Feldman1psychlife Ppt Ch08

8/3/2019 Feldman1psychlife Ppt Ch08

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Chapter 8

Development

McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.


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McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2


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Determining the Relative Influence

of Nature and Nurture Developmental psychology studies the patterns of

growth and change that occur throughout life.

The question is: How can we distinguish between theenvironmental causes of behavior (parents, siblings, family,

etc.) and hereditary causes (based on genetic make-up)?



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Determining the Relative Influence of

Nature and Nurture

Developmental psychologists agree that, in most instances,

environmental factors play a critical role in enabling people

to reach the potential capabilities that their genetic

background makes possible.

Nature refers to the hereditary factors and nurture

refers to the environmental factors. Developmental

psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture

interact to produce specific developmental patterns and

outcomes. Developmental psychologists typically take an

interactionist position, suggesting that a combination of

hereditary and environmental factors influence

development.McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5


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Nature, Nurture, and Prenatal

Development (cont.)

Nature-nurture issue: the issue of the degree

to which environment (nurture) and heredity

(nature) influence behavior

No longer a question of nature versus nurture because

both factors interact to produce developmental

patterns and outcomes

Now we ask, how and to what degree do nature andnurture produce their effects?



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Developmental psychologists use several

approaches to discuss the nature-nurture

issue, or determine the relationship between

genetic and environmental factors on

behavior.

Nonhuman research

Study of identical twins

People raised in similar environments with

different genetic backgrounds.



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Determining the Relative Influence of

Nature and Nurture


Experimentally control genetic makeup of

laboratory animals, then study environmental

influences

Identical twins (share 100% of their geneticmakeup) and non-twin siblings raised apart:

similarities as adults show importance of heredity

Adopted children: similarities with biologicalchildren in same family show importance of

environment


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Developmental Research Techniques

Cross-sectional research: comparing people of

different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal research: studying the same people as

they age Sequential research: combination of cross-sectional

and longitudinal; considers different age groups,

examined at several points in time



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2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc


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For Women..

At birth, a girl have 2 million immature ova

Follicle: Small sac in the ovary containing the immature ovum.

Ovulation: The rupture of a mature follicle and expulsion of

the ovum occurs about once every 28 days until

menopause.

Cilia: Tiny hair cells in the fallopian tubes that sweep the

ovum along.



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For Men..

Sperm is produced in testicles (testes) in the

form of semen and release in sexual climax

called ejaculation.

Deposited in the vagina and try to swim

through the cervix - the opening of the uterus

and into the fallopian tube.



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Prenatal Development: Conception to

Birth Basics of genetics

Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures that contain all basichereditary information; 23 pairs, one chromosome of each pairfrom the mother and one from the father

Each chromosome contains genessmaller units, through which

genetic information is transmitted. Some genes control the development of systems common to all

humans.

Some genes are also responsible for a wide variety of personalcharacteristics.

Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and

sperm



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Birth (cont.)

Embryo: a developed zygote that has a heart, a

brain, and other organs (2 weeks after

conception)

Embryonic stage

Fetus: a developing individual, from eight

weeks after conception until birth

Fetal Stage

Age of viability: the point at which a fetus can

survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18


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Embryonic Stage


1 week 7 weeks


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Fetal Stage

3 months


4 months

5 months 6 months

3 months


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7 months


8 months

9 months


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Birth (cont.)

Sensitive/critical periods: during prenataldevelopment, time when the fetus is particularlysusceptible to certain kinds of stimuli

At the end of38 weeks of pregnancy, a fetus willweigh around 7 pounds and typically be about 20inches in length.

Preterm infants, born before week 38 (8 to 8.5months), run a higher risk for illness, future

problems and even death. Infants born after 30(7.5 months) weeks have relatively goodprospects.



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Birth (cont.)

In 2 to 5 percent of pregnancies, children are bornwith serious birth defects.

