si# months. for a !eriod of

time can "e used +ith a !resent !erfect tense or !ast !erfect

tense for an action +hich e,tends u! to the time of s!eaking:

*e has worked here for a year. )He "egan +orking here a (earago

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and still +orks here.7

during is used +ith kno+n !eriods of time' i.e. !eriods kno+n "(

name' such as Christmas' Easter or !eriods +hich ha#e "een

alread( de8ned:

during the Middle ges during ?PK?

during the summer )of that (ear7

during his childhood

Time: to, till/until, after,

A to and till/until

to can "e used of time and !lace9 till/until of time

onl(. 6e can use from ... to or from . . . till/until:

They worked from %ve to ten8from %ve till ten. 2at %ve to ten

+ould

mean -at .>>-.7 /ut if +e ha#e no from we use till/until,

afterafter )!re!osition7 must "e follo+ed "( a noun' !ronoun or

gerund:

'on1t bathe immediately after a meal8after eating.

'on1t have a meal and bathe immediately after it.

at, in# in, into# on, onto

at and in

at

6e can "e at home' at +ork' at the o?ce' at school' at

uni#ersit(' at an address' at a certain !oint e.g. at the "ridge'

at the crossroads' at the "us<sto!.

in

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6e can "e in a countr(' a to+n' a #illage' a suare' a street' a

room' a forest' a +ood' a 8eld' a desert or an( !lace +hich has

"oundaries or is enclosed.

/ut a small area such as a suare' a street' a room' a 8eld

might "e used +ith at +hen +e mean -at this !oint- rather

than -inside-.

6e can "e in or at a "uilding' in means inside onl(9 at could

mean

inside or in the grounds or 2ust outside. If someone is -at the

station- he

could "e in the street outside' or in the ticket o?ce0+aiting

room0

restaurant or on the !latform.

6e can "e in or at the sea' a ri#er' lake' s+imming !ool etc.

in here means actuall( in the +ater:

The children are swimming in the river. at the

sea/river/lake etc. means -near0"eside the sea-. /ut at sea

means -on a shi!-.

/ in and into

in as sho+n a"o#e normall( indicates !osition.

into indicates mo#ement' entrance:

They climbed into the lorry. - poured the beer into atankard.

Thieves broke into my house8My house was broken into.

6ith the #er" put, ho+e#er' either in or into can "e used:

*e put his hands in8into his pockets. in can

also "e an ad#er":

&ome in R Anter. :et in )into the car7.I- on and onto

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on can "e used for "oth !osition and mo#ement:

*e was sitting on his case. Snow fell on the hills.

*is name is on the door.*e went on board ship.

onto can "e used )chie;( of !eo!le and animals7 +hen

there is mo#ement in#ol#ing a change of le#el:

+eople climbed onto their roofs. ;e lifted him onto the

table.

The cat jumped onto the mantelpiece. on

can also "e an ad#er":

:o on. &ome on.

a"o#e' o#er' under' "elo+' "eneath etc.

A above and over

above )!re!osition and ad#er"7 and over )!re!osition7 can

"oth mean -higher than- and sometimes either can "e used:

The helicopter hovered above8over us.

Flags waved above8over our heads. /ut over can also

mean -co#ering-' -on the other side of' -across- and -from one

side to the other-:

^;e put a rug over him. *e lives over the mountains. Thereis a bridge over the river.

over can mean -more than- or -higher than-.

above can mean -higher than- onl(.

/oth can mean -higher in rank-. /ut *e is over me +ould

normall( mean

-He is m( immediate su!erior-' -He su!er#ises m( +ork-'

above +ould

not necessaril( ha#e this meaning.

If +e ha#e a "ridge o#er a ri#er' above the bridge means

-u!stream-.

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over can "e used +ith meals0food0drink:

below and under

below )!re!osition7 and under )!re!osition7 can "oth mean

-lo+er than- and sometimes either can "e used. /ut under can

indicate contact:

She put the letter under her pillow.

