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3 個別報告:Ahmed Al-Dawoody ( Assistant Professor of Zayed Univ. UAE and Al-Azhar Univ. Egypt) Hamdy A. Hassan( Professor of Zayed Univ. UAE and Cairo Univ. Egypt) 沖 祐太郎(九州大学法学研究院講師) コメント:西  平等(関西大学法学部教授) 今井 宏平 日本学術振興会特別研究員 PD ※現 日本貿易振興機構アジア経済研究所 研究員 吹田  浩(関西大学文学部教授、国際文化財・文化研究センター長) 開会・閉会挨拶:葛原 力三(関西大学法学部長) 趣旨説明:佐藤やよひ(関西大学法学部教授) :柳原 正治(九州大学教授 ※現 放送大学教授) 葛原 関西大学法学部長の葛原でございます。本日は遠方よりはるばるお越しの皆様、また、勿 論近隣からお越しの皆様も、ようこそ関西大学にお越しくださいました。ただいまから国際シ ンポジウム「イスラームと国際社会」を開始いたします。イスラーム圏諸国と日本との交わり は決して薄いわけではありません。にもかかわらずイスラーム圏の研究者と日本の研究者が意 見交換を行う機会は、これまでもそれほど多くもたれてきたとはいえないと思われます。むし ろ、今回が初めてではなくとも、稀であったとさえいえるかと思います。このシンポジウムの ように3日間に渡って「国際法」「女性と社会」「文化遺産の保護」について多角的な視点から 議論する試みはこれまでなされたことがないのではないかと思われます。今回はかの不幸な現 象をテーマ乃至動機とするわけですが、そしてこの 3 日間で問題の解決の糸口さえ見つからな いかもしれないと思われますが、これを機に研究者のレベルでも交流が拡大、進化していくの であれば、それは非常に喜ばしいことだと考えます。我々の未来がそのような方向に展開して いくためには、このシンポジウムが成功をおさめることが一つの重要な条件となるだろうと思 〔行事記録〕 国際シンポジウム「イスラムと国際社会」 イスラム戦争法及び国際法から見た Islamic State Islamic State from the Viewpoints of Islamic Law of War and International Law と き:平成27年 9 月14日(月)13:00~18:00 ところ:千里山キャンパス尚文館 1 階マルチメディア AV 大教室 注) 肩書きはシンポジウム当時のものである。現在の肩書きは※で示してある。

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個別報告: Ahmed Al-Dawoody(Assistant Professor of Zayed Univ. UAE and Al-Azhar Univ. Egypt)

     Hamdy A. Hassan(Professor of Zayed Univ. UAE and Cairo Univ. Egypt)     沖 祐太郎(九州大学法学研究院講師)コメント:西  平等(関西大学法学部教授)     今井 宏平(日本学術振興会特別研究員PD※現 日本貿易振興機構アジア経済研究所 研究員)     吹田  浩(関西大学文学部教授、国際文化財・文化研究センター長)開会・閉会挨拶:葛原 力三(関西大学法学部長)趣旨説明:佐藤やよひ(関西大学法学部教授)座 長:柳原 正治(九州大学教授 ※現 放送大学教授)

葛原 関西大学法学部長の葛原でございます。本日は遠方よりはるばるお越しの皆様、また、勿論近隣からお越しの皆様も、ようこそ関西大学にお越しくださいました。ただいまから国際シンポジウム「イスラームと国際社会」を開始いたします。イスラーム圏諸国と日本との交わりは決して薄いわけではありません。にもかかわらずイスラーム圏の研究者と日本の研究者が意見交換を行う機会は、これまでもそれほど多くもたれてきたとはいえないと思われます。むしろ、今回が初めてではなくとも、稀であったとさえいえるかと思います。このシンポジウムのように 3日間に渡って「国際法」「女性と社会」「文化遺産の保護」について多角的な視点から議論する試みはこれまでなされたことがないのではないかと思われます。今回はかの不幸な現象をテーマ乃至動機とするわけですが、そしてこの 3日間で問題の解決の糸口さえ見つからないかもしれないと思われますが、これを機に研究者のレベルでも交流が拡大、進化していくのであれば、それは非常に喜ばしいことだと考えます。我々の未来がそのような方向に展開していくためには、このシンポジウムが成功をおさめることが一つの重要な条件となるだろうと思

〔行事記録〕国際シンポジウム「イスラムと国際社会」

イスラム戦争法及び国際法から見たIslamic StateIslamic State from the Viewpoints of Islamic Law of War and International Law

と き:平成27年 9 月14日(月)13:00~18:00ところ:千里山キャンパス尚文館 1 階マルチメディアAV大教室

注) 肩書きはシンポジウム当時のものである。現在の肩書きは※で示してある。

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います。その意味で本日、この後、実りある充実した意見交換がなされることを祈念いたしましてご挨拶とさせていただきます。どうぞよろしくお願いします。

佐藤 葛原学部長、どうもありがとうございました。次に実施責任者であります私こと、佐藤からこのシンポジウムの開催趣旨を説明させていただきます。(以下略、序文参照) 3日間にわたり、長く、ハードなシンポジウムとなりますが、どうぞ皆さま、ご静聴くださいますようお願いいたします。 以上で私の趣旨説明を終わりにして座長の九州大学教授、柳原正治先生に交代いたします。柳原先生は九州大学で国際法講座をおもちですが、元国際法学会理事長でもいらっしゃいます。現在は同学会の評議委員会会長をされています。今回、ご無理を聞いていただき、九州からお弟子さんの沖先生をつれてご参加くださいました。柳原先生、よろしくお願いします。

柳原 皆さん、こんにちは。今、ご紹介いただきました九州大学の柳原です。佐藤先生がドバイに滞在されている間に、たびたびメールをいただきまして、楽しくも、若干辛い生活も送られていたと。その中で「大変すばらしいイスラーム法関係の専門家と会うことができた。ぜひ日本に呼びたい」というメールをいただき、今日から 3日間、シンポジウムが開かれることは私にとっても大きな喜びでございます。初日はイスラーム戦争法と国際法から見たイスラミック・ステイト(IS)ですね。日本人にとっても大変関心の深いテーマであろうかと思います。報告者は 3名の方にお願いしておりまして、その後で 3名の方からコメントをいただき、パネルディスカッションを行うという構成になっております。 最初にご報告いただきますのはアフメド・アル-ダウーディ先生でございます。昨日、お会いしてどういうふうにお名前をお呼びしたらいいのか、日本人にとって難しい問題ですが、 2通り呼び方があると。一つはプロフェッサー・アフメド。ファーストネームでプロフェッサーをつけるのは日本人には馴染みがないのですが、ごく普通だということです。もう一つの呼び方はプロフェッサー・アル-ダウーディ、ファミリーネームにプロフェッサーをつける。どちらも全く同じだということですので、呼びやすいプロフェッサー・アフメドとお呼びしたいと思います。アフメド教授はオランダのライデン大学で修士号をとられ、その後イギリスのバーミンガム大学で博士号を取得されています。2009年からカイロのアル-アズハル大学で教職につかれ、現在はドバイのザイード大学で教えておられます。たくさんの著書、論文がございます。“Islamic Law of War”、つまりイスラーム戦争法というタイトルの著作も発表されておられます。今日は、プログラムにあるのとは若干異なっておりますが、「カリフ制国家とは何か、テロリストのパラダイム」というタイトルでご報告をいただきます。

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■個別報告In Pursuit of the Caliphate: The Terrorists Paradigm

(カリフ制国家とは何か:テロリストのパラダイム)

Ahmed Al-Dawoody: Let me start by thanking you very much for giving me this great opportunity to speak about this very important topic today. I’m very grateful to everyone who has participated in organizing this conference, particularly Dr. Sato for her very great eff orts in bringing us together.

Today I’ll be speaking about a topic of great concern for international society and my presentation is under the title of “In Pursuit of the Caliphate: The Terrorists Paradigm.”

News stories about the Muslim world, the religion of Islam, Islamic law, the Islamic state system, the Islamic polity, and terrorist acts committed by Muslims have made the headlines worldwide for the last few decades. A great deal of what happens in the Muslim world regarding these and other issues relates mainly to two factors: 1) the role the religion of Islam should play in public life both on the national and international levels and 2) the reasons for the decline of the Islamic civilization and the actions that must be taken to recovery that glory. To a great extent, these two factors are linked because, when a large segment of Muslims compares the current state of backwardness, poverty, illiteracy rates, corruption, and the lack of genuine democratic experiences in many parts of the Muslim world with the lost global power of the Muslims and the ancient scientifi c achievements of the Islamic civilizations, they come to the conclusion that Islam should play a greater role in public life.

In fact, Muslim scholars agree that the establishment of an Islamic state is a religious obligation. For this reason, on the very day of the Prophet’s demise in 632 AD, Muslims gathered to choose a leader, who would succeed the Prophet Mohammed in his capacity as a head of state. The fi rst state in the history of Islam was established by Prophet Mohammed in 622 AD, and after his demise the Muslims remained politically united in one form or another, and at certain times in Islamic history, were at least theoretically united under the caliphate system, until it was abolished in March 3, 1924 at the hands of the Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Within a few years, after a number of failed attempts to revive the caliphate following its abolition and the fragmentation of the Muslim world led by the colonial powers in the Sykes-Picot agreement in 1916, the Muslim world adopted the nation-state system.

But the search for the causes of the decline of the Muslims’ power has led some to the

※ 資料にあるAhmed Al-Dawoody氏の論文とほとんど同じ内容である。しかし、この記録では注がつけられないので、内容は重複するが、資料として58頁以下に掲載してある。(編者注)

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belief that the revival of the caliphate will bring about the lost glory of the Muslims. This paper will focus on the paradigm that adopts the use of terrorism to establish their envisaged form of the caliphate and hence the case of the formerly known as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, ISIS, currently called simply the Islamic State, is studied here. Although the establishment of the caliphate has been proclaimed as a goal for other groups, the case of the Islamic State is unique because it is the fi rst attempt to reestablish it after its abolition and currently it already controls at least one third of the territories in both Iraq and Syria, nearly the size of the United Kingdom – and still remains undefeated by the regular state armies of these two countries and the international community at large since it was founded in April 2013 by Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim al-Badri, now known as Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. It is even described as a de facto state which is more akin to the Taliban in the 1990s or, as self-described as: “the fi rst state in ‘modern’ times set up exclusively by the mujahidin – the active participants in the jihad – in the heart of the Muslim world.”

At the outset, it has to be pointed out here particularly that for almost the last century and a half, since the beginning of the Western intellectual infl uence on the Muslim world, that there “is a deep disagreement among Muslims over the degree to which Islam should or ought to shape the laws and institutions of society.” Hence, the Muslim world is still struggling intellectually, institutionally, politically, and violently, over the limits that must be given to Islam in the public sphere. The ideological struggle has created sharp divisions and schisms not only on the societal level, but also in the distribution of power and wealth. This situation breeds social unrest, alienation, and radicalization. History tells us that Western Europe passed through this experience about fi ve centuries ago and the similarities are indeed striking between the experience of the Muslim world and its Western counterpart. In the words of John M. Owen in his article “From Calvin to the Caliphate: What Europe’s Wars of Religion Tell Us about the Modern Middle East,” and I quote:

Parts of the Muslim world today, in fact, bear an uncanny resemblance to northwestern

Europe 450 years ago, during the so-called Wars of Religion. Then, as now, a wave of

religious insurrection rolled across a vast region, engulfi ng several countries and threatening

to break over more. In the 1560s alone, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland each faced

revolts led by adherents of a new branch of Protestantism called Calvinism… The revolts

came in the middle of a 150-year-long contest over which form of Christianity the state

should favor – and today, that story has a familiar ring. [So as he rightly notes, the] long

periods of ideological strife, in which Western countries were divided over the best way to

order society, off er crucial lessons for the present.

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End of quote.So the most important lesson that could help decision-makers deal with the current

situation in the Muslim world is that this situation is not peculiar to Islam and, therefore, in order to save much of the shedding of the blood, Muslims can follow the same path trodden by the West, provided that they do not ignore their religious and cultural heritage. This is because, despite the similarities and the enormous infl uence the European Enlightenment has had on a large segment of the Muslim intellectuals and the restructuring of the state systems in most of the Muslim world according to the European nation-state model, the Muslim world has been experiencing a resurgence since the second half of the twentieth century which has taken it in the opposite direction of its Western counterpart.

While secularism has triumphed in the West, the Muslim world is heading towards further Islamization in the public sphere and, therefore, turning its back on the secularization processes which started in the fi rst half of the twentieth century. The point here is not to argue that secularism is inevitable for the peace, stability, and prosperity of the Muslim world, but that Muslims must agree on a paradigm that will determine the place of the religion of Islam in the public life and how they want to structure their societies. So pragmatically speaking, one of the reasons of the state of disappointment among Muslims is the failure of many Muslim countries to provide decent human quality of life to their peoples. Had a reasonable degree of modernization, democracy, and prosperity been achieved, secularism might not have been losing its grounds in most of the Muslim countries. Therefore, in a nutshell, the prospects of any paradigm adopted by Muslims depends particularly on both elements: 1) providing services to the people and 2) not violating the dictates of the religion of Islam. And hence, radicalization and terrorism grow in the failed or failing Muslim states.

Concerning the caliphate as a governmental system, and regardless of the evaluation of its practices throughout history, at present there is a line of thought among Muslim intellectuals which believes that the idea of the Islamic caliphate is not only utopian, ahistorical, and naïve, but also will lead to theocracy and therefore will destabilize society and endanger civil life. Moreover, they even argue that the Islamic caliphate system is un-Islamic. Shaykh ‘Ali ‘Abd Al-Raziq championed this line of thought arguing, unsuccessfully however, for the separation between Islam and politics and therefore calling upon the Muslims to choose any form of government. The signifi cance of ‘Ali ‘Abd Al-Raziq’s position is that it indicates that Islamic law has no place in public life and this is the core of the discussions regarding the Islamic state at least in the last four decades.

On the other hand, there is another line of thought that argues that Islamic laws and institutions must shape both the personal and public lives of the Muslims. Put diff erently,

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whether a Muslim country adopts the form of a republic or a kingdom, the wider the application of Islamic law, the more the country is self-proclaimed as Islamic or classed as an Islamic state. But on the grass roots level, two polls in 2012 and 2013 respectively by Gallup and the Pew Research Center showed a general support in a number of Muslim countries among both men and women for the application of Shari’ah, Islamic law. In fact, there are some Muslims who argue that the modern nation-state system is a Western invention and therefore it is foreign to Islam because the entire Muslim world must be united under the caliphate system. But what is remarkable here is that there is still a general popular sentiment regarding unifying the Muslim world under the caliphate system. So it is interesting to fi nd that “in a 2006 Gallup survey of Muslims living in Egypt, Morocco, Indonesia and Pakistan, two-thirds of respondents said they supported the goal of ‘unifying all Muslim countries’ into a new caliphate.”

In 2014, Al-Baghdadi proclaimed the establishment of the caliphate and asked the rest of the Muslims including other militant Muslim groups to accept his leadership and obey him as the caliph of all the Muslims. In a televised broadcast in English under the title “The End of the Sykes-Picot,” a spokesman with a British accent promised the destruction of the borders between all the Muslim countries and unifying all the Muslims. Under the title “This is the Promise of Allah,” an offi cial document issued by the Islamic State in English, states that the reestablishment of the caliphate will bring about the glory of the Muslims and therefore the following words underscore the religious sentiment and psychological motivations behind the radicalization of many Muslims, and this is why it’s important to refl ect upon the following quote by ISIS.

The time has come for those generations that were drowning in oceans of disgrace, being

nursed on the milk of humiliation, and being ruled by the vilest of all people, after their long

slumber in the darkness of neglect – the time has come for them to rise. The time has come

for the ummah of Muhammad (peace be upon him) to wake up from its sleep, remove the

garments of dishonor, and shake off the dust of humiliation and disgrace, for the era of

lamenting and moaning has gone, and the dawn of honor has emerged anew. The sun of jihad

has risen. The glad tidings of good are shining. Triumph looms on the horizon. The signs of

victory have appeared.