A major cause of birth defects is faulty genes orchromosomal difficulties. Three common geneticand chromosomal difficulties are:

Genetic influences on the fetus Phenylketonuria (PKU):child cannot produce enzyme needed

for normal development; causes intellectual disabilities

Sickle-cell anemia: causes abnormally shaped red blood cells Down syndrome: zygote receives extra chromosome at

moment of conception; one of the causes of mentalretardation



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Birth (cont.)

Prenatal environmental influences

Teratogens: environmental agents (drugs, chemicals, etc.)

that produce a birth defect

Mothers nutrition

Mothers illness

Alcohol & nicotine use

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol effects (FAE)



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Infancy and Childhood

Learning Outcomes

Describe the major competencies of newborns

Explain the milestones of physical, social, and

cognitive development during childhood



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The Extraordinary Newborn

A newborn is known as a neonate.

While a baby doesnt look like the perfect

picture of a newborn right after birth, the

neonate makes a remarkable change duringthe first two weeks after birth, as it takes on

the more familiar appearance.



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Even more astounding are the capabilities the

neonate displays from the moment of birth.

These capabilities grow at an amazing rate

over the ensuing months.

Many of the reflexes that a neonate is born

with are critical to survival and unfold

naturally as part of an infants ongoing

maturation.


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Reflexes: automatic, involuntary responses to

incoming stimuli

Neonate born with rooting, sucking, gag, startle, &

Babinski reflexes



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Neonates are born with a number

ofreflexes:

Rooting reflex -turning the head towards

things that touch their cheeks.

Sucking reflex - sucking at things that touch

their lips.

Gag reflex - for clearing their throat.

Startle reflex - response to sudden noise.

Babinski reflex - the toes fan out when the

inside edge of the sole of the foot is stroked.



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Sensory development: neonates can follow movingobjects within their field of vision, show some depth

perception, discriminate facial expressions, recognize

their mothers voices at 3 days old, and recognize

different tastes and smells They raise their hands to block objects moving toward their

face.

By 2 days of age, infants can distinguish between their

native tongue and a foreign language.

They can discriminate different language sounds.

They discriminate between sweet and unsweetened tastes.



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The Growing Child: Infancy

Through Middle Childhood

From infancy into middle childhood and the

start of adolescence, children develop

physically, socially, and cognitively in

extraordinary ways.

Physical growth provides the most obvious

signs of development. The nature of a childs

early social development provides thefoundation for social relationships that will

last a lifetime.


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Through Middle Childhood (cont.) During infancy the most important form of social

development is attachmentthe positive emotional

bond that develops between a child and a particular

person. Developmental psychologists suggest that human

attachment grows through the responsiveness of

caregivers to the babys signals, such as crying.

The greater the responsiveness, the more likely it is thatthe child will become securely attached.


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The Growing Child: Infancy Through

Middle Childhood (cont.)

Attachment: positive emotional bond that

develops between a child and a particular

individual, usually a caregiver (Harlows

research with monkeys) Classified as secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or

disorganized-disoriented


P h l i t h d i d f i tt h t


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Psychologists have devised a way of measuring attachment.

The Ainsworth strange situation consists of a sequence of

events involving a child and (typically) his or her mother.

Secure attachmentthe child explores independently, but

returns to mother occasionally. When the mother leaves the

child exhibits distress, but goes for her when she returns.

Avoidant attachmentthe child does not cry when the

mother leaves, but the child avoids her when she returns.

Ambivalent attachmentthe child displays anxiety before

separation, is upset when the mother leaves, but the child

shows ambivalent reactions to her return.

Disorganized-disorientated attachmentthe child shows

inconsistent, often contradictory behavior.



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As children grow, social interaction helps childreninterpret the meaning of others behavior and develop

the capacity to respond appropriately.


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Fathers Role

Fathers role: nature of

attachment is similar to

mothers, but type of

play/interaction may bedifferent (fathers engage

in more physical

activities, while mothers

are more verbal)


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Child care outside the home can be beneficial, especially for

children from disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality

program The effect of childcare outside the home depends on several

factors, but especially on the quality of the child care

provided.