The ice crackled under his feet. 6ith below there is

usuall( a s!ace "et+een the t+o surfaces:

They live below us. )6e li#e on the fourth ;oor and the( li#e

on

the third.7 3imilarl(: ;e live above them. )3ee A

a"o#e.7

beneath can sometimes "e used instead of under, "ut it is

safer to kee! it for a"stract meanings:

*e would think it beneath him to tell a lie. )un+orth( ofhim7 She married beneath her. )into a lo+er social class7

beside, between, behind, in front of, opposite

Imagine a theatre +ith ro+s of seats: A' /' C etc.' o+ A "eing

nearest the stage.]]]]]

3tage

o+ A Tom Ann /ill

o+ / &ar( /o" Gane

This means that:

Tom is beside nn= Mary is beside )ob etc.

nn is between Tom and )ill= )ob is between Mary and 6ane.

Mary is behind Tom= Tom is in front of Mary. /ut if Tom and

&ar( are ha#ing a meal and Tom is sitting at one side of 2 the

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


ta"le and &ar( at the other' +e do not use in front of, "ut

sa(:

Tom is sitting opposite Mary or Tom is facing Mary. /ut *e

stood in front of me could mean either -He stood +ith his "ack

to* me- or -He faced me-.

eo!le li#ing on one side of a street +ill talk of the houses on

the other I side as the houses opposite 2us3 rather than the

houses in front of us.

on-t confuse beside +ith besides, beside R at the side of: ;e

camped beside a lake.besides )!re!osition7 R in addition to0as +ell as:

I do all the cooking and besides that - help Tom.

)esides doing the cooking - help Tom. besides )ad#er"7

means )a7 -in addition to that0as +ell as that-:

I do the cooking and help Tom besides and )"7 -in

an( case0an(+a(-:;e can1t a$ord oysters. )esides, Tom doesn1t like them.

between and among

between normall( relates a !erson0thing to t+o other

!eo!le0things'

"ut it can "e used of more +hen +e ha#e a de8nite num"er in

mind:5u#embourg lies between )elgium, :ermany and France.

among relates a !erson0thing to more than t+o others9 normall(

+e ha#e no de8nite num"er in mind:

*e was happy to be among friends again.

a village among the hills

re!ositions used +ith ad2ecti#es and !artici!les

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Certain ad2ecti#es and !ast !artici!les used as ad2ecti#es can

"e

follo+ed "( a !re!osition noun0gerund.

Usuall( !articular ad2ecti#es and !artici!les reuire !articular

!re!ositions. 3ome of these are gi#en "elo+9 others can "e

found "(

consulting a good dictionar(' +hich after an( ad2ecti#e +ill gi#e

the

!re!ositons that can "e used +ith it.

absorbed in involved in

according to keen on

accustomed to liable for8to

afraid of nervous of

an#ious for8about owing to

ashamed of pleased withaware of prepared for

bad at8for proud of

capable of ready for

con%dent of responsible for8to

due to8for scared of

e#posed to sorry for8about%t for successful in

fond of suspicious of

frightened of8at terri%ed of

good at8for tired of

interested in used to

*e was absorbed in his book.She is afraid8frightened8scared of the dark.

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ccording to Tom it1s 0.>C. )Tom sa(s it-s $.4F.7

*e is bad8good at chess, )a "ad0good !la(er7

4unning is bad8good for you. )unhealth(0health(7

They are very keen on golf.

'rivers e#ceeding the speed limit are liable to a %ne.

The management is not responsible for articles left in

customers1 cars.

-1m sorry for your husband. )I !it( him.7

-1m sorry for forgetting the tickets.

-1m sorry about the tickets.

er"s and !re!ositions

accuse sb of insist on

apologi@e 2to sb3 for live on )food0mone(7

apply to sb8for sthlong for

ask for8about object to

attend to occur to

beg for persist in

believe in prefer sb8sth to sb8sth

beware of prepare for

blame sb for punish sb for

charge sb with )an oence7 uarrel with sb about

compare sth with refer to

comply with rely on

conform to remind sb of

consist of resort to

deal in succeed in

depend on suspect sb of

dream of think of8about

%ght with sb for wait for

7/25/2019 ENGLEZA 10


%ne sb for warn sb of8about

hope for wish for

'o you believe in ghostsD

They were charged with receiving stolen goods.7ou haven1t complied with the regulations.