End of quote.The Islamic State’s cry for the establishment of the caliphate resonates with the religious

sentiment and attracts militants from other groups as well as radicalized Muslims both from the Muslim world and the West. The intriguing question here now is, “Why do many

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Muslims subscribe to this apparently unrealizable dream [of the reestablishment of the caliphate]?” Apart from the great memories of the power of the ancient Islamic civilization in the past, there are three theories at least that justify the recruitment of these young radicalized Muslims to join the Islamic State in its search or its pursuit for the establishment of the caliphate. First, there is always a tendency among many to relate the resort of Muslims to acts of terrorism to the Islamic or Qur’anic teachings justifying the use of force. Second, there are also others who justify the resort to acts of terrorism by merely the economic incentives since ISIS is said to pay about 400 dollars a month for its recruits. This might be the case with mercenaries from third world poor countries, but obviously not the case with Western male and female educated who run from Western-European countries to join the Islamic States. The third justifi cation, and which is the more serious and diffi cult explanation to deal with, which is, quote, “the social and political grievances that radicalize,” end of quote, them as well as well as Western foreign policies towards the Muslim world. The grievances regarding the state of decline and “humiliation” of the Muslims and the aspiration for the sacrifi ce for the sake of their religion, sentimentally drive zealous Muslims, usually uneducated or untrained, particularly in the fi eld of Islam, to recourse to the use of violence. In the words of Daniel Byman and Jeremy Shapiro from the Brookings Institutions, and I quote: “Western fi ghters were motivated to join the fi ght by a romantic desire to defend Islam and Muslims under threat.” End of quote. So in fact, the prevalent belief now among the Western intelligence and security offi cials is that the motivations for young Muslims to engage in fi ghting “in a foreign confl ict is usually less an act of religious commitment than of young male rebellion and thirst for adventure.” The signifi cance here is that identifying the real motivations behind young Muslims’ recourse to terrorism and engagement in foreign confl icts is the fi rst step to treat this issue.

So the starting point for the Islamic State’s justifi cation for their proclamation of the reestablishment of the caliphate is that it is not only a necessary step to put an end to the humiliation and weakness of the Muslims, but, more importantly, it is a religious obligation and all the Muslim world will be guilty if they do not reestablish it. Hence, the Islamic State considers the caliphate as the abandoned duty or “the abandoned obligation of the era.” Moreover, according to the document referred to above, Muslims, and I quote “will own the world, and the east and the west will submit to” them if they reestablish the caliphate and renounce “democracy, secularism, nationalism, as well as all other garbage and ideas of the west.” End of quote. The document here confi rms that the Islamic State duly reestablished the caliphate and therefore all the Muslims of the world must give allegiance to support Al-Baghdadi as the caliph of all the Muslims, otherwise they all will be guilty. In fact, reports indicate that some groups have already submitted their allegiance to Al-Baghdadi from

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Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, Algeria, the Arabian Peninsula, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Dagestan, and Chechnya, in addition of course to the tribal leaders in both Iraq and Syria. Unfortunately, it seems that in the face of the inability of the regular state armies of both Iraq and Syria, the Islamic State is gaining more recruits from both the Muslim world and the West, including born Muslims and converts, as announced in its magazine Dabiq, which is the mouthpiece of the Islamic State. So according to some recent studies, the estimated number of foreign fi ghters who joined the Islamic State is up to 15,000 fi ghters coming from 80 countries and a maximum of 25 percent of these fi ghters have come from the West, and the rest of course comes from the rest of the Muslim world.

The idea of the caliphate is vital in the Islamic State’s ideology and hence the title of the fi rst issue of their magazine, Dabiq, is titled “The Return of the Khalifah [Caliph].” So the resurrection of the caliphate at the hands of the Islamic State is heralded as a new era “of might and dignity of the Muslims” which is promised to, and I quote, “open…the path for the complete unifi cation of all the Muslim peoples and lands under the single authority of the khalifah.” The fi rst issue quotes Al-Baghdadi as dividing the world into only two camps: “The camp of Islam and faith, and the camp of kufr (disbelief) and hypocrisy – the camp of the Muslims and the mujahidin everywhere, and the camp of the jews, the crusaders, their allies, with the rest of the nations and religions of kufr, all being led by America and Russia, and being mobilized by the jews.” Therefore, Al-Baghdadi calls upon the Muslims of the rest of the world to perform hijrah, which means emigration, to the territories of the Islamic State, and the land of all the Muslims. In another special call, he asked particularly scholars, judges, jurists, those with military and administrative expertise, medical doctors, and engineers of all specializations to migrate to the Islamic State in order to help their fellow Muslims and provide necessary services to their newly established caliphate. Its literature shows that both hijrah, i.e., emigration, and jihad, recurrent themes in the Islamic State’s rhetoric, are essential for the creation of the Islamic State and therefore issue number 3 of Dabiq is titled: “A Call to Hijrah.” Many of its soldiers are described as mujāhid, i.e., in English, participants in jihad, or nicknamed muhājir, emigrant. The literature and rhetoric of the Islamic State show a psychological inclination to replicate the experience and the surrounding situations of the Muslims in the past and therefore a specifi c world view of their own regardless of the consequences.

Although the Islamic State is a former affi liate of Al-Qaeda, yet far more dangerous and extremist, it is interesting fi nd that a fi rm rebuttal of the proclamation of the caliphate by the Islamic State came in August 2015 from Al-Qaeda leader Ayman Al-Zawahri, who is an Egyptian surgeon by training and education. He criticized this self-proclaimed caliphate, which, he adds, he knew about only from the media, as unauthentic because it came from a

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small hidden group without the agreement of the Muslims, and therefore, he rejected their claim that the rest of the Muslims must obey this so-called duly-appointed caliph. Al-Zawahri argues that the proclamation of the caliphate is detrimental because it has created more divisions among the Muslims and showed them as vying for the capture of territory. In a word, Al-Zawahri argues that the time is not ripe for the reestablishment of the caliphate. But in anticipation of this criticism raised by Al-Zawahri and in an attempt to claim legitimacy, the document cited above stressed that the matter of the eligibility of the Islamic State for the reestablishment of the caliphate and the appointment of Al-Baghdadi as the caliph – whom it describes as a scholar, a leader, a warrior, worshipper, reviver, and a descendant of the family of the Prophet – was approved by the consultative and representative bodies of the Islamic State. By this list of descriptions, the Islamic State intends to say that Al-Baghdadi satisfi es the conditions stipulated by the classical Muslim jurists including the controversial condition of the lineage of the Prophet. Furthermore, in issue number 5 of Dabiq it quotes Ibn Hazm of the extinct literalist school to the eff ect that it is impossible to get the approval of all the dignitaries of all the Muslim world. So in brief, the Islamic State portrays its endeavor for the reestablishment of the caliphate as an act of compliance with God’s command and towards this objective they are very much willing to be bear the consequences or to face fi erce battles.

As for the response of the mainstream Islamic circles to the Islamic State proclamation of the caliphate, they reject the mere act of calling this entity as an Islamic State because, simply, their acts are in stark contradiction to what Islam stands for. It is worth adding here that overall scholarly response from the mainstream Islamic circles is as weak as the international society’s reaction to the gruesome atrocities and acts of insane barbarity committed in the areas under the Islamic State’s control. But it is quite remarkable that Al-Qaeda leader Al-Zawahri’s rebuttal above fundamentally carries the same opinion and message given in an open letter signed by 126 world leading Muslim religious fi gures in September 2015.

This means that both mainstream and some terrorist Muslim groups agree on the necessity of the reestablishment of the caliphate, although they immediately disagree on the unilateral proclamation of the establishment of the caliphate by the Islamic State.

But the core function of the caliphate or any other system of government that qualifi es a country as an Islamic state is the application and implementation of Islamic law. So classical Muslim jurists make it clear that what they called hirāsah al-dīn, i.e., literally safeguarding religion, is the main function of the caliphate and therefore, after the fragmentation and the impossibility of reuniting the Muslims under one ruler, the focus of Islamizing the Muslim world revolves around Islamizing the legal systems after its westernization by the European

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colonial powers. Overall, the Muslim world including most of the Islamic states, radical and terrorist groups, as well as the Muslim minorities living in the West have taken varying strides in the direction of Islamizing their legal system. While certain countries claim the complete application of Islamic law like Saudi Arabia and Iran, some other states which partially apply Islamic law either proclaim that they will apply further aspects of Islamic law when the time is ripe or that the Western imported Islamic laws, the Western imported laws do not contradict Islamic law. However, radical Muslim groups have labeled the leaders of the Islamic states as heretics and the Muslim societies as living in a state of jāhiliyyah, i.e., ignorance, referring to the pre-Islamic era, because they apply Western un-Islamic laws and therefore they propagated for, and resorted to, the use of violence for the purpose of enforcing the complete application of Islamic law. As for the Muslim minorities in the West, the United Kingdom, for example, have offi cially permitted settling certain familial and fi nancial disputes to be resolved according to Islamic law if the parties involved so agreed.

Establishing religion as a core function of the caliphate, which the Islamic State claims to have achieved, requires what Dabiq describes as a comprehensive political power. Quite emphatically the Islamic State portrays itself as the only state in the entire world that is ruling by Islamic law. Hence, they apply hudūd, which means scripturally-prescribed penalties, such as cutting off the hands of thieves and fl ogging of fornicators. Their attempts of Islamizing their society and the state structure include the revival of the ancient tradition of the enslavement of women taken as prisoners of war and using them as concubines, using classical names and terms that were used in classical Islamic history instead of the modern ones such as diwān instead of ministry and wilāyat instead of district, province, et cetera, let alone changing their own names using nicknames that resemble classical Islamic ones. Interestingly and signifi cantly, a female with the name of Umm Sumayyah al-Muhājirah, which means in English, the mother of Sumayyah the Emigrant, writes an article under the title “Slave-Girls or Prostitutes?” in issue 9 of Dabiq in which she defends and justifi es the enslavement of female captives and taking them as concubines since they become lawful possessions of the Muslims even without being divorced from their husbands because this was the practice during the Prophet’s lifetime. That is to say that the psychological motivations behind this ignorant and irrational understanding and approach are a mere nostalgia to the past and attempts to mimic the history and surrounding situations in which Islam grew rather than to live and practice what Islam stands for and aspires to achieve. Again, if this proves anything, it confi rms that most of the recruits of the Islamic State lack any religious knowledge and/or proper Islamic training. According to a Western intelligence source only 1 percent of the Western recruits know a Muslim theologian “or are informed on dogma in any way.” And I’m quoting, “Indeed, two British foreign fi ghters on their way to

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Syria found it is necessary to purchase the books titled Islam for Dummies and The Koran for Dummies for the trip, which at least shows an interest.” End of quote. Nonetheless, they use modern technology, the media, social media to propagate for their ideology and for addressing potential recruits as well as their enemies. So they also opened both the Medical College in Al-Raqqa, in Syria and the College of Medical Studies in Mosul, Iraq with the aim of enhancing the medical service not only from the professional standpoint but also from the Islamic one.

Furthermore, the Islamic State claims that Islam is a religion of the sword and not pacifi sm, as the Muslim apologetics propagate. It promises, and I quote, to “perform jihād so that Allah’s word becomes supreme and that the religion becomes completely for Allah… Everyone who opposes this goal or stands in the path of this goal is an enemy for us [i.e., the Islamic State] and a target for our swords.” End of quote. So it assures that the fl ag of the caliphate will rise over Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, and Rome. So while it may be understood that the Islamic State hopes to raise their fl ag over Jerusalem because it is under the occupation of the state of Israel or even if it hopes to capture Rome and annex it to the Islamic State, but raising its fl ag over Mecca and Medina indicates that they do not recognize the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as an Islamic state. Hence, their division of the world is quite clear: anyone who is not of them is an enemy who is classifi ed or classed as a kāfi r or disbelieve, murtadd, apostate, and/or tāghūt, tyrant including Al-Qaeda leader Al-Zawahri and the ousted Islamist Egyptian president Morsi. So non-Muslims are always labeled crusaders in their literature. This means that the Islamic State is committed to a perpetual state of war against anyone who opposes their goals, whether Muslims or non-Muslims alike.

So it’s worth adding here that the subject of the creation of the Islamic State has also spawned the conspiracy theory. Similar to the conspiracy theories regarding the September 11, 2011 terrorist attacks, Galal Amin, a prominent Egyptian intellectual and economics professor at the American University in Cairo, argued on September 1, 2015, that the Islamic State was not created by the Arabs or Muslims, but it is, quote, “a foreign creation,” and what he means here, created by the West. Part of the Muslims’ tendency to believe in such conspiracy theories is that they believe that the gruesome acts perpetrated by such violent terrorist Muslim groups are grave violations of the true teachings of Islam. But this tendency also refl ects that the state of distrust not only among the Islamists but also among Western-educated liberal Muslim intellectuals in Western governments and their intelligence agencies. Furthermore, it also refl ects a psychology and a cultural tendency among ordinary Muslims and, regrettably, among some educated Muslims to whitewash the decline of Islam, of the Islamic civilization in modern times and the atrocities committed by Muslims and simply put the blame on others. This approach is as misleading and detrimental as the bigots who

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simply put the blame on the religion of Islam for all the wrongs committed by Muslims. But a serious and honest treatment requires, fi rst, genuine investigations to understand the root causes of the problems under discussion and, second, the will and ability to take daring necessary actions to correct the wrong

This complex phenomenon of modern terrorism perpetrated by Muslims is both a disease and a symptom of the existence of other diseases. This disease could be caused by internal and/or external factors. Examining the family history is an important tool in the treatment process because it gives an indication into, fi rst, the causes and frequency of occurrence of such a disease and hence shows how epidemic such a disease is, and as a consequence, second, the type of treatment that must be prescribed. It is also important in the course of examination to compare the case of terrorism and the ideological battle which is currently taking place in the Muslim world with the case of the Western world’s in order to learn the needed lessons, but it is of no less importance to bear in mind the religious, ideological, and historical diff erences between each case in order not to end up prescribing the wrong treatment. Furthermore, this also requires listening to the grievances and descriptions of the situation as is viewed by those involved in the case under investigation and after the analysis, diagnosis, and treatment can be given.

The case of the terrorism perpetrated by Muslims in association with the attempts to establish the Islamic State or Islamize their societies at present is one of the malign consequences of the ideological battle that started in the Muslim world around a century and a half ago and, most likely, is destined to continue, at least, for the foreseeable future. The reason for the prolongation of this ideological battle is the failure of the Muslim world to produce, and agree on, an ideology or a paradigm that will bring about the lost and yet much-dreamt of glory of the Muslims and at the same time does not contradict the dictates of the religion of Islam. In addition to that, poor governance and widespread corruption – as one of the internal factors – and the foreign occupation of the Muslim countries – as one of the external factors – which led to the failure of a number of Muslim states have created an ideal place for the emergence and growth of extremism and terrorism in the Muslim world. Therefore, as insightfully concluded by William McCants: “If [Al-] Baghdadi’s life is a cautionary tale, it is about the danger of creating the chaos that allows men like him to fl ourish.” The chaos created in worn-torn, occupied, or attacked Muslim countries such as Afghanistan, Bosnia, Somalia, Iraq, and Syria has contributed to the radicalization and recourse to terrorism among many young Muslims.

So this paper has illustrated that the Islamic State’s paradigm shows one of the most extremist and dangerous attempts throughout the 14 centuries of the history of Islam to replicate the 7th and 8th centuries institutions in which Islamic civilization emerged into our

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contemporary world. Catastrophically, in pursuit of achieving its goals, the Islamic State has violated the principles of the religions of Islam and has proclaimed the rest of the world – particularly those who stand in the face of achieving their messianic mission – Muslims or non-Muslims alike, to be their own enemies. The big mistake with their paradigm, and to a lesser extent with many other radical Islamist groups, is that because of their nostalgia for the past they do not distinguish between what is part of the religion of Islam and what is part of history. Consequently, copying past experiences into diff erent situations sometimes leads to the opposite results to what Islam aims to achieve and for this reason the Islamic traditions of ijtihād (reasoning and judgment in the law-making process) and tajdīd (reform) must be utilized to confront the radical extremist and ahistorical interpretations of Islam. Islamic reform by qualifi ed and competent independent Islamic scholars is indispensable for confronting the current wave of terrorism and radicalization in the Muslim world. That is because without a doubt the long term antidote to this current wave of terrorism and extremism is the reform of Islamic thought and providing at least a theoretical workable paradigm that can achieve the aspirations for stability and progress, and at the same time will respect and satisfy the religious and ideological diff erences and the needs of the others. Indeed, irrespective of the naming and labeling of ideologies and the many “isms” that we have throughout history, including Islamism and secularism, stability and progress cannot be achieved without peace, justice, knowledge, and equality. But in the short term, uprooting terrorism requires eradicating its root causes, namely, illiteracy, poverty, and the lack of genuine democracies. In conclusion, uprooting terrorism is a costly long-term multifaceted endeavor that requires strong and genuine will and determination, on both the national and international levels. If this is to happen, time will tell.