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ik h f h i l


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Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial

Development

Eriksons theory ofpsychosocial development:change in our interactions and understanding of each

other and our knowledge and understanding of

ourselves as members of society; passing through

each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or

conflict

Trust vs. mistrust (birth 1 ): develop trust if physical

and psychological needs are met Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt (1 3): develop

autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged


E ik Th f P h i l


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Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial

Development

Initiative vs. guilt (3 6): resolved positively if parents react

positively to childrens attempts at independence

Industry vs. inferiority (6 12): resolved positively if child

shows increased competency in social interactions and

academic skills


Th G i Child I f


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Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Erickson suggests that passage through each

of the stages necessitates the resolution of a

crisis or conflict. Although each crisis is never

resolved entirely life becomes increasinglycomplex as we grow older it has to be

resolved sufficiently to equip us to deal with

demands during the following stage ofdevelopment.



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McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rightsreserved. 50

Th G i Child I f


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Cognitive development: the process by which

a childs understanding of the world changes

as a function of age and experience;

intellectual development

Th G i Child I f


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Some theorists have suggested that children

cannot understand certain ideas and concepts

until they reach a particular stage ofcognitive

development. In contrast to the theories of physical and social

development such as those of Erikson, theories of

cognitive development seek to explain the

quantitative and qualitative intellectual advances

that occur during development.

Piagets Theory of Cognitive


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Development

No theory of cognitive development has had

more impact than that of Swiss psychologist

Jean Piaget. Piaget (1970) suggested that

children around the world proceed through aseries of 4 stages in a fixed order.

He maintained that these stages differed not

only in the quantityof the informationacquired in each stage but in the quality of

knowledge and understanding as well.



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Development

He suggested that movement from one stage

to the next occurs when a child reaches an

appropriate level of maturation and is

exposed to relevant types of experiences.Without having such experiences, said Piaget,

children cant reach their highest level of

cognitive growth.


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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

Sensorimotor Stage birth to age 2

infants interact with and learn about their

environments by relating their sensory

experiences to their motor experiences

object permanence

develops over a period of 9 months

refers to the understanding that objects or eventscontinue to exist even if they can no longer be heard,

touched or seen


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Preoperational Stage

about age 2 to 7 years

children learn to use symbols, such as words or

mental images, to solve simple problems and to

think or talk about things that are not present

Conservation

refers to the fact that even though the shape of some

object or substance is changed, the total amount

remains the same

Egocentric thinking

refers to seeing and thinking of the world only from

your own viewpoint and having difficulty appreciating


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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.) Concrete Stage

about age 7 to 11 years

children can perform a number of logical mental

operations on concrete objects (physically

present) Conservation

children gradually master the concept of conservation

during the concrete operations stage

Classification

ability to classify items by color and size for example

children still have difficulty figuring out relationships

among objects that are not present or imaginary

situations


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Formal Operations Stage about age 12 to adulthood

adolescents and adults develop the ability to

think about and solve abstract problems in a

logical manner

adolescents develop thinking and reasoning

typical of adults

ability to think in a logical, systematic, andabstract way is one of the major characteristics

of the formal operations stage


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Many psychologists believe changes in

information processing (the way in which

people take in, use, and store information) are

how children develop their cognitive abilities Metacognition: an awareness and understanding

of ones own cognitive processes






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Vygotskys view of cognitive development

Culture in which we are raised significantly affects

cognitive development

Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the level atwhich a child can almost, but not fully,

comprehend or perform a task on his or her own;

if information falls within the ZPD, children can

master it


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Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

Learning Outcomes

Summarize the major physical transitions that

characterize adolescence

Explain moral and cognitive development inadolescents

Discuss social development in adolescents



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Adolescence

Adolescence: the developmental stage between

childhood and adulthood.