For a week she lived on bananas and milk.

-t never occurred to me to insure the house.

They persisted in defying the law.

;hen arguments failed he resorted to threats.

@.$. 3E&IA < EO3ITION

EBECI3E 1. &hoose the correct preposition in parentheses in the

sentences below"

1. &ar( +alked )in' into7 the dining<room. $. 3he !ut her !ackages

)on' at7 the ta"le. 4. 3he is sitting )in' on7 an armchair )into' in7

the li#ing<room. =. Is her hus"and )at' in7 home no+L No' he is

)on' at7 the li"rar(. >. He also s!ends man( hours )in' on7 his

o?ce )on' at7 >F' *leet 3treet. @. I found a note !inned )in' on7 m(

door +hich said: Q&eet me )at' in7 the corner of O,ford 3treet and

egent 3treet. . His famil( li#es )at' on7 /ridge 3treet )in' on7

Edin"urgh' 3cotland. D. ou must al+a(s +rite (our return address

)in' on7 the en#elo!e. . The team arri#ed )in' at7 England last

+eek.

EBECI3E $. ;ill in each blank with to, into or from:

1. 3he learnt English . . . "ooks. $. Then she taught it . . . (ou.4. A !risoner has esca!ed . . . !rison. =. He esca!ed . . . the

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+oods. >. He fell... a ri#er and the !olice rescued him . . . it. @.

The( sa#ed him . . . dro+ning. . Her father has retired . . . "ed.

D. He has retired . . . the arm(.

EBECI3E 4 Fill in each blank with onto or into whenever

possible= otherwise with on or in:

a) 17 Take a seat... the car. $. on-t take e#er(thing... the car. 4.

Hel! me lift this suitcase . . . the seat. =. The( are arri#ing . . .

ome. >. The( are dri#ing . . . the cit(. @. Are the( sta(ing . . .

the cit( tonight L

b) -n which of the last Q sentences could we use o2, and in

which could we use out of3

EBECI3E =. Fill in each blank with the suitable preposition. /se a

di$erent preposition each time"

1. The anu"e rises . . . the /lack *orest and ;o+s . . . the

/lack 3ea. $. The Isles of 3cill( are a grou! of islands . . . the

Atlantic' . . . Corn+all. Not man( !eo!le li#e . . . them. 4. The

train lea#es . . . aris earl( in the morning' and it gets . . . %urtici

"( dinner<time. =. 3te! . . . this ladder' "ut "e careful (ou don-t

fall... it. >. 6ait . .. me round the corner' 2ust . . . the "aker-s. @.

ou aren-t !ermitted to smoke . . . the area of !etrol tanks. .

ook out' childrenJ There-s a car racing . . . (ouJ

EBECI3E >. &hoose the correct preposition in parentheses in the

sentences

below"

1. The( sto!!ed )in front of' "elo+7 the museum and sat

do+n )in' on7 the ste!s. $. Gim said' QI must go )to'

to+ards7 the li"rar( and take out some "ooks. I-m li#ing

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)to' in7 our hostel this termQ. 4. Our house is num"er =F.

Num"er =$ is )o!!osite' ne,t to7 ours. =. Num"er =1 is

)o!!osite' ne,t to7 ours. >. 6e like to li#e )a"out' among7

ci#ilised !eo!le. @. 3omething is hidden )at the "ack of'

"ehind7 this sim!le occurence. . I am )"ehind' at the

"ack of7 m( +ork. D. There is a "eautiful !ark )"ehind' at

the "ack of7 m( house.

UNIE3ITATEA TAN3IANIA /A3O

*ACUTATEA E CON3TUCTII

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