Thank you so much.

柳原 アフメド教授、ありがとうございました。次のご報告はハムディ・A・ハッサン教授であります。ハムディ教授はアメリカのメリーランド大学で博士号を取得され、1982年からカイロ大学で教授を勤められ、現在はドバイのザイード大学教授を務めておられます。どうご紹介すればよいのかと事前にお尋ねしましたところ、政治学の教授とだけ言ってくれということでしたが、たくさんの役職を務めておられ、例えばスウェーデッシュ・ネットワーク・ピースリサーチのアドバイザリーボードメンバー、アフリカンアソシエーション・ポリティカルサイエンスのバイスプレジデントも勤められるなど、たくさんの要職を務められております。またたくさんの著書、論文もございます。今日は「ISとグローバルなジハーディズムの変容」のタイトルでご報告をいただきます。 Prof. Hamdy, please.

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Islamic State and the Transformation of Global Jihadism: Geostrategic Distribution and the Expected Scenarios

(Islamic Stateとグローバルなジハーディズムの変容:戦略地政学的な分布と予想されるシナリオ)

Hamdy Hassan: Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. I am very pleased to be here with you sharing some of my ideas regarding this hot topic of the so-called Islamic State. I would like to thank Prof. Sato, my dear colleagues, and all my Japanese comrades, thank you very much. And I am going to complement what my colleague said and just to share some arguments, very important arguments, about this very important topic. Where did these people come from? Is it as Ahmed concluded, is it a Western creation, phenomena? We always blame the West, that they created all the violence in the Middle East or in the Muslim world. Or it is a home-grown phenomenon, it has its deep roots in our culture, and this is one of the questions we need to ask.

What is their ideology? And for some people saying, are we going to defeat Daesh, yes, for sure, but they are going to reproduce themselves and we will witness another form or another version of Daesh

What is their type of jihadism? Where did it come from? This is a very important question because the approach we are using, I mean whether we are Western countries or Muslim countries, regarding these organizations, we are treating them as the same, we are treating Al-Qaeda the same way that we are treating ISIS. We are treating Boko Haram in Nigeria the same way we are treating Al-Shabaab almujahidin in Somalia. They are diff erent. They have diff erent contexts. This is a very important question we need to ask.

So why they call their state permanent and extended? This is the offi cial slogan of Daesh – I prefer to call them Daesh or you can say the so-called Islamic State because as my colleague said this is an un-Islamic State, but ISIS or Daesh in Arabic, it fi ts, there’s a purpose – the slogan is permanent and extending. This is their slogan, ‘the Islamic State remains, the Islamic State expands,’ and of course they are extending, so it is not a digital caliphate like one journalist said and wrote a book in English about the digital state, referring to the Islamic State. So it is not a digital entity; it is a functional one.

What are the future prospects and the possible alliances and upcoming scenarios?… So one of my important arguments before I continue my presentation, is there a relationship between poverty and radicalization, because people say there is a correlation between poverty, because they are poor, they’re radicalized. I have been in Kibera, this is the biggest Islam area in Nairobi. It has like 1 million people. They are not radicalized; they are only poor. So I am challenging here the correlation… I’m not saying that poverty is okay. No. But I’m doing the correlation, what are the real root causes for radicalization? Is it really bad

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governance? Is it really poverty? This is, we need to say. We have many poor people in Africa. They are only poor people. They are not radicalized. This is one of the important arguments.

So, where did these people come from? Graham Fuller, a famous American analyst and former CIA offi cer wrote a very nice piece stating that the United States created ISIS. He doesn’t mean literally that the United States established ISIS but created the ground, the fertile ground, the political vacuum in Iraq. the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the consequent political instability that led to the collapse of the central state has clearly contributed to the rise of many jihadist organizations that have tried to fi ll the political vacuum.

So my idea is like this. I saw the movie Frankenstein. Have you seen this movie? Victor Frankenstein created the monster. So we have created the monster and it turned against us. So it is a home-grown phenomenon; this is my argument. So I diff erentiate between direct factors facilitated the establishment of ISIS, or Daesh. This is of course even before the invasion of Iraq. It was the war in Afghanistan when the US supported the Mujahidin, the fi ghters, the Muslim fi ghters. Even Osama Bin Laden was supported by the CIA. So you see, it is made in USA.

Before the invasion of Iraq, in 2001, if you look at the capital city : Baghdad, it was a mixed city, everybody living in the same neighborhood, Shias, Sunnis, everybody. In 2003, after the invasion, Baghdad became a divided city. You have segregation. You have a neighborhood for the Shia and a neighborhood for the Sunni. This is because of the invasion. So these, what has happened after the invasion, the consequences of the invasion, you have the marginalization of the Sunnis.

One of the famous books I refer to is Deborah Amos, Eclipse of the Sunnis. This is, for the fi rst time you have demographic change, the forced immigration. Look at the Syrians and the Iraqis now. So this is the biggest immigration movement in the whole of neighboring states. So you created a lot of problems. So these deprived people emigrated from their home country. What do you expect them to do?

What is funny now is when ISIS conquered Al Mosul in Baghdad, the Iraqi offi cials said, we are facing external invasion, so still we have this obsession of blaming the other. The same story happened in Syria. When ISIS went to Syria and conquered Syria, the Syrian offi cials said, oh, we have invasion from Iraq, so each one of them is blaming the other. But if you look at the component of those who are fi ghting in Iraq or in Syria, in Iraq they are Iraqis, most of them. We are still talking about a proportion, a small proportion of international fi ghters. But most of those who are fi ghting in Iraq are Iraqis, deprived Iraqis, marginalized Sunnis in Iraq. Most of those who are fi ghting in Sinai in Egypt are Egyptians,

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mainly Bedouins. Most of those who are fi ghting in Nigeria are Nigerians. So we have to look at the root causes of this.

So for the fi rst time in Iraq, in 2005, thanks to the Americans, you have a constitution recognizing sectarianism because the Iraqi, the current Iraqi constitution recognizes the Sunnis, the Shias, and the Kurds. This is a de facto division of Iraq. So you have this classifi cation of the citizenship of Iraq. But these are in my opinion (the direct course). These are the direct drivers. It was a vacuum in Iraq and then those who trained in Afghanistan, and because of the war in Syria, they have all this training, so they came back I order to fi ll this vacuum.

But what are the root causes? This is very important in my opinion. We need to go and look at these root causes.

One of the main false paradigms we have been taught in political science and history, it’s about Arab and Muslim nationalism and building a national state. We have been told that we have a modern national state in Syria, in Yemen, in Libya, and even in Africa, but it was a false national state. In many cases it turned to be an authoritarian state with a personalized type of leadership, so this is why we have in Egypt for example Nasserism, so Egypt became associated to Nasser or Sadat. Ghana in Africa became Nkrumah. So you have the one-man-show state.

So when the state is being tested at the time of crisis, it collapses, and the main phenomena, which is a threat now not only to the regional security but to the international security, is the fragility of the state. How many fragile states in the world now? Most of them are in the Middle East and Africa.

So the process of building the national state proved to be a failure. So those nationalistic people who used to be secularist, adopted secular national state, like Nasser, even Saddam Hussein in Iraq, have failed.

So what is the alternative here? The people turned to Islam, to religion, and they said, Islam is the solution, and this is the slogan raised in many Muslim countries. We have this in Egypt where the Muslim Brotherhood came in and raised the slogan of “Islam is the solution”. So the people said, oh, this is a good alternative for us, they turned to the religious ideology.

So what do I see in our teaching, in our educational system? I couldn’t see any diff erence between some of this teaching and the teaching of Daesh. They are the same. I have studied the transformation of Islamic discourse for many years, I found Salafi sm is the starting point for all radical discourses.

So Salafi sm in Islam, as Ahmed said, those who glorify the past, are strict to the original teaching of the Prophet and his companions, looking backward all the time, and this is the

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nostalgia they have. So in Saudi Arabia, even in many Arab and Muslim countries, this is the dominant school of thought. During the election campaign of 2011 in Egypt, the Nour Party put pictures of roses instead of the faces of their female candidates. So what is the diff erence between this kind of thinking and Daesh? It’s the same. So someone asked here that we created it. This is because of the educational system, the kind of teaching that we have. So starting always with this purist vision of Islam.

Is “ISIS” position on minorities, women, citizenship, art, literature and religious and political pluralism much diff erent than what is taught in colleges, preached in mosques and written in the literature of Islamic jurisprudence? Al-Qaeda or the Islamic State is the fi nal product of the Jihadist-Salafi sm, a radical Salafi st Wahhabism that declare apostasy against any Muslim, in addition to non-Muslims. This trend in takfi rist thought is based also on the political theories of both Abul A’la Maududi (God’s sovereignty over all creation or Hakamiyya) and Sayyid Qutb (the concept of governance and the division of society into jaahili community and Muslim community).

The notion of modern Jihad inspires the current discourse of militant Islam. In essence, there are four major speculative works that have shaped its legal argument as well as its operational outlook of recent years. The merger between the Wahhabi ideas and the ideas of Mawdudi and Sayyid Qutb has produced a politically oriented thought as represented by, Ayman al-Zawahiri, the main theorist of Al Qaeda. Among the most important theorists of present day are: Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, author of the book (the Path of Abraham) published in 1985, Abu Qatada al Filisteenee, author of the book (Jihad and diligence) published in 1999, Abu Musab al-Suri, author (call for Global Islamic Resistance) published in 2004, and Abu Bakr Naji, author of the book (The Management of Savagery: The Most Critical Stage Through Which the Umma Will Pass) published in 2008.

So now it is a historical issue for our understanding. The regular understanding is Jahiliyyah means the period before Islam. Now with this interpretation they said, no, it is not a historical period. No. It is a case, it could be there in any society, so they consider us Jahiliyyah, and his is why they kill the people without any mercy because they don’t consider them Muslims or believers.

Then, from this component of ideology, the third phase of radicalization, if you start with me, so it’s just starting with Salafi sm, the Salafi sm like what we have in Saudi Arabia and many Arab countries, just those who are observing a very strict, narrow-minded interpretation of Islam. Then they become more politicized as the Muslim Brotherhood, and then introduce the caliphate, how to deal with the other. We need to establish the state of caliphate.

And the third phase, it comes with Al-Qaeda. Here for the fi rst time you have to

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establish the caliphate because in this political Islam they believe to fi ght within the state, the existing state, but in the more radical group, like Al-Qaeda, they started to say, no, we need to apply violence. Violence is a means in order to establish caliphate. And then we came later to more radical with the Islamic State or Daesh, with believing in establishing with the jihad as the only means.

So if you look at this, this is an abstract about the transformation of the jihadi idea. As you can see, from the slides, you have the paper anyway, so I am not following strictly to the paper, but this is just to illustrate the diff erent phases of jihadism. I call jihadism those who believe in establishing the Islamic caliphate by violence.

So here, this is very common, the Salafi st, like the Wahhabi. This is an example. This is the formal school of thought in Saudi Arabia, and because of the petro-dollar they were able to disseminate their ideas everywhere in Africa and in Asia. So they are simply, if you look at this, avoiding innovation. So they consider critical thinking innovation. So this is one way why the people do not think. They just, we call it the tradition, the authority of tradition, imitating the others, trying to apply the ancient model of the Prophet and the companions. So we are living in the 21st century but it is still working as if they are living in those old days, and they call it the Golden Days.

So they have always dreamed of realizing it, and this is how they attract some deprived people. So why do they attract people from Australia, for example? I’ve been in Australia, and was asked, why are these young men, living in a good society, a clean society like Australia, joining Daesh?. If we are saying that poverty is a cause, why are these people living in France or in Europe joining Daesh? Because of the issue of salvation? Yes, we have been taught that there is always salvation. In order to be perfect, because God is perfect, come to us. We are not this ugly face of globalization, of capitalism. No, we are living in the city of God, and this is the way they are marketing the caliphate state and this is why they are attracting the hearts and minds of many young people.

And in the case of ISIS they are not ignorant, by the way. Many of them are professionals, engineers, media experts. So this is the diff erence between Daesh and Al-Qaeda.

And then you come to the political phase. The traditional Salafi sm became more politicized. As I said, like in the case of the Muslim Brotherhood, believe establishing the caliphate state, but through political means.

And then you are having the third phase, a Jihadi-Salafi st, like Al-Qaeda brand. And I’m going later to diff erentiate between Al-Qaeda and Daesh. There is a big diff erence. There is commonality of course. Between all Jihadi groups there are commonalities but there are diff erent brands. There are a lot of diff erences between them.

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And then the current one is a version of Daesh. So if you’re going to ask me, do you think we are going to defeat Daesh? Yes, for sure. Maybe after two, fi ve or ten years, but I am sure there will be another brand of Daesh if we have the same tactics. If we have the same strategy in fi ghting terrorism and radicalization, I am sure that we will have another brand. So they are reproducing themselves in this vicious cycle as I show you here.

What is the key intellectual foundation?Those experts in ISIS are blaming the American and the Western countries because they

are applying the same strategy in fi ghting ISIS, the same strategy they used in fi ghting Al-Qaeda. There is a big diff erence., as you can see here.

- Al Qaeda believes in “Jihad Al-Dafa” or the “defensive Jihad”. On the other hand, IS believes the duty of Jihadists is to establish the caliphate, and that it can only be achieved by force of arms. This is signifi cant, because in their understanding, once the Caliphate is established Muslims who do not submit to it are considered Khawarij and as such can be fought and killed.

- The main narrative of Al-Qaeda’s focused on militant activities and terrorism through the glorifi cation of martyrs and the documentation of successful operations. It also promotes the perpetration of “stray dogs” acts of terror by individuals that can have absolutely no formal association with Al-Qaeda. In contrast, the IS narrative largely focused on building an actual state based on a radical, or takfi ri, interpretation of Islam. IS also appeals for skilled professionals to make hijrah (migration) in order to assist in the construction of an Islamic government.

- Al-Qaeda’s position towards other sects and religions is based on the distinction between Islam and other religions. Leaders and scholars of other sects such as Shiites and Alawites are considered infi dels and the general publics are Kafi rs only after establishing proof against them. Other religions such as Christians and Yazidi are Kufr per se, payable tax is a a duty for their civilians. In contrast IS considered all diff erent religions and sects as Kufr. Men should be killed, women and children should be captured and their money should be seized.

So why are they doing this? They have their own objective. To be the dominant. So when they came after I think the Jordanian militant, what’s his name…? Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. Al-Zarqawi, it’s a key, it’s a turning point in the transformation process, in Iraq, in 1999, because he did the rift between Al-Qaeda and the so-called Islamic State in Iraq. He was the fi rst one who established the Islamic State in Iraq. So it was a turning point here. So they wanted to dominate the jihadi, the global jihadi scene, and they do not acknowledge any

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jihadi group, so the monopolization of the jihadi scene.And also, the issue here, the main target, the main object is to have a state, their own

state. It is functioning, if you consider they have municipalities, they have coins, they have police, they have everything. So it is functioning very well. We have many failed states like Somalia, it has no functioning government, but in the case of Daesh, it is a functioning government. So they are trying to provide public goods for the people. They are trying to attract the hearts and minds of the Sunni people, those who were left behind.

Look, it was a big mistake for the American and the Iraqi governoments, they turned against Abu Musab al-Zarqawi in 2006 when they made the awakening councils fi ghting with the government, but again, because of the sectarian nature of the al-Maliki government in Iraq, they left them behind. So these fi ghters turned to the Islamic State because the only way for them, there is no other option for them because of this sectarian nature of the Iraqi government, where again is the Sunni people. The Sunni were marginalized. So look at those who were generals, who used to be generals in Saddam Hussein’s army, and they became the commanders of Daesh, you see, so this is a very important.