The physical changes that occur at the start of

adolescence result largely from the secretions of various

hormones, and they affect virtually every aspect of anadolescents life.

Not since infancy has development been so dramatic.

Weight and height increase rapidly because of a growth

spurt that typically begins around age 10 for girls and age12 for boys.

Adolescents may grow as much as 5 inches in one year.

Physical Development: The Changing


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Physical Development: The Changing

Adolescent

Puberty: the period at which maturation of the

sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age

11 or 12 for girls (start of menstruation) and 13

or 14 for boys (spermarche: first ejaculation)


Physical Development: The


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Physical Development: The

Changing Adolescent In Western cultures, the average age at which

adolescents reach sexual maturity has been steadily

decreasing over the last century, most likely because

of improved nutrition and medical care.

Sexual attraction to others begins even before the

maturation of the sexual organs, at around age 10.

Just as important as the physical changes, however,

are the psychological and social changes that unfoldduring adolescence.


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The physical changes of adolescence are

important, but there are psychological and

social changes going on during adolescence.

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, people passthrough a series ofstages in the evolution of

their sense of justice and in the kind of

reasoning they use to make moral judgments.


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Levels of Morality

Preconventional moralitythe concrete

interests of the individual are considered in

terms of rewards and punishments.

Conventional moralitypeople approachmoral problems as members of society. They

are interested in pleasing others.

Postconventional moralitypeople use moralprinciples which are seen as broader than

those of any particular society.


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COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL


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CHANGES (CONT.)

Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning Three levels of moral reasoning

1.Self-Interest: Preconventional level

lowest level of moral reasoning

stage 1, moral decisions are based primarily on fear of

punishment or the need to be obedient

stage 2, moral reasoning is guided most by satisfying ones

self-interest

may involve bargaining

l


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Example

Stage 1

Dont steal the drug because youll be caught and

go to jail.

Stage 2 You can steal the drug and save your best friend,

but in return youll have to give up some freedom

by going to jail.



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CHANGES (CONT.)


2.Social approval: Conventional level

represents an intermediate level of moral reasoning

stage 3, moral decisions are guided most by conforming to the

standards of others we value

stage 4, moral reasoning is determined most by conforming to

laws and society


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CHANGES (CONT.)


3.Abstract ideas: Postconventional level

stage 5, moral decisions are made after carefully

thinking about all the alternatives and striking a

balance between human rights and laws of society

Ex. One should steal the drug because life if important than

money.

stage 6, has been omitted because few people havereached it


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p. 413

Social Development: Finding Oneself in


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Social evelopment: Finding Oneself in

a Social World


Eriksons theory of psychosocial development: thelast four stages

Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): a time of

major testing to determine ones unique qualities; an

attempt to discover their identity (who each of us is,

what our roles are, and what we are capable of)

Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): resolved

positively if the person develops intimaterelationships on physical, intellectual, and emotional

levels



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a Social World (cont.)

Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood):taking stock of ones contributions to family andsociety; resolved successfully if the person feelspositive about the continuity of life

Ego-integrity vs. despair (later adulthood until death):reviewing lifes accomplishments and failures;resolved successfully if one feels a sense ofaccomplishment and has no regrets

Most young people go through adolescencewithout the stereotypical turmoil




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a Social World (cont.)

Suicide is the third-leading cause of death foradolescents in the U.S.

Males are five times more likely to commit suicide

than females, but females attempt suicide moreoften

Rate higher among whites than nonwhites

Possible causes: depression, social anxiety, family

background, adjustment difficulties, parental

conflict, alcohol and drug abuse


Ad lth d


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Adulthood

Learning Outcomes Explain physical development in adulthood

Discuss social development in adulthood

State the impact of marriage, children, and divorce on families

Discuss the later years of adulthood

Explain the physical changes that occur in late adulthood

Identify the cognitive changes that occur in late adulthood

Discuss the social aspects of late adulthood

Describe how people can adjust to death


Physical Development: The Peak of


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Health For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of

physical health. From about 18 25 years of age,

peoples strength is greatest, their reflexes are

quicker, and their chances of dying from disease are

quite slim. In addition, reproductive capabilities are

at their highest level.