Building a self-suffi cient state, maybe it’s the most wealthy organization, non-state organization in the world, the most rich one, Daesh. I’ll tell you later why.

Here, if you look at this, there is a common area, a common area between Daesh and Al-Qaeda, and this is why we need to revise our strategy in dealing with them. We cannot use the same tactics in fi ghting Daesh. The same tactics we used with Al-Qaeda, with Osama bin Laden. So in Al-Qaeda, mainly they recruited ordinary people because they believe in non-war strategy, the suicide bomber. I call it stray dogs because warfare is appreciated in the Arabic culture. So this is why I prefer to call them stray dogs.

So you need a suicide bomber? Anyone. Not necessary to be educated. So anyone who believes in Al-Qaeda, so if he is in France or in Nigeria, Chad, Egypt, he will do suicide bombing, so that’s it. So this is a tactic. But for Al-Qaeda, for ISIS, it’s diff erent. They have their own media experts. They have engineers. It’s a state, so they need professionals. So most of the recruits in Daesh or the Islamic State are professionals, engineers, medical doctors, media experts, et cetera, et cetera.

But one of the main diff erences as I say is the issue of the state itself. Here Al-Qaeda, as my colleague said, the time is not ripe for establishing the caliphate, but for Daesh, no, this is the time and we have it, and not only we have it, it will be extending. And this is the slogan. And this is why they appreciated joining Boko Haram in West Africa to the Islamic State because psychologically it realizes the slogan of Boko Haram. So this is why they are paying for skilled people.

Why are they gaining more people every day in their media system? They have experts.

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If you look at their movie industry and their channels, media channels, more professional, more professional even than many Arab media. So that’s one important point.

It has a structure, hierarchical structure. If you ignore the names, we have a state structure. You have a leader, you have councils, you have divisions, departments, delivering public goods, and this is why they are working. They are working in Syria, in Iraq. But it has, because of this, based on one man, the caliph, because he is representing the Prophet. So the caliph, al-Baghdadi, this Ibrahim, the name of Ibrahim, he is representing the Prophet, so he is a decision-maker, a very important position. But you have these, we can use their modern names, you have the department of fi nance. They call it al-kasab but it is fi nance. You have the military council, which is the defense ministry, you can say it. You have the media, which is information, the department of information.

So you have a functioning state with this hierarchical state well-designed, and these are offi cial documents because we got these documents when they seized some strongholds in Iraq or in Syria. We got all this written in handwriting, so this is not speculation, but it gives you how this caliphate is working.

So how is it working? How does it get money? I think they are maybe richer than some Arab countries. This non-state, as we consider it according to the international law of course because they are not recognized, the international recognition, but this is like a (birth) certifi cate, they are there. They are there, but they are not recognized by the international community.

The Islamic State is the best-funded organization in the history of jihadist movements. It has built since the time of al-Zarqawi an extended fi nancing networks, and sources. The fi nancial committee collects the necessary funds through fundraising from traders and mosques, especially in the rich Gulf States, as well as the money obtained through the acquisition of the liberated areas.

Since the control of Mosul and large areas in Iraq and Syria, the estimated budget of IS is about two billion dollars. The most important fi nancing sources are:

- Donations and grants, there are a large number of wealthy Gulf citizens that have supported and funded the organization in both Iraq and Syria.

- Charity and Zakat funds: many Islamic platforms during 2011/2012 have encourage d Muslims to pay the Zakat funds and donations to support the Jihad and resistance in Syria, where the money found its way to the IS.

- Kidnappings for Cash, IS fi ghters have kidnapped many foreigners and bargained their release in exchange for millions of dollars. Ransoms from kidnappings make up about 20 percent of IS’s revenue.

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- Acquisition of resources and goods from controlled Areas, hospitals, shopping centers, restaurants, and electricity and water facilities in these areas, provide them with returns estimated in millions per month.

- Returns of natural and minerals resources: oil and gas fi elds, seized by the organization in Iraq and Syria; provide an estimated 2 million dollar per month.

- Imposition of taxes and fees: imposing a taxation system on traders, farmers and industrialists, the wealthy citizens in the areas controlled by the organization, is an important fi nancing source. There are also monthly taxes on companies and local institutions that provide about $ 6 million per month.

- Government funds: after controlling Mousl, the organization was able to seize the amounts of money that was found in banks and government institutions estimated at tens of millions of dollars. So you have all of these resources. This is why Daesh is the richest, is the richest organization in the world, so now they have enough resources.

So the question here, why do they attract the hearts and minds of the people? Why? I think we all of us are asking this. If you look at this media system, it’s very well organized. They have four media channels, al-Furqan, al-Hayat, al-I’tisam, and Ajnad Foundation. The Al-Furqan Institute for Media Production was established in 2006 by the Islamic State in Iraq (ISI). It is considered today the offi cial media bureau of IS and it receives its material from the top leadership directly.

The Islamic State has many messages in its media campaign which can be summarized as follows:

- Promoting the Caliphate as a functioning state, with one leader (the Caliph), one fl ag and one army The stereotypical image is of a person who have full beard, wearing a turban and black dress and carrying a weapon.

- Attracting young people in all countries of the Islamic world to join the ranks of Islamic State in order to fullfi ll their religious duties

- Terrorizing the kuff ar is the shortest way to accomplish victory,. Force should be used against “the Crusaders, the Shiites and Apostates,” according to IS termenology.

- Showing the positive and the humanitarian aspects of IS in order to improve its image, through distribution of Zakat, alms and relief materials to the needy people. And what is very important to us, because of their strategy to recruit professionals and experts, so they have very professional media people, how to attract young people by using pictures, and this is why they are very successful.

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And not only are they addressing their supporters, they are addressing the public at large, and even their enemies because they are resembling the Mogul in ancient times. They are terrorizing people in order to control them and this is why they are using beheading, putting people on fi re while they are alive, they are terrorizing the others in order to make them afraid of them. And this is why they are fi ghting on three fronts. They are fi ghting the Iraqi offi cial army, and they are fi ghting the Syrian offi cial army and they are fi ghting the Kurdish offi cial army. So three armies. They are fi ghting on three, in addition to these airstrikes, and they are not defeated yet. So we need to think about it. Why?

So they have a message to attract young people, to terrorize their enemies. So they have a message and they use psychological eff ects in disseminating their ideas. Sometimes for their followers they have some humanism because we are against them and this we don’t believe them, but there is a lot of support. If you look at these deprived marginalized Sunni people in Iraq and in Syria, they are providing them public goods, providing them shelter. So look at what the Syrian government does for the refugees. They left them behind. But for these people in the media, you have these Islamic fi ghters providing shelter for needy people, giving them alms or charity, so this is the human one, so they are trying to decorate, if I could say that, their picture among their followers.

This is not imaginary because some people, some writers, in a very naïve way say, oh, this is not a real state. But these people, they think strategically. They have a strategy. Their strategy is to have the same boundaries of the ancient caliphate during the Umayyad period. If you look at this map, they have this division of the world. So you have Khorasan which is in the ancient name of Iran and all East and Southeast Asia. This is a province. And then if you come to the south, the Arabias, you have al-Hijaz. Al-Hijaz, that’s an Arabian province. And then, of course you have Bilad al-Sham, this is the land of two rivers, Syria and Iraq. And you come to Africa, and the most vulnerable front is Africa. Why? Because they have a lot of fragile states. It’s easy to have it. So they have the whole Egypt and Sudan, they call it Kinana and then you have the Maghreb or West Africa, and now they were very successful in having the West Africa province with the Boko Haram in Nigeria declare its alliance with IS. So again, now in Sinai in Egypt.

So this is, if you look at it, and they have Europe because of Andalusia during the ancient time of the Islamic extension, so they are trying to realize this caliphate dream and to control the world. So this is the strategic thinking of this one.

So I am not going so far in explaining the other associates of Daesh we have in Sinai, but in Sinai it’s a diff erent issue because there are diff erent contexts. In Sinai three important issues we need to consider. The marginalization of the Bedouin people in Sinai, there are always grievances, even before the Islamic State came to Sinai. Because of the peace treaty

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with Israel in 1979, we don’t have enough troops in Sinai, so the Bedouin, their culture is vulnerable all the time, so they are not adhering to the central authority of the state. So the case of Sinai is very diff erent and we have a very professional army, so we cannot say that Sinai will return like Syria or something like that. I cannot say that Sinai is the same way as northern Nigeria for example. Sinai is diff erent. It has its own grievances. We can say that.

But the only problem here is the strategy of the suicide bombers, the so-called lone wolf strategy, because you cannot guarantee that you are going to control any potential suicide bombers. So anyone in Cairo could blow himself or herself up, so you cannot control it, but this is very dangerous and it is a common strategy between Daesh and Al-Qaeda.

This is the case just to give you an example of one of the associates, Boko Haram, I’m going to say just two sentences about Boko Haram because I could speak for one hour.

What is the diff erence? There is a regional coalition fi ghting Boko Haram from African troops. It’s boots on the ground. But in the case of Daesh, you have the international coalition using airstrikes. You cannot defeat any army or guerrilla people using airstrikes. What is needed in order to defeat Daesh is boots on the ground, ground forces. So why is the African front succeeding? They are gaining. Again, it’s the Boko Haram because they have regional army, so the African Union devoted forces, more than 7,000 troops to fi ghting Boko Haram, so they are fi ghting them on the ground.

But again, it’s the idea of Boko Haram. It represents the same tracks like any Islamic discourse transformation, starting from Salafi sm to political Islam, to more radical groups, so it’s the same. They started, I wrote in 2009, when they started, I wrote a piece, “the Taliban of Africa.” So when they started they were to consider the Taliban as a Salafi st group, just looking for adhering to the teaching of the Prophet and the companions and trying to realize it on the ground.

But later on, they became more politicized and to say, oh, Boko Haram. Boko means the Western education is prohibited. So they considered, so here you can fi nd the link between Al-Qaeda, which consider, you see, Al-Qaeda consider the Western as Crusader and Boko Haram consider Western education as prohibited. So there is always a link between these kinds of thoughts, between all these jihadist groups’ common area.

So Boko Haram is an example in Africa. This is if you look later at this diagram, it gives you the same. It’s a case study of the theory about the transformation of Salafi sm into jihadism, so this is applying here to the case of Boko Haram.

I’m not sure if I’m using my time properly or you give me some more time. Okay? A couple of minutes.

What lessons? What is needed? And what are the future scenarios? This is very important.

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What lessons? We have diff erent contexts, historical, geographical contexts. We cannot use the same strategy in fi ghting Al-Qaeda like Boko Haram. They are diff erent. Yes, they have some commonalties but we need to develop diff erent strategies in order to fi ght these organizations. But when you come to the people in the media, they don’t have the diff erence between Boko Haram and Al Shabaab. Al Shabaab in Somalia is a diff erent case. So the people in Mali, they have their own cause. They are not radicalized. They are fi ghting for their own rights because they are a minority, so we are not going to put the minorities’ struggle like those who are fi ghting for the glorifi cation of the past to have this imaginary caliphate. We need to do the diff erentiation between these diff erent groups of jihadists. This is number one, very important.

Number two, we need to invest in minds, in education. Education is a must because what I have seen is focusing on militarization, using security solutions. What we have seen in Africa, in Iraq, you are fi ghting Daesh with weapons. We need to have a soft approach, how to eliminate the ground that led to Daesh. It is education.

I am a university professor. I spent all my career in education. We need to invest in education. This is the longest path, like my colleague said. We need to invest in it. How to correct these images. How to disseminate tolerance, respecting human people as such. But when you have this kind of education, raising young people hating each other, like Sunni and Shiaa, like Christian and non-Christian, this is not the right way in order to fi ght radicalization. If you are in Europe or non-Arab countries or non-Muslim countries and you have Muslim communities, please integrate them with the whole society. But what we have is a kind of segregation. They are living the same way, the same life, as if they are in their home countries, so we need to change the strategy in order to fi ght, not only violence but generally speaking radicalization.

What is wrong about the Western approach is they are focusing on fi ghting violence, and this is a charge of the security department, the police department. No, it is not. It is the charge of the social services department, how to socialize people, how to integrate people. How to invest in education. So the issue here is a long-run soft approach rather than the hard approach. This is the second lesson I focus on.

We need to think out-of-the-box because we are repeating the same story. Even in academia there is over-simplifi cation – oh, these people are very poor, they have despotic leaders, they are not democratic, this is why we have radical groups. Yes, an oversimplifi cation. No, it is more complex than that. It is not an issue. I am not saying that poverty doesn’t matter. No. Development, it matters, it matters a lot. But this is a holistic approach. We need to invest in it in the long run, verily speaking, with the security solution.

What are the future scenarios? This is my last point. I can foresee three scenarios. The

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worst case scenario, which will not only leave Iraq drenched in chaos as it is, but leave the possibility for further expansion of the IS’s territories. According to this scenario, the continued and emboldened prescience of the Islamic State in Iran will largely undermine the Iranian presence there, and infi ltrate Iran’s Lebanese and Syrian infl uences as well. Whatever regime will take hold of Damascus will have weakened ties with Iran, and militaristic prescience of Hezbollah will be reduced to a political one.

- The second scenario will ensue a renewed presence of US military in Iraq, in a second invasion, justifi ed by the ineptness of the Iraqi government in combating terrorism. This will allow the US to reinforce its air strikes will on-land combat strategy, but would also mean a compromise to the sovereignty and independence of Iraq.

This scenario, however, proves itself unlikely since US troops had already seen an exit from Iraq due to severe military and fi nancial loses. The US seems unlikely to retreat from their strategic position to fl y troops from Iraq, especially which their strategic interests are still left unharmed.

- The third and most probable scenario, would see the division of Iraq into three autonomous states. The fi rst would be a Kurdish states, as is already happening and awaiting offi cial recognition. The second would be a Sunni state, covering the territory that IS has claimed, including Anbar, Nenoy, Slah Eldin and Bakouba.

So I am not optimistic about the future, because what we need is a long-term strategy with a soft approach in order to fi ght these radical groups.

Thank you for your patience and listening to me. I know this is a long story to be told, but I’ll stop here and I’ll leave time for Q&A. Thank you very much. [applause]

柳原 ハムディ教授、ありがとうございました。

 (コーヒーブレイク)

柳原 次のセッションでは沖祐太郎氏にご報告をいただいた後、 3名の方にコメントをいただきます。パネルディスカッションでご質問をいただきますので質問票に記入の上、ご提出いただければと思います。 沖祐太郎氏は九州大学法学部卒業、大学院へ進まれ、今年 4月から九州大学法学研究院の講師を務めておられます。学部の 3年から私のゼミに入っております。つまり 8年間くらい私の弟子を懲りずにやっていることになります。イスラーム国際法の歴史を研究していまして日本でアクティブにこの分野の研究をしている唯一の研究者だろうと思います。今日の報告は「カリフ制国家と国際法」というタイトルです。それではよろしくお願いします。

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カリフ制国家と国際法(Caliphate and International Law)

沖 柳原先生、ご紹介をいただきありがとうございます。佐藤先生、このような場を設けていただきありがとうございます。会場の皆さま、お忙しい中、お集まりいただきありがとうございます。先のお二人のご報告とだいぶ重複するとところがあるかと思いますが、一部見解が違うところもございますので聴いていただければ幸いに思います。今回の報告は「カリフ制国家と国際法」という標題です。 2015年 1 月、イスラーム国によって二人の日本人が拘束され解放のために身代金が要求されていることを示す動画がインターネット上に公開されました。それ以前からイラクやシリアの政情について報道がありましたが、多くの日本人にとってイスラーム国に注目するきっかけとなったのはこの人質事件だったと思います。この事件の顛末は皆様もご存じのとおりですが、そこに現れていたように日本におけるイスラーム国への関心は基本的にその残虐性に向けられたものでありました。国際法学の観点からイスラーム国を見る場合にも、この関心は一定程度、共有されていまして残虐性の帰結でもある国際人権法、国際人道法への違反行為に注目が集まることが多くなっております。あるいは、後に検討しますが、イスラーム国を打倒するという名目でなされるアメリカや有志連合の空爆の合法性が議論されることもあります。しかし「『カリフ制』という、実にイスラーム的な政体を宣言しているイスラーム国について、このような既存の国際法の適用を前提とした議論のみで十分なのであろうか?」ということが本報告の基本的な関心であります。より根本的な問題があるのではないかということを少し検討してみたいと思っております。 このような問題意識の下でイスラーム国と国際法の関係について検討していきたいと思います。具体的には、報告の構成としまして 3つのパートに分けています。まずは、前の報告と重複しますが、イスラーム国の来歴を概観したいと思います。 2番目に今述べました空爆の問題など、イスラーム国に関連しうる国際法上の論点につき概観しまして、最後にイスラーム国の最も重要な特徴であると私が考える「カリフ制」、それと国際法の秩序がどういう関係に立つのかを検討したいと思っております。 それでは、イスラーム国の来歴について1)ですが、日本におけるイスラーム国の関心は基本的に2014年度以降に急激に高まってきたと思います。そこでのイスラーム国に対する一般的なイメージは日本人、欧米人を対象にしたテロ行為、外国人を対象としたテロ行為を行う組織であって、極めて残虐な集団であるというものであったかと思います。確かに残虐性は我々の目から見て疑いえないのですが、イスラーム国が常に日本や欧米諸国を対象とした国際的なテロ組織であったかというと決してそうではありません2)。むしろ当初、イスラーム国の活動はイラ

1) イスラーム国の来歴について本報告では、吉岡明子・山尾大編『「イスラーム国」の脅威とイラク』(岩波書店、2014年)に所収の諸論考に大きく依拠している。

2) 酒井啓子「「イスラーム国」はイラク戦争とシリア内戦で生まれた」吉岡明子・山尾大編『前掲書』、6‒7頁。

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クやシリアなど一国内にとどまるものでありました。イラクやシリアなど一国内に留まるものである限り、これはイスラーム国の行動は国内問題に止まるということが基本的にいえます。もちろん現在の国際法学において仮に国内問題であったとしても国際法が全く関与しないというわけではありません。ただしその関与は当然ながら制限的なものになります。しかし周知のようにイスラーム国の活動は徐々に国際的な性格をもつに至っておりまして、以下ではイスラーム国はどのような起源をもち、どんな政治的背景のもとで拡大してきたのか、そしていかなる国際的な性格をもつものになったのかという点を中心に確認していきたいと思います。 まず、イスラーム国の誕生にはその背景としてイラク戦争、そして戦後の政治プロセスが大きくかかわっております3)。周知のようにイラク戦争後の2003年~2004年まではアメリカを中心とした占領統治のもとにおかれていました4)。この間の政策によって旧政権の公職にあった人々が60万人程度、公職から追放されております。その結果、大規模な反米、反占領闘争が発生します。その影響があり、前倒しで成立したイラク暫定政府下でも対立が十分に収束せず、2006年には実質的な内戦状態に入ることになります。この混乱の中、2004年、アブー・ムスアブ・ザルカーウィーという人物によってイラク西部で結成されたのが「タウフィードとジハード団」という組織でありました。これがイスラーム国の基本的な前身組織になるわけです。 この組織はさまざまな組織改編を経まして2006年10月に「イラク・イスラーム国」の樹立を宣言しております。この「イラク・イスラーム国」の特徴としてイラクの中部や西部の諸都市、諸県を「領土」と主張してさらには国家元首や省庁、閣僚等を設けた組織でありました。すでに指摘されているとおり5)、イスラーム国が「国家」を自称したのは2014年ではなく、この2006年でありました。このような遍歴をたどるのですが、この間にも広範な支援を得て順調に拡大してきたわけではありません。たとえば同じジハード主義をとるアル・カイーダとの関係でもそうであります。一時は敵対的な関係をとっていることもありました。なおもう 1点注目しておくべき点として「イラク・イスラーム国」設立時にもすでに当時の指導者であるアブー・ムスアブ・ザルカーウィーという人物は自らの別称として「信徒たちの長」と名乗っております。これは歴史的に「カリフ」の別称として用いられているものであり、ここに将来的な「カリフ」自称への端緒を見ることができるかもしれません。 そして「イスラーム国」にとっての転機が2011年に訪れます。その転機は2011年に起こったいわゆる「アラブの春」でありまして、 3月に「アラブの春」がシリアに派生すると、大方の

3) イラク戦争後のイラクの政治プロセスについては山尾大の一連の研究を参照。特に、山尾大『紛争と国家建設―戦後イラクの再建をめぐるポリティクス』(明石書店、2013年)、同「マーリキー政権の光と影」吉岡明子・山尾大編『「イスラーム国」の脅威とイラク』(岩波書店、2014年)、19‒63頁、同「隠された二つの「クーデタ」」吉岡明子・山尾大編『前掲書』、65‒108頁。

4) そもそもイラク占領の法的評価について、See, McCarthy, C., “The Paradox of the International Law of Military Occupation: Sovereignty and the Reformation of Iraq,” Journal of Confl ict & Security Law 10

(2005), pp.43‒74. 5) 中東調査会イスラーム過激派モニター班『「イスラーム国」の生態がわかる45のキーワード』(明石書店、2015

年)、35‒36頁。

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予想を裏切り、シリアでは激しい武装闘争が始まることになります。ここにおいて「イラク・イスラーム国」は自派、自らの一派であることを隠して「ヌスラ戦線」という武装組織を結成します。そしてこの戦線をシリアでの紛争に参加させ、紛争の過程で勢力を拡大していくことになります。2013年には勢力を拡大して「ヌスラ戦線」の一部と「イラク・イスラーム国」が合流し、「イラクとシャームのイスラーム国(ISIL)」を結成することになります。そして「イラクとシャームのイスラーム国」(ISIL)は2014年初頭からイラクに再度侵入します。当初はイラク各地で行われていた反体制集会やデモ等に混入することを行っていたのですが、当時のイラクのマーリキー政権が軍を派遣して鎮圧しますとイラク各地で大規模な爆弾テロを起こすようになります。そして 6月 9日、イラク第二の都市モスルを占領し、さらに南下する。このイラク第二の都市モスルの占拠については旧体制側、イラク戦争後の新体制によって公職を追放された人々の反発、旧体制派のクーデターとしての性格も強かったことが日本の先行研究の中では強く主張されているところであります 6)。モスルが占領されたことにイラク政府や周辺諸国は衝撃を受け、11日、つまり 2日後には、シーア派の聖廟を擁する都市であるサーマッラーにイランなどが介入することとなります。それによりサーマッラーやバクダッドへの南下は阻止されたものの、2014年 6 月29日にはアブー・バクル・バクダーディーが自らをカリフと自称し、イスラーム国の樹立を宣言しております。 しかしその後もイスラーム国の拡大は順調に進んだというわけではありませんで、モスルを占領する占領勢力の中で衝突や離反が一時、加速することになります。イスラーム国のモスルにおける支配地が失われ始めますとイスラーム国はバクダット等への南下ではなく、クルディスタン自治区などを目ざした北進を行い、その過程でヤズィーディー教徒を始め、多数の宗教的少数派がイスラーム国の虐殺等にあうことになります。この事態を受けて2014年 8 月 8 日、米国はクルディスタン自治区に展開するイスラーム国に空爆を開始します。 8月、 9月にかけて有志連合が結成され、複数の安保理決議が採択されるなど一定程度の国際的な努力はみられましたが7)、その後はイスラーム国包囲のための目立った動きはなく、国際的な協力体制も十分には進展せず、現在でも(2015年 9 月14日)モスルの奪還等は果たせていない状況であります。

 それでは今までみてきたような過程においてイスラーム国の一連の活動やイスラーム国に関係する諸国の活動について問題となりうるようないくつかの国際法上の論点を確認しておきたいと思います。以下の検討はあくまで考えうる国際法上の諸論点をいくつか概観するものであり、詳細な分析は他日を期したいと思います。 まずは一番注目されるイスラーム国による国際人権法、国際人道法違反行為であります。イスラーム国の活動には、ヤズィーディー教徒を始め、彼らにとってのイスラーム国にとっての異教徒への虐殺や強制改宗、さらには外国人、地元住民の誘拐、身代金の要求、さらには奴隷

6) 山尾「前掲論文(隠された二つの「クーデタ」)」、66‒70頁。 7) イスラーム国に関連する安保理決議については、中谷和弘「「イスラム国」と国際法」『国際問題』642号(2015

年)、9‒10頁、参照。

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制の復活など、今日の人権観念とは明らかに相いれないものが多数含まれております。国際的なNGOや関連する国連機関はこの事態を批判し、さまざまな問題点を指摘しております。たとえば2014年 9 月 1 日には国連人権理事会において国連人権高等副弁務官が「ISILと関連する組織の支配下にある地域において国際人権法、国際人道法の深刻な違反が起きている強力な証拠を収集し続けている8)」と述べ、続けてさまざまな具体的な国際人権法、国際人道法違反とみえる行為を報告書の中で列挙しております。ただし基本的には国際法は国家間の法であり、国家に対して義務を課すものでありますので、なぜ国際法の一つである国際人権法、人道法がイスラーム国にも適用可能なのかという点についての根本的な議論は高等副弁務官の報告書の中には存在いたしません。 この点について若干踏み込んだ検討を行っているのが2015年 6 月16日に人権理事会に対し特別報告者(Ben Emmerson)が提出した報告書であります 9)。踏み込んだと言っても簡単なものではありますが、イスラーム国は十分に組織化された武装集団であるため、国際人道法、具体的にはジュネーブ諸条約共通 3条とジュネーブ条約第二追加議定書に含まれる慣習法規範が適用されるといっています10)。ここで根拠として述べられているのが「イスラーム国が十分に組織化された武装集団である」ということであります。しかしこのような論理のみでイスラーム国に対する国際人道法、国際人権法の適用が本当に可能なのかは追加的な検証が不可欠ではないかと思われます11)。 次の関連する国際法上の論点ですが、イスラーム国攻撃のための諸国の介入であります12)。最も早く介入したのは隣国のイランでした13)。 6月 9日にモスルが占領された直後の 6月11日には、すでにイラクに所在するシーア派聖地を守るためにイラン軍将校を派遣しております。これはその後のアメリカによるシリアの空爆とは異なり、陸上での部隊でありますし、明確に

8) Address by Ms. Flavia Pansieri, United Nations Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights to the Human Rights Council’s Special Session on Iraq (See more at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14980&LangID=E#sthash.VXcoGs66.dpuf).

9) A/HRC/29/51.10) Ibid., para.21‒22.11) 一つ目の問題点は前提となる今回の紛争の性質決定である。この点について川岸伸「非国家主体への越境攻

撃と「武力紛争」の概念」『国際法外交雑誌』第113巻第 1 号、54‒84頁。もう一つ問題であると考えられるのは、上述のような議論をイスラーム国という非国家主体に対して国際人道法を強制する目的で用いることが可能なのかという点にある。ジュネーブ諸条約や追加議定書は、非国際的武力紛争にあっても国家が他の非国家的紛争当事者に対して義務を負うべきことを念頭においていたはずである。同じ論理で非国家主体が義務を負うべきことまで導き得るかは別途検討されなければならない問題である。またイスラーム国に国際人道法の適用を課したとして、それが実効性を得るための契機をもちうるかという点も問題ではある。非国際的武力紛争であっても両交戦当事者に国際人道法の規則を課すというのは、交戦当事者の対等性を擬制した結果である。ここに、イスラーム国がそのような犠牲を受け入れると想定し得るのかという問題がある。

12) 国際法学者による検討が最も集中しているのもこの論点である。例えば、Arimatsu, L. and Schmitt, M. N., “Attacking ‘Islamic State’ and the Khorasan Group: Surveying the International Law Landscape,” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law Bulletin, 53 (2014), pp.1‒29や中谷和弘「前掲論文」、6‒9頁等を参照。

13) イランの介入については次の文献に依拠している。松永泰行「シーア派イスラーム革命体制としてのイランの利害と介入の範囲」吉岡明子・山尾大編『前掲書』、258‒263頁。

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イラク領域主権の侵害になりうるのですが、この点についてイラク政府は「合意があった、要請があった」といっており、「イラクの国際法上の権利を侵害する」という国際法上の問題は生じていないといえるかと思います。イランはその後も2015年 3 月からティクリート奪還作戦などありましたが、シーア派民兵組織に対する指揮・軍事顧問などの名目で介入し、兵器の供与を行っていますが、今後への政治的インパクトは別として介入自体について国際法上の問題は生じていないといえるかと思います。もっともイスラーム国の占領地を解放した後、当地に現地における施設の破壊や暴行が発生したという報道もありますので、それが仮に事実であるならば武力紛争法上の問題となりうる可能性は十分にあるのかと思います。 続きまして、イラク北部への空爆という形態で行われたアメリカの介入は、2014年 8 月 8 日、イラクのイスラーム国拠点に対する空爆によって始まります。これは2014年 8 月、イスラーム国によるヤズィーディー教徒に対する攻撃、虐殺が盛んに報道されるようになったことを受けたことによります。アメリカは当初、この空爆を「人権を守るための人道的な介入である」というようにして正当化していました。しかし後にイラク政府からの合意を得ておりまして、規範的な望ましさは別として「人道的介入」は合法性の主張として必ずしも十分ではないといえますので、イラク政府の合意こそが重要であったといえるかと思います14)。 なおヤズィーディー教徒保護のための介入と関連して注目されるのが、アメリカ政府によるクルディスタン自治区への支援であります。クルディスタン自治区は現在では非常に独立性の高い自治区となっておりまして、イラク連邦政府によって剥奪されない権限をもっています。「国家の中の国家」と評されるほどです15)。ここに対する過度な支援を行うというのは、これもまた国際法上の問題は直近では生じないように思いますが、政治的なインパクトとしては大きいと考えられます16)。 そして最後に最も問題があるのがシリア南東部への空爆であります。基本的にはイラク政府からの合意が存在するイラク国内への介入とは異なり、その合法性が問題になるのが今回の空爆です。シリア政府は「空爆についてテロとの闘いに資すものであれば協力する」とか、事前にイラク政府を通じて通知を受けていたと後に発表していますが 17)、イラクの場合のように明示的な合意は存在しておりません。そしてアメリカ自身も空爆にあたって別の正当化を行って

14) もっとも、この空爆に関し小杉泰は人道的な理由で行われた介入であったからこそ中東現地での印象は最悪であったと評価している。それは、前月にはイスラエル軍によるガザ地区に対する爆撃で2000人以上の民間人が死傷していたにもかかわらずアメリカは同行為をイスラエルの自衛権行使として擁護していたことに起因する。この 2 か月の出来事を合わせて理解すると「米国はムスリムが2000人殺されても気にせず、ヤズィーディー教徒のためには急いで助けに来る」といネガティブなメッセージを与えることになってしまうのである(小杉泰「勃興する「イスラム国」と国際社会の選択」『外交』第28号(2014年)、48‒49頁)。同様の指摘は山尾によってもなされている(山尾大「前掲論文(隠された二つの「クーデタ」)」、79頁)。

15) Bengio, O., The Kurds of Iraq: Building a State within a State (Lynne Rienner, 2012).16) 酒井啓子は、既存の国家ではなく非国家主体であるクルド勢力を利用する点に、既存の域内秩序の崩壊を見

出している。酒井啓子「「イスラム国」脅威の本質は何か」『外交』第28号(2014年)、44‒45頁。17) この点については、高岡豊「「イスラーム国」とシリア紛争」吉岡明子・山尾大編『前掲書』、195‒196頁を参