During middle adulthood, people gradually become

aware of changes in their bodies. People oftenexperience weight gain, the sense organs become

less sensitive, and reactions to stimuli are slower.


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The major biological change that occurs in middleadulthood pertains to reproductive capabilities. On

average, during their late 40s or early 50s, women

begin menopause, during which they stop

menstruating and are no longer fertile.

For men, the aging process during middle adulthood

is somewhat more subtle. No male menopause exists

and in fact, men remain fertile and are capable offathering children until well into late adulthood.

Physical Development: The Peak of


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Health

Menopause: usually occurring in late 40s orearly 50s, the period during which women

stop menstruating and are no longer fertile

Symptoms can be treated through hormonetherapy (HT), replacing estrogen and

progesterone, but it can be dangerous: increased

risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary

heart disease



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Social Development: Working at


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Life

Many people find their forties and fifties arewarding period where they can focus on the

present and their families.

During the last stages of adulthood, peoplebecome more accepting of others and become

less concerned about issues or problems that

once bothered them.

People accept the fact that death is inevitable

and try to understand their accomplishments in

the broader meaning of life.

Marriage, Children, and Divorce:


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Family Ties

In the typical fairy tale, a dashing young man and a beautifulyoung woman marry, have children, and live happily ever

after.

In the twenty-first century, however, things are very different.

Households made up of unmarried couples have increasedover the last two decades.

The risk of divorce is high, especially for younger couples.

Almost 25% of households are now single parent households.

For children in minority households, the single parentpercentage increases.

In most single parent households, children reside with the

mother.



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One of the major changes in family life in thelast two decades has been the evolution of

men/ and womens roles.

More women are acting in multiple roles: mother,wage earner, wife.

Almost 75% of married women with school-age

children are employed outside the home.

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old


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The Later Years of Life: Growing Old

Gerontology: the study of olderadults & aging

Gerontologists focus on the

period of life that starts around

age 65. They are makingimportant contributions to

clarifying the capabilities of older

adults. Their work is

demonstrating that significantdevelopmental processes

continue even during old age.


Physical Changes in Late


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Adulthood: The Aging Body Many physical changes are brought about by the

aging process. The most obvious are those in

appearance: hair thinning and turning grey; skin

wrinkling and folding, and sometimes a slight loss of

height as the spine grows more fragile.

More subtle changes also occur in the bodys

biological functioning. For example, sensory

capabilities decrease as a result of aging: vision,hearing, smell, and taste become less sensitive.

Reaction time slows, and physical stamina changes.


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Cognitive Changes: Thinking About


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and During Late Adulthood In the past, many gerontologists would have agreed

that older adults are forgetful and confused.

Because of more sophisticated research techniques,

however, we now know that this belief is inaccurate.

There are some declines in intellectual functioning in

later adulthood, although the pattern of age

differences is not uniform for different types of

cognitive abilities.


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The Social World of Late


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Adulthood: Old but Not Alone

Late adulthood brings significant challenges.People whove spent their adult lives working

enter retirement. Many people must face the

death of their spouse. There are also significantchanges in economic well-being.

There is no single way to age successfully. People

in late adulthood are not just marking time until

death. Rather, old age is a time of continuedgrowth and development, as important as any

other period in life.


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Adjusting to Death


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Adjusting to Death

Elisabeth Kubler-Rosss five stages of dealingwith ones own impending death

Denial: resist the idea they are dying

Anger: angry at people in good health around them, at

medical professionals, at God

Bargaining: trying to postpone death

Depression: bargaining will not work; preparatory grief

for their own death

Acceptance: made peace with themselves; usually

unemotional and uncommunicative

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Feldman1psychlife Ppt Ch08