照。

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おります。それは自衛権による正当化でありまして 9月23日の国連事務総長宛の書簡18)においてアメリカは次のように述べております。「脅威が存在する国の政府が」、これはシリア政府ですが、「その領域の攻撃のための使用を防ぐ意思も能力も欠く場合、諸国家は国連憲章51条に反映されている固有の個別的および集団的自衛権により自らを防衛することができなければならない」このようなアメリカによる正当化は私人に対する自衛権行使、先制的自衛権の行使の可否などといった多数の問題点を含むものであり、より詳細な検討が望まれる部分であろうと考えられます。 そして最後に、その他に国際法学者によって議論されるべき点としてあるのが、「イスラーム国はそもそも国際法上の国家とみなせるのか」という問題であります。これは国際法上の国家の資格要件をイスラーム国が満たしているかを問う議論としてなされるわけです19)。この議論においてほとんどの国際法学者は「イスラーム国は国家の資格要件を満たさない。基本的には国際法上の国家と見なせない」と議論しているわけですが、こういう議論をする国際法学者によってあまり注目されにくい問題として「そもそもイスラーム国は国際法上の国家をめざしているのか?」という点があるかと思われます。果たしてイスラーム国は国際法上の国家たることを目指しているのかということ、この点は否定的に答えざるをえないのではないかと気がします。そもそも2014年 6 月、イスラーム国は初めて「カリフ制をとる」と、そういう国家であると宣言した際に、国際法学者は「国家」を宣言したことに注目しますが、注目すべきは「カリフ制を宣言した」ことの方にこそあったのではないかと考えられます。この点について章を改めて検討したいと思います。

 イスラーム国の実際の活動の違法性や残虐性の問題とは全く別の問題としてイスラーム国がカリフ制を宣言したことは国際法にとって重要な意義をもつと考えられます。なぜなら現在の中東イスラーム世界は複数の国家が併存する主権国家体制をとっております。そして一般的なイスラーム思想、中道的なイスラーム政治思想はこれを肯定しております。しかしながらイスラーム国は主権国家体制を批判していまして、これをカリフ制によって代替しようと考えております。カリフ制とはその内容にも幅があるわけですが、「世界の政治的単一性を維持実現する全イスラーム教徒の共同体を唯一の指導者であるカリフのもとにおこうとするもの」といっていいかと思います。このようなカリフ制は当然ながら主権国家体制とは両立しません。主権国家体制を前提とする国際法の基盤もイスラーム国のこのような考え方の前では揺らぐのではないかと考えられるわけです。いま概観を申し上げましたイスラーム国の主張の特徴をより正確に把握するために以下においては、「カリフ制がいかなる政治的、歴史的背景の中で成立したものであるか。その後、どの程度、現在まで維持されてきたのか。」ということを確認するために

18) S/2014/695.19) 植木俊哉「国際法における「国家」概念と「領域主権」概念の歴史性と普遍性に関する一考察 ―いわゆ

る IS(「イスラーム国」)をめぐる国際法上のいくつかの論点を手がかりとして―」柳井俊二・村瀬信也編『国際法の実践―小松一郎大使追悼』(信山社、2015年)、45‒62頁。

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近代以前のイスラーム世界における政治理論を簡単に検討します。その後、イスラーム世界において近代以降、採用されている主権国家体制がどのように理解されているかを確認した後、イスラーム国の理解がどのように違っているのかということを検討したいと思います。 まずはイスラーム世界における近代以前の政治思想のなかで、カリフ制の議論がいつでてくるか、そしてその議論はその後どうなるのかという点についてです。632年に預言者ムハンマドが没しますと、イスラーム共同体はムハンマドの代理人、即ち「カリフ」によって統治されることになります。その後、しばらくは実態としてもカリフによるイスラーム教徒の共同体(「ウンマ」)の統治が行われていたといえるかと思います。そしてこの頃、形成されてきたのが古典的なイスラーム法学であります。イスラーム法学におきましては世界を「ダール・イスラーム(イスラーム世界)」と「ダール・ハルブ(非イスラームの世界・戦争の家)」に二分して考えます。この古典的イスラーム法学の内容を見ますと、基本的には、ダール・イスラームをダール・ハルブに拡大していくことが望ましいとされます。しかしながら、必要な範囲で非イスラーム教徒との関係も規定されておりまして20)、例えば当時の法学者はダール・イスラームとダール・ハルブという二つの「法域」の存在を前提としたムスリム・非ムスリム間での紛争にかかわる抵触法規則などについても論じています21)。 しかしこのようなイスラーム法学におけるダール・イスラームとダール・ハルブによる世界の二分法的な分類にもかかわらず、歴史の過程は必ずしもその通りには進みませんでした。初期イスラームの時代こそイスラーム共同体、即ちウンマにおいてダール・イスラームの単一性は維持されていたわけですが、アッバース朝初期以降の状況は全く異なります。たとえば、イベリア半島には後期ウマイア朝が存在しカリフを自称しますし、 9世紀には本来、アッバース朝のカリフ制の支配下にあるべき地域にさまざまな王朝・地方政権が登場する事態になります。その結果、ダール・イスラーム、あるいはイスラームのウンマ、共同体の中に複数の政治体が存在することになります。このような事態に関し、日本を代表する中東研究者の一人であった佐藤次高先生は「ムスリムにとっての世界」を、具体的な地方政権であるダウラ、それを包括する大きなダール・イスラーム、そして非イスラーム世界たるダール・ハルブにも広がるイスラーム教徒の共同体(ウンマ)という「同心円的な三つの地域からなる」ものであったと表現されています22)。

20) 「スィヤル」あるいは「イスラーム国際法」とも称されるイスラーム法の一分野である。スィヤルについての概観のためには、現在でもKhadduri, M., War and Peace in the Law of Islam (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955), idem, The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani’s Siyar, (The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966)が一般的に参照されているものの、これらの著作の問題点については、沖祐太郎「イスラーム国際法の概念と国際法史研究への示唆」『九州法学会会報』(2012年)、20‒23頁、またKosheri, A.S., “History of the Law of Nations Regional Development: ISLAM”, Encyclopedia of Public International Law, VolumeⅡ

(1995), pp.809‒818をも参照。21) 柳橋博之「ウンマ」佐藤次高編『キーワードで読むイスラーム』(山川出版社、2003年)、70‒77頁、同「イス

ラームにおける「戦争と平和の法」」歴史学研究会編『戦争と平和の中近世史』(青木書店、2001年)、273‒298頁。

22) 佐藤次高『イスラームの国家と王権』(岩波書店、2004年)、8‒9頁。

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 このような政治過程の動向はイスラーム法学の理論にも影響を与えます。このような政治過程の中で出てきたのが「カリフ制」という理論だったといわれています。つまり「カリフ」という概念が初めてイスラーム法学によって包括的かつ厳密に扱われたのはこのような時期で、10世紀から11世紀にかけてまとめられたカリフ制論は、「すでに衰退しつつあるカリフ制を擁護する23)」ためのものだったと評価されております。当時の法学者マーワルディーは「単一のカリフを選出することがウンマの集団的な義務である」と説きカリフ制の護持を主張しましたが 24)、徐々にカリフから政治的実権が離れると、カリフはウンマの一体性を象徴するだけの存在という色彩が強くなります。さらには13世紀半ばにモンゴルが侵入してアッバース朝が崩壊しますと実質的にカリフ制も崩壊します。こののち、各国家ないし各政治体を基礎づけたのは「スルターン制論」などと称される理論でありました25)。ここでは伝統的なカリフ制論に代わり、統治の目的がイスラーム法の施行と国内外の安全保障といったところに求められるようになります26)。換言しますと、もはや統治者にはカリフとしてウンマの一体性を象徴することは期待されておらず、ましてカリフが唯一の統治者であるとの規範的な主張も見受けられません。この理論状況はオスマン帝国期を経て近代まで大きく変わることはなかったといえるかと思います。 今の経緯を簡単に要約しますと「イスラームの共同体は単一の指導者に導かれ、その単一政治体であるべきだ」という理念が一方では存在していました。この理念を理論的に擁護するものがカリフ制論であり、ウンマを指導すべき人物がカリフと呼ばれたわけです。しかし現実は理念から徐々に離れ、イスラーム法の執行、安全保障という細い紐帯のみによって統治者とイスラームは結びつけられていたにすぎませんでした。今述べましたように前近代においてもカリフ制が実効的に行われていた時期は初期イスラーム時代を除くとほとんど存在しなかったわけですが、それでもイスラーム法の施行を統治の目標に置くなど、一定のイスラームとの紐帯は維持されてきたわけです。 しかし近代以降、今日に至るまで、このようなイスラーム法の伝統的な政治体理解とは適合しないように見える主権国家体制がイスラーム世界を覆っております。イスラーム的観点からみると、主権的国家体制はイスラーム世界の諸地域を国境や民族によって分断することによってウンマの一体性を制度的に放棄しているようにも見えます。現在でもイスラーム法学者の中には「主権国家体制はイスラームに適合しない」と主張する人たちはいます27)。しかし中道的なイスラーム法学者は主権国家体制をイスラーム法的に是認しています28)。たとえば、ほんの数

23) 小杉泰『現代イスラーム世界論』(名古屋大学出版会、2006年)、50‒51頁。24) アル=マーワルディー(著)、湯川武(訳)『統治の諸規則』(慶應義塾大学出版会、2006年)。25) マムルーク朝期のシリア、エジプトで活躍したハンバル派のイブン・タイミーヤに代表される理論である。

イブン・タイミーヤについては、イブン・タイミーヤ(著)、湯川武・中田考(共訳)『イスラーム政治論』(日本サウディアラビア協会、1991年)を参照。

26) 小杉『前掲書』、52‒53頁。27) 例えば中田考『カリフ制再興』(書肆心水、2015年)をはじめ、中田の一連の著作を参照。28) 以下の記述は小杉泰『現代中東とイスラーム政治』(昭和堂、1999年)、40‒42頁に大幅に依拠している。

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人のみ挙げますが、カイロ大のイスラーム史教授であったライイスは「カリフ制の本質とはウンマの統治の実態を代表する公的指導権であり、政府と国家が複数存在することは認められ、権力を個人に集中する必要はない」と述べています。同じくイスラームの国家理論の著者であるハージム・サイーディーも「イスラーム社会の状況が複数の国家の成立を求めるものであれば、それは禁じられていない」と述べています。さらにシリアのムスリム同胞団のイデオローグであり、アラブ各国に広がるムスリム同胞団全体に影響を与えたサイード・ハウワーは「全世界のウンマを統一する方途として各地域においてイスラーム国家を樹立した後、既存の国家の存在を前提に、その国家をイスラーム化した後にその統合によってウンマを統一すべきこと」を説いています。その他にもさまざまな見解が存在しますが、以上のように一般的、中道的見解においては主権国家体制が肯定ないし是認されているといえると思います。 今までの所を簡単に確認しますと、10世紀から11世紀にかけて集団的義務であるとされたカリフ制論はその後の歴史的過程を反映して「イスラーム法を適用し、安全保障を確保する当事者であればイスラーム法上是認される」というスルターン制論にとってかわられます。そして近代以降は表面的にはイスラームに適合しないように見える「近代国家体制、主権国家体制もイスラーム法に適合する」といったような議論がなされております。 ところが、イスラーム国の理解は全く異なっていまして「主権国家体制はイスラームに適合しないものである」というふうにみなしています。先程のご報告にありましたようにイスラーム国はその広報媒体として「ダービック」という雑誌をインターネット上に出しています。その第 1号29)において「世界は二つの陣営に分かれた」という標題のもとに以下のように述べています。「信徒たちの長が述べられた。イスラームのウンマよ、今日の世界はまさに二つの陣営、二つの陣地に分けられた。第三の陣営は存在しない。即ちイスラームの陣営、そして異教と偽善の陣営である」。ここからは、二つの陣営に「分けられたhas been divided」と完了形で書かれていることからもわかるように、イスラーム国によるカリフ制の宣言によってこそ世界は二つに分断されたのだと意図しててあるのだと思われます。イスラーム国によるカリフ制の宣言以前の世界では、すべてがダール・ハルブ、すなわちここでいう異教、偽善の陣営、イスラームに適合しない社会であったといいうことが前提になっていると解さざるを得ません。そしてこの異教と偽善の陣営に入る社会が採用している制度が主権国家体制であるのですから、その主権国家体制は、当然ながらイスラームに適合しない体制であると見なされていることだろうと思います。 以上で、本報告は「そもそも国際法の適用を前提にした議論以上の問題が国際法にとっても生じてきているのではないか」という問題点から出発し、検討を行ってきました。その結果、時間の都合上極めて簡単な形ではありましたが、最後に検討しましたように、「イスラーム国の主張するカリフ制のもとではそもそも主権国家体制が合法的体制とは見なされない」ことが確

29) 第一号(ヒジュラ暦1435年ラマダーン月=西暦2014年 6 月‒7 月)のテーマは「カリフ制の復活」であり、主たる記事として「カリフ制の宣言」「イラクとシャームについてのレポート」「ヒジュラからカリフ制へ」「指導権はイブラヒームの宗教共同体に由来する」が掲載されている。

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認されました。このことの意義は極めて大きいだろうと考えられます。今後への示唆といたしまして最後に二つ触れさせていただきたいと思います。幸か不幸か現在日本でイスラーム法学者として最も有名な一人だと思われます中田考氏は2012年、次のように述べられていました。「来たるべきカリフ政権をいたずらに排外主義・厳格主義に走らせず、社会の広範な支持をえられる中庸を得たカリフが選ばれるためにもカリフ再興等の妨害を廃止し、自由な議論と活動が一般市民に開かれた環境で行われることが肝要なのである30)」と。同じく日本を代表するイスラーム研究者の一人であります小杉泰先生も「国際社会を今こそ本腰を入れて穏健派イスラームとの連携を強化していくことが迫られているのではないか31)」と2014年の論考を結んでいらっしゃいました。このような路線に従いつつ、国際法学者であっても、現在の問題としてイスラーム国に関連して生じてくる国際法上の問題について分析、検討する以上に、こういうことにコミットしていく必要もあるのかもしれないなと思います。以上で本報告を終わらせていただきます。ありがとうございました。

30) 中田考『イスラーム革命の本質と目的』(ムスリム新聞社、2012年)、86頁。同書は英語版(Nakata, H.K., The mission of Islam in the contemporary world: aiming for the liberation of the earth through reestablishment of the caliphate, (Saba Islamic Media, 2009).)の他にも、アラビア語版、インドネシア語版なども出版されている。

31) 小杉、「前掲論文(勃興する「イスラム国」と国際社会の選択)」、51頁。

柳原 ありがとうございました。沖氏の報告に対してアフメド、ハムディ両教授からも異論がおありかもしれませんが、後ほどパネルディスカッションでご議論いただければと思います。

■コメント柳原 それではこの後、 3名の方々からコメントをいただきたいと思います。まず、関西大学法学部教授の西平等先生にお願いいたします。

西 ご三方の優れた興味深いご報告を聴きまして改めて「カリフ制」という概念、我々に馴染みのない概念が重要であることを教えていただきました。さらには極端なカリフ制イデロギーが、なぜ人々の支持をえるのか、その背景に注目しなければいけない。さらにその背景には「Nation Stateとして人々の福祉を向上させていくことに失敗したという背景があり、このような古いカリフ制の復興が生じているのだ」というご指摘は非常に重要であろうと思います。ただこのような抜本的、長期的な対応とは別にもっと切迫した差し当たりの問題として国際法学者が問わないといけないことは「ISというものを法的にどのようなものとして取り扱っていくべきか」ということです。これはハムディ教授が今日の報告でISについての第二のシナリオとして「地上部隊の投入によってイラクを再占領する」こと、第三のシナリオとして「分割されたイラクを承認すること」を上げられました。この問いをさらに一般化すると、どういえるか。これは、ISをアウトローとして、あるいは、犯罪者集団として扱い、それを処罰し、完全に地

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上から廃絶することを目指すのか、あるいはISを一つのオーソリティとして承認し、そのオーソリティの範囲内で国際法、人権法を遵守していくことを要求していくのか、という、二つの根本的に異なる対応のどちらを我々は選ぶのかということにかかわってきます。 このオーソリティの概念は、国際法上、重要なものでして、それをISに認めるかどうかによって敵対者としての地位が全く異なってまいります。たとえば古い伝統的な正戦論では 3つの正戦の条件が挙げられております。「正統な権威」と「正当な原因」、それと「善き意図」です。要するに正しい戦争というものは正統な権威(オーソリティ)のもとに、正しい根拠をもって、まっとうな意図をもって行われなければいけない。このうち、武装集団の地位という観点から、最も重要なのは「オーソリティ」の条件です。正当原因を備えていない戦争は違法な戦争になります。いいかえれば、違法な戦争であっても、それは『戦争』なのです。従って、そこには戦争法が適用されることになります。オーソリティを伴わない武力行使、暴力は、戦争ではなく、ただの組織犯罪となります。違法な戦争と組織犯罪の違いは、法的には非常に重要です。一つだけ例を挙げますと、違法な戦争であっても兵士は敵対行為に参加する権能を有します。すなわち、兵士は戦闘に参加したことによって処罰されません。しかしながら、組織犯罪においては当然、実際に暴力を行使した者は処罰の対象となります。ここが最も大きな違いとなります。それ以外にも、占領の権利などさまざまな違いが生じてきます。そのような法的な帰結の相違をもたらすのが、「オーソリティ」の要件となるわけです。この構造は基本的には現代国際法においても維持されております。 いうまでもなく、近代以降の国際法において戦争を行うオーソリティをもっているものは国家です。もちろん、国家であるからといって自由に戦争を行うことはできません。国連憲章をはじめとして、さまざま戦争に訴える権利を制約する国際法規範が存在します。しかし現代国際法においても、やはり違法な戦争もまた「戦争」であるわけです。正統なオーソリティのもとで行われた戦争は、たとえ違法な根拠によって開始されたものであっても、戦争であって、そこにおいて兵士は正当に敵対行為に参加することができます。ですから兵士が敵に捕まったとしてもそれは捕虜として扱われます。捕虜の最大の特徴は何かというと、戦闘に参加したことによって処罰されないこと、戦闘が終わった段階で速やかに釈放されなければいけないことです。しかし、犯罪者はそうではない。組織犯罪に加わった者は、犯罪行為への参加を理由として当然に処罰されます。犯罪行為が終わった後も、その罪に相応する処罰を受けます。さらに犯罪者集団は正当に土地を占領する権利をもちません。しかしながら違法な戦争を行っている軍隊であっても、戦争の当事者として、敵の領土を占領する権限をもっております。現在の国際武力紛争法は、占領を行う権利を、違法な戦争を行う軍隊にも認めております。このような戦争を遂行するオーソリティがあるからこそ、逆に国家は、その管轄の下にある者に、すなわち司令官や兵士に国際法を守って戦闘行為を行うように、国際法をきちんと守って占領を行うように義務づける義務を負うわけです。 ここでISの問題を考えてみましょう。イスラミック・ステイト(IS)が私たちに恐怖をもたらすのは、その行為が非常に残虐であるからです。そこで、残虐行為をどのようにやめさせて

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いくか、規制していくかが一つの大きな問題になってくる。すでに沖先生もいわれましたようにイスラミック・ステイトが国際法上、国家として承認される可能性は非常に低いと思われます。今後も特に西欧諸国によって国家として承認される可能性はあまりありません。それ以外にもオーソリティが認められる可能性はあります。たとえば民族解放団体(national liberation movement)、交戦団体(belligerency)として承認されれば、戦争を行うオーソリティが認められるわけです。しかし、それがISに認められる可能性もおそらくほとんどないだろうと思います。 そのイスラーム国(IS)に戦争法を遵守させていくという観点から注意しなければいけないことは、諸国家の政府が、ISとの戦闘において戦争法を適用したいと考えているかどうか、ということです。答えはノーです。なぜでしょうか。国際武力紛争法(戦争法)を適用してしまうと戦闘員には戦闘員資格が生じます。戦闘員資格が生じた場合には敵対行為に参加したことを理由にして処罰はできません。そんなことは政府にとっては許されないことです。政府にとってすればISは組織犯罪であり、テロリストであり、反逆者であって絶対に処罰されなければいけないわけです。もしIS側がジュネーブ条約やハーグ条約など戦争法に関する諸条約を守るならば、政府の側もそれら諸条約を守りますかというと、政府はノーと答えるに違いありません。 では、どうすべきか。このような状況においてISの構成員に対してどうやって国際人道法を遵守していくことを説得できるでしょうか。どうやって、いま行われている残虐な行為をやめて法の枠内で行動するように説得することができるのでしょうか。現在のように完全にISをアウトローとして扱う、オーソリティを全く認めないという立場をとるならば、その説得は次のようになります。「あなた方はテロリストである、あなた方は犯罪者である。あなた方は反逆者である。だからあなた方は処罰されなければいけない。あなた方は戦争を行うオーソリティをそもそももたない。あなた方が行っているのは犯罪である。でも犯罪を行うときには国際人道法を守りなさい。守っても守らなくて、あなた方は処罰されるけれども、でも守りなさい」。これはあまり説得的な議論ではありません。次にオーソリティを認めていくオルタナティブもあります。その場合にはつぎのように言うことになります。「あなた方は巨大な軍事組織を動かしている。あなた方は土地を、領域を実効的に支配している。だからあなた方は戦争を行うオーソリティがあり、あなた方には占領地を統治するオーソリティがある。だからそれ故にあなた方は戦争を行う場合、あるいは占領地を統治する場合に国際法を遵守していかなければいけません」。 後者の立場の方が議論としては説得的かもしれません。しかしそこには我々は躊躇するものがあります。ISが採用しているイデオロギー、すなわち、女性に対する組織的な差別、宗教的マイノリティに対する非常に残酷な、徹底した抑圧、非常に極端なカリフ制国家などは、今日の国際法とは相いれないわけです。しかしながら私たちが知りたいのは、このようなISの残虐行為あるいは極端な主張はある種の逸脱であって、もう少し理性的な政治体制をISはもつのだろうか。もしそうであれば我々は何らかのオーソリティを承認してISと交渉し、国際人道法あ

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るいは国際人権法の重要原則を遵守していくことを説得することができるかもしれない。これは私がもっている情報の中ではどちらがいいのか、全くわからない状態ですので、先生方にぜひ伺いたい。少なくとも現在のようにイスラーム国がかなり大きな土地を実効的に支配し、さらに非常に大きな軍隊規模の組織を動員することができる状況のもとでは、いずれ、どちらかのオプション、つまり、アウトローとして絶滅・廃絶するのか、あるいは何からのオーソリティを認めて我々の法原則を遵守していくことを求めていくのかという、二つのいずれかを選ばなければいけない。我々はそれをどうすればいいのかを教えていただければというのが私のコメントです。

柳原 西先生、どうもありがとうございました。次に日本学術振興会特別研究員(PD)の今井宏平氏です。今井先生はトルコ政治がご専門です。

今井 私がトルコに留学していた時、佐藤先生とアンカラでお会いしたのが縁でこのような機会をいただきました。本日、「トルコとイスラーム国(IS)の関係」についてコメントさせていただき、その後、三氏に若干、質問をさせていただきたいと思います。 トルコとISの関連ですが、資料として新聞に掲載させて頂いたものがお手元に配布されているかと思います。トルコはISの中継地点といわれていました。ISの戦闘員はハムディさんがいわれたように現地の人が多いのですが、外国人戦闘員もかなり流入しています。外国人戦闘員がシリアに渡る場合、トルコを通ってくる場合が非常に多いといわれています。トルコは最もISに使用される中継地点だということです。この状況を揶揄して、「ジハーディスト・ハイウェイ」といわれるのですが、トルコが望んでいるわけではないが結果的にそのような役割を果たしてきたということは事実です。ジハーディスト・ハイウェイとしてのトルコがクローズアップされたのが今年(2015年) 1月に起きたフランスのシャルリエブド社襲撃の事件です。事件の容疑者の一人の内縁の妻で、テロに間接的に関係していたブメディエンスという女性がISに渡るのですが、その際、イスタンブール経由で渡っていたことが問題視され、トルコが中継地点になっていることが国際社会で一斉に非難されることになりました。 もう一つトルコがISとの関係で注目されたのは、トルコがISと仲良くしているわけではないが、最大の敵と考えているわけでもないという点です。これはトルコ側にも事情があり、一番にトルコはアンチ・アサド政権の最先鋒、アサド政権を崩壊させるべきだと主張してきたので、ある意味、アサド政権を倒すためにアサド政権に敵対する勢力を支持してきた。その結果、ISやヌスラ戦線を強大化させてしまった部分が少なからずあります。さらに、もう 2つほど理由があります。 1つ目はクルドの問題です。反ISで重要な役割を果たすPYD(民主統一党)とテロ組織と認定されているPKK―これはトルコから分離独立を目指すクルド人のグループです―の関係です。PYDは自前の自警団、軍隊をもっていて、それがYPG(人民防衛隊)というグループの基礎だと言われています。トルコはPYDとYPGに対する警戒感が強かった。このグループがシリアにおいて力を伸ばすことはトルコにとって得策ではないということでした。去年(2014年) 9月に始まり今年(2015年) 1月に終わったアイン=アラブ、クルド名だとコバニをめぐってISとクルド勢力が闘った戦争においてアメリカをはじめとした有志連合は

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トルコに協力を求めたのですが、トルコはなかなか動かなかった。それはトルコ側の事情としてPYDとYPGに大きな力をもってもらうと困る、ということがあって、それが望むと望まないにかかわらずISに利することになってしまいました。もう 1点は昨年(2014年) 6月、イラクのモスルでトルコの領事館が占領され、49人が人質になった事件がありました。その後、昨年の今頃(2014年 9 月)、トルコ人の人質は一人も殺害されずに全員解放されました。なので、トルコとISはそれなりにコミュニケーションができる立場にあるのではないかと推測されました。 これまでISにとってトルコはジハーディスト・ハイウェイという中継地点であり、一方のトルコはISと仲がいいわけではないが、最大の敵というわけではないという立場でした。それが今年(2015年) 7月20日、トルコのシリアに近いスルチという場所で、トルコ人のIS信奉者によるテロにより32人が亡くなる事件が起きました。この事件からトルコは反ISの立場を明確にしてアメリカと協力する姿勢を打ち出します。具体的にどういうことをしたのか。トルコのアダナというところにインジルリク基地という、冷戦期、対ソ連防衛のために建設された基地がありますが、この基地はシリアにほど近く、アメリカはこの基地を対ISのために活用したいと前から主張していました。スルチの事件後、トルコはこの基地の使用を許可しました。さらにトルコは対ISの空爆にも参加することを表明するとともに、トルコとシリアは910キロ国境を接しているのですが、国境管理を徹底することをトルコとアメリカの間で確認します。トルコとシリアの間の国境は、「穴の空いたチーズ」と表現されるほど、どこからでも入れるようなもろい国境でした。このように、国境管理をしたり、空爆に参加して、トルコは対ISの姿勢を表明します。これによって、IS側も名指しでトルコを非難するようになる。現在(2015年 9 月)、トルコは反ISの立場を鮮明にしており、先月( 8月)28日から有志連合の空爆に加わっています。しかし、まだそれほどISに致命的なダメージを与えることをしていないので、もしかしてまだトルコはISに対して煮え切らない態度をとっているのではないかと見られている部分があります。 とはいえ、反ISの立場を鮮明にしたことはトルコとISの関係において重要でした。加えて、トルコの宗務庁(ディアネット)が 8月中旬、「ISはイスラームの中でも非常に過激で急進的な集団なので彼らのいうことは信じないでください。彼らに共鳴することは一般のムスリムではありえません」と民衆に注意を促すレポートを出して、ソフトパワーでISに反論しました。このように、ISに対して共感を抱く人々をブロックする措置をとり始めています。 また、トルコのISとシリアの関係で問題なのは難民が多いことです。トルコはシリア難民を最も受け入れている国で、現在では(2015年 9 月14日)シリアから170万人、イラクから20万人、全体で200万人近い難民がトルコに流入しています。彼らをどうするか。「自分たちはこれだけ難民を受け入れている。お前たちは何をやっているんだ」とEU諸国や近隣諸国に主張しています。ただトルコ自体も経済的に限界があって難民をどうするか。アメリカの有志連合に加わってISに対するフリーゾーンをシリア領内につくって、そこに難民を帰還させる計画をたてています。ただ、どこまで実現可能かわかりません。これが現在のトルコのISに対する立場

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です。 今日の 3名の方のご発表に対してハムディ氏とダウーディ氏に対して 2、 3点コメントをさせていただきたいと思います。もちろんISの戦闘員は現地の人が多い。とりわけイラク戦争までフセイン政権にいた人たちやスンナ派の人が多いといわれます。ただ外国人も多い。ヨーロッパから来るヨーロッパ在住のムスリム、別名ユーロ・イスラームといわれる人たちはどうしてこんなに現状に不満を常にもっているのか。ユーロ・イスラームに対するヨーロッパ諸国の政策を根本的に考えないと、こうした流入は止められないのではないかという点についてどう思われるかお尋ねしたい。ダウーディさんのお話では「怖いもの見たさ、アドベンチャー的にISに加わりたいという若者も多かった」ということでしたが、最近の報道では戦闘経験がない人がISに行ってもぞんざいに扱われて、結局、殺されたりする場合も多くあるので、ISの求心力、ソフトパワーはそういう報道で低下している部分もあるのではないか。この点についてどう思われるかお伺いしたいと思います。 もう 1点、バグダーディーですが、ザルカーウィが死んだ後、アブー・ハムザム・ムハージルとかアブー・ウマル・バグダーディーという指導者がいて、その後に今のバグダーディーが出てきたといわれている一方、ISにはチェチェンやコソボ、ボスニアで戦闘経験を積んだ軍人がかなり多く入ってきていると言われています。彼らに対してバグダーディーはカリフとしてどこまで正統性、力や影響力を行使できているのか、本当はできていなくて、カリフというタテマエ、象徴として重要視されているだけではないのか、何かお考えがあれば教えていただければと思います。 沖さんに対しては、ISは国際人権法、国際人道法違反だと言及されていますが、国際刑事裁判所(ICC)がISの行動に対して、ジェノサイドをしているとか、何かコメントを出しているのか、教えていただきたい。ISは奴隷制の復活を宣言しています。奴隷制はイスラーム社会において法的にも一応認められてきた行為ですが、現在の国際法とは当然相いれない。この点について中道派のイスラームの法学者はどのように考えているのか教えていただけたらと思います。

柳原 ありがとうございました。最後のコメンテーターは関西大学文学部教授、国際文化財文化研究センター長でもあります吹田浩氏です。

吹田 私は、ただ今ご紹介いただきましたように、文学部で文化財の修復のための研究をしております。研究対象は紀元前2360年ころの壁画であり、4000年以上昔にさかのぼります。この点で、どう考えても法律、イスラームに関する国際法のテーマには私の専門はずい分遠くにいるわけです。今回、このシンポジウムに参加させていただきましたのは、エジプトで2011年以降、「ピラミッドを潰してしまえ」とか「スフィンクスを壊してしまえ」とか、いろんな意見が出てきており、私の専門にはかなり遠いのですが、イスラームの立場から見て文化財というのはいかなるものなのかを教えていただきたいという思いからです。コメントを少し一般的な形からさせていただきたいと思います。 ISの話に関連して、カリフの宣言が出されてことが取り上げられました。私はエジプト学者

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ですが、当初大変新鮮な感じを受けました。これは、発表の中でもアラブ世界の世俗国家が腐敗しているという話もありましたし、また調査地で一般の人に聞きましても、何か困ったことがあった時には政府ではなく、イスラームの団体にお願いするとよく聞いていたからです。そういうこともあり、どうも既存の世俗国家はパッとしないため、ISが出た時には新鮮に感じたことを覚えています。それから何年もたってISの実態がわかってきました。残虐なことをすることがはっきりしてきているのに、なぜ今でもISは残っているのか、なぜ外国人がそこに流入し、参加するのか、もっといえば住民はなぜ反抗しないのかということが、素朴な意味ですが、不思議に思っております。戦闘員も報道によりますが多くみても 3万人少しくらいということですから普通の戦争を考えれば大変少ない数だろうと思います。ISは本日の発表にもありましたが、主に領域内だけでイスラーム化をしているという点で特異なんですが、どれくらい住民からの支持があるのか。そのへんをもう少しお聞きしたいと思います。 それに対して今日のお話では教育が大事だというご指摘がありましたが、それは結論の部分であったように思いますが、どういう教育をお考えでしょうか。沖先生の話にもありましたが、イスラームの中にはダール・イスラーム(イスラームの家)、ダール・ハルブ(戦争の家)の分け方があるとおっしゃられました。教育が大事だということは間違いないと思いますが、そのような 2つしかない分け方をしてしまうと非イスラーム教徒はそこで共存できるのか、対等な形で共存できるかと思ってしまいます。かかわっている文化財も同じことで文化財はその中でどのように扱われるのかが気になるところです。 もう一つ、お聞きしたいのは、いずれの国においても国家が外国と対立し、試練に会うと復古主義が出てきます。「昔はよかった。昔に戻れば何とかなるかもしれない」という考え方はいずれの国でもあるだろうと思います。日本も「王政復古」という考え方がありました。尊皇攘夷、外国を追い払い、古い王を尊ぶという訳です。現実に戦争をやるのですが、イギリス、フランス、オランダと戦争をして勝てない。自分たちの古い昔に戻ろうという考え方だけではだめだとなり、国際的な考え方を受け入れる方向に進むことになったと思います。日本でいうと和魂洋才、心の中は日本だが、技術は外国のものを受け入れる。多くの国はそうなるだろうと思います。どうしてISはそういう考え方をしないで、ひたすら過去に戻ろうとするのか、素朴な意味で疑問に思っています。私がエジプト学者で紀元前2400年の時期を扱っていますので個人的な関心からイスラーム法からみれば今日の文化財はどう見えるかに関心がありまして一般的な質問、コメントとさせていただきたいと思います。

柳原 ありがとうございました。それではこれで報告とそれに対するコメントを終わらせていただきます。ありがとうございました。

■パネルディスカッション柳原 それではパネルディスカッションを始めたいと思います。このセッションでは事前に 3名の方に質問を出していただくようにお願いしています。最初はカイロ大学教授のリハミ教授です。

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Riham Bahi: Hello, everybody. I have some comments if you allow me, please, and also some questions. I want fi rst to clarify some of the concepts because they have been repeated throughout the day without clarifying their meaning. For example, caliphate has been used as an ideology, and it is not an ideology; it’s a political organization that existed before the nation state, like the tribe, like the empire, like the city state. It’s just a form of a political organization that existed before the nation state.

Also, the Muslim world, a lot of people have been using the term Muslim world as if it is some contained area, which it’s not. The Muslim world is a big concept. Even Obama

when he came to Egypt to speak at Cairo University in 2009, he could not use the term. He used instead Muslim communities, because who is the Muslim or what is the Muslim world? The Muslim world includes the traditional Muslim majority communities in the Middle East

as well as the traditional Muslim minorities in China, in India, as well as new Muslim communities in the West, like in the United States and Europe. All of this represent the

Muslim world, so it’s not just the Middle East when we say the Muslim world.Also, the concept of the ummah, we use it as something, but it means Islamic

transnationalism, like there is transnationalism everywhere. Now we have European transnationalism, trying to move beyond the nation state and creating an identity above the state, a European identity. So the concept of the ummah doesn’t have to be in the form of a state. Already there is a scholar, he is named Peter Mandaville, he wrote a book called “transnational Muslim world: reimagining the ummah”. Already there are transactions between Muslims worldwide that can make us argue that there is an ummah going on. There is another book by Miriam Cooke, Muslim ummah from hajj to hip hop. There is also ummah going on on the translocal level, between Muslim communities communities, not between states.

Also the concept of the dar al-Harb and dar al-Islam. It has been used throughout the day as if it’s a part of the Muslim ideology. It’s not part of the original text. It’s a contribution of one of the scholars, and what it means is that the word was divided from his perspective into two houses, one house where Muslims feel secure that they can practice their religion freely, and the other house where they feel threatened, oppressed, tortured, and this is the house of war. And later scholars provided another distinction which is the house of Ahd, it’s where Muslims live peacefully in non-Muslim societies. Tareq Ramadan writes a lot about this when he speaks of Euro Islam or European Muslims.

I just wanted to clarify these concepts because we based our discussion throughout the day on this.

I want also to add that there is a connection between the rise of ISIS and the failure of the Arab Spring to bring genuine democracy. We cannot ignore that. ISIS is the outcome, not

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the main issue. ISIS came after the failure of the Arab Spring to bring genuine democracy to the region.

One of the speakers mentioned that an international system or international law cannot fi ght ISIS. I don’t believe that. Why the international law is not fi ghting ISIS where at the same time it fought Al-Qaeda? We fought Al-Qaeda as a threat, as a terrorist organization using international law. We don’t need recognition, for example, to fi ght ISIS at all. We fought Al-Qaeda without recognition. And if we’re recognizing ISIS because it controls a small area on the border between Syria and Iraq, as a matter of fact we better recognize Palestine. It is now obvious that the international system is not serious about fi ghting ISIS compared to the fi rst global war on terrorism.

And also, who is the enemy? A lot of people mentioned today that the enemy is ISIS and is targeting Japanese, yes, they did. ISIS is targeting the West. But ISIS is targeting actually mainly Muslims, mainly they killed are Jordanians, Egyptians, Yazidis, so those are the enemies of ISIS.

I still don’t get the strengths. I know Dr. Hamdy explained that. I still don’t get these strengths of ISIS as a group occupying just the border area between Syria and Iraq and committing acts of atrocity, just like any other terrorist groups, like Boko Haram for example or Al-Shabaab. They control Somalia. So why ISIS is that important compared to other terrorist organizations? Why do we give this ISIS much credit or much weight compared to other terrorist organizations?

And when we address ISIS we need to take into consideration the reason behind it, such as sectarianism. No one mentioned actually sectarianism today. They are divided between Sunni and Shia. Dr. Hamdy mentioned that. The absence of good governance, failed modernization, and failed democratization, and of course the Western policies in the region like the intervention in Iraq and the US occupation of Iraq. Some speakers today mentioned that ISIS is trying to bring back the caliphate in order to bring back the glory of Muslims. As I mentioned, the caliphate is just the political organization. The glory of Muslims, the old one, was based on education and scientifi c innovation and justice and other things other than the form of the political organization.

We need to be careful also about the local support. I don’t know how much local support ISIS has. Remember, the Taliban enjoyed big local support from the Afghani people, tired of war, tired of warlords, but then after many years the Afghan people got tired of the Taliban and their strict application of what they call Islamic law.

ISIS, as mentioned today, is it a domestic problem? Just a problem in Syria and Iraq and Libya and maybe the borders in Egypt or in Sinai? Or is it an international problem, hence, we need a bigger role from the international community, the responsibility to protect in the

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international law. We need intervention by the international community.The international law again needs to stand against a state. It’s not really a state but it’s

called Islamic State but it’s not a state; it is trying to destabilize the international system.Again, a lot of people mentioned today the nation state. Why this obsession with the

nation state? Maybe Japan is a nation state, but Iraq is certainly not a nation state. Iraq was three provinces under the Ottoman Empire or the Ottoman caliphate and each part of it enjoyed autonomy or self-rule. And then with the Sykes-Picot and the division and the carving of the region by colonial powers, we started to have problems of the nation state. The nation state in the case of the Middle East did not deliver, did not deliver modernity or modernization.

I would like to answer some of the questions. Somebody asked about the Muslim question in Europe and why Muslims in Europe are attracted to ISIS? I studied a lot about Euro-Islam so I would like to answer that if you allow me.

In Europe there are a lot of problems concerning Muslims. Scholars call it the Muslim question in Europe. There is a problem of not being assimilated in European society. There is a problem of imported imams as well. Those imported imams are not aware of the local context in Europe and they preach hate and this is a big problem in Europe. So there’s a lack of assimilation and there is also, Muslims live on the side, not in the mainstream of society. And there were certain events that took place like the minaret problem in Switzerland and the hijab problem in France and the cartoon problem in Denmark, and of course the Charlie Hebdo recent incident. So Muslims feel marginalized and sometimes targeted.

There is also the problem of immigrants. Tariq Ramadam wrote about the idea of Muslims; when they come from their homeland to European land, they come with their old version of Islam, what he calls village Islam.

Cultural heritage, this is how I see it. Cultural heritage, whether the pyramids or the sphinx, I see it as part of my heritage, it’s part of international heritage, and it is not to be destroyed or something to be ashamed of. It’s the development of our history. And actually, if we read Islamic text we see that Islam goes back to pharaoh times and tells us the story of when god ordered Moses to leave Egypt. He didn’t say, oh, destroy the temple of the pharaoh before you leave. It did not happen. Just the radical Islamists off er that because they have nothing else to off er. They cannot answer to the people problems. With the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt when they came to power and with the Salafi s, the fi rst thing they did was they covered the statues in Egypt with plastic. Instead of addressing security issues, economic issues, they were busy covering statues.

I think I said enough. Thank you so much for listening.柳原 すべての質問を聞いた上で、まとめてお話いただければと思います。 3人のコメンテータ

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ーから発言をしていただきます。 2番目は関西大学の竹下賢先生です。竹下 私の質問の結論としては、議論にあるようにIS国に対して将来的にどのように対抗していくシナリオを描けるか、ということで、ハムディ先生のご報告の最後の論点にかかわるものです。基本的に結論から先にいいますと、「IS国のカリフ制を現在の西欧的な主権国家体制に囲い込んでいくことが解決策の出発点になるのではないか」ということです。この点は西さんのコメントに関係していくわけですが、二つの選択肢、イスラーム国をテロリスト集団として考えるか、国家的な主権をもつと考えるか、ということのうち、一定の主権国家として考えて、その上である一定の方向性をつけていくということが十分に解決に寄与するのではないかと考えるわけです。ところが問題は、今日のお話でも議論になりましたが、国家をどういうように考えるか、ということです。沖先生の考え方とハムディ先生の考え方とは、若干ずれがあったように思います。ハムディ先生の考え方は、イスラーム国も国家を求めて国家形成を考えているというものですが、先程の沖先生の報告との関係で、先生はどのように考えられているか。その場合、イスラーム国というのはカリフ制をとるということで多分、カトリックのキリスト教社会に似た形でそれを国家というものとして考えていけば、イスラーム社会における、それに対応する国家になるのではないか。カトリック社会においてもバチカンという宗主国があるわけで、そのようなものをイスラーム国でも考えることができるわけで、そうするとカリフ制国家というよりも、地域にできた分派的な国家に対応する主権国家的なものを設定して、それらにイスラーム国を分解することを考えていきます。それによって、統治体制を正常化していく方向性が考えられるのではないかと思うのですが。この点について、 3人の先生方のご意見をお聴きしたいと思います。

柳原 最後の質問者は関西大学の中野徹也先生です。中野 一つはハムディ先生に。 3番目のシナリオで「イラクを 3つの自治地域に分割する可能性がある」と指摘されています。これは、イラクが 3つの主権国家に分割されると予想されているのでしょうか。そうだとすると、イラクはそのシナリオに反対しないのでしょうか。 次に沖先生に。現行国際法上、イスラーム国は国際法上の国家と見なされないとのことでした。もしそうだとすると、どの要件が欠けているから国家と見なされないのかをご教示いただければと思います。また、国際法学者は現在の問題として「イスラーム国の活動に関連して生じている問題を分析、検討する以上のことを求められているのではないか」と結ばれています。具体的にどのようなことをすればいいか。主権国家体制に代わる体制、イスラームに適合するものを我々は考えるべきなのかという点についてお教えいただければと思います。

柳原 たくさんの質問、コメントが出ました。 3人のスピーカーの方にお答えいただければと思います。報告者から整理をしてお答えをお願いします。最初にアフメド教授からお願いします。Ahmed Al-Dawoody: Thank you very much. Actually I’m a bit afraid that the discussions of

such sensitive and touchy issues sometimes leads into further misconceptions and misunderstandings, but the starting point here or the starting question would be, is the Islamic State really Islamic? Or this is a misnomer? So this should be the starting point

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actually.And this leads us to the further question about the categorization or the legal status of

ISIS or the Islamic State. I will approach this question from the perspective not of international law but from the perspective of classical Islamic international law.

In fact, classical Muslim jurists, in a number of internal hostilities categorized four diff erent categories of civil wars, and the cornerstone issue here would be where the Islamic State would fi t here. Would they be legally, according to Islamic law, categorized as rebels or would they be categorized as a terrorist group? Because as mentioned earlier, if they were recognized as rebels, they would have legal status and then they would not be punished for their recourse to acts of violence.

And actually, second and third classical Muslim jurists have developed a full-blown Islamic just war theory, studied by classical Muslim jurists under the title of al-jihad or al-siyar, and actually they have set the ground for the category that would be categorized as rebels and they have certain conditions that of course would not be satisfi ed here in the case of ISIS, and for this particular reason, ISIS would be categorized as a terrorist group.

And because the classical term for ISIS would be khawarij (violent religious fanatics) because in the early Islamic history, a certain group arisen which adopted similar terror-oriented methods and tactics and indiscriminately killing people or considering people as heretics on the basis of their diff erences of opinion. The Islamic law of internal armed confl icts will categorize them as illegitimate warriors, so they have no legal status, unlike of course the rebels who would have no punishment at all in Islamic law.

But again, we also have to diff erentiate here between the theory and practice of Islam. Usually the mistakes here are committed by so many Muslims and even specialists in the study of Islam that sometimes they confuse classical Islamic theories with the practice of Muslims. For example, when we speak about the dar al-Islam versus the dar al-Harb distinction, or when we speak about the caliphate as an Islamic political system or an Islamic political institution, these are archaic institutions and terminologies that were hardly adopted by any among them now, the mainstream Muslims at the moment.

And actually, as I said in my presentation, the mainstream Islamic institutions in the world are very much perplexed by the mere fact of ISIS calling themselves Islamic. Actually, the description of Islamic is completely misleading because all they have been doing is contrary to what Islam is.

But again, is ISIS a true representative of Islam? Or what happens here in the case of Islam? Is it unique to the case of Islam? Has this kind of phenomenon existed in other parts of the Islamic history or in other parts of the world? As I said, again, it did exist in the Western experience, like 500 years ago, because again it was about how to fi nd a place for

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religion in their society, and my description here is the Muslim world is struggling now in order to fi nd a paradigm where they could adapt the religion of Islam in the modern world.

One of the reasons that has led to this phenomenon is what I would describe in many parts of the Muslim world is the decades of the failed states in the Muslim world to provide services, even to provide education.

So again, because I received some questions here which hint that ISIS represents Islam or their actions and justifi cations represent what has been told by Muslims, and actually this is absolutely not true because we cannot take Islam from a tiny minority of 1.5 billion people. Their actions should be subjected to what Islam says, and what they are doing is in stark contradiction to what Islam says in terms of the regulations of the Islamic use of force. If we study the Islamic just war theory we will fi nd that classical Muslim jurists have developed rules that regulate recourse to the use of force, who is to be fought, the use of indiscriminate weapons, but what ISIS is doing is completely un-Islamic and of course has to be fought.

But the point here is, where is the role of the Islamic institutions or the Muslim world? This is something of complete disappointment to me, and at the same time, where are the actions that should be taken by the governments in Iraq or Syria or the rest of the Arab world or the Muslim world, even the international societies.

For some reason sometimes, I believe that some countries or some powers have an advantage in the continuation of the ISIS presence in this region. So some countries make use of ISIS as a proxy power to fi ght against certain regimes, like ISIS for example could be used as a tool to oust the Bashar regime, for example. And after this, they might take an action, but until this happens hundreds or thousands of victims have been brutally killed, the religion of Islam itself, becomes the victim of their brutality, and as we see in many parts of the Muslim world now, many people think that this is a true representation of Islam.

So if we want to judge what is Islam, I think we have to relate or study what Islam says, but at the same time we have to understand that Islamic theories and concepts developed throughout history such as the concept of jihad, the concepts of the dar al-Islam versus the dar al-Harb. I think the absolute majority among Muslim scholars would say that this distinction or this dichotomy has fallen into abeyance after the establishment of the United Nations. There is no dar al-Islam versus the dar al-Harb now.

Again, what is the criteria for a dar al-Islam or a dar al-Harb? As Dr. Riham said, many scholars, classical Muslim jurists from the second century, would say dar al-Islam is the place where Muslims feel safe and they can practice their religion. This is why some radical Muslim groups about three decades ago have coined a new phrase: the far enemy versus the near enemy, al-Adw al-Ba’id vs. al-Adw al-Qarib. What is meant by the near enemy is the

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Muslim leaders who suppress the Muslim citizens who cannot live according to their certain beliefs and practice their religious freedom.

So again, I would say that this case of terrorism in the Muslim world has to be approached in the manner adopted by medical doctors. You have to investigate the case, you have to have the x-rays, you have to see the history of the disease, and then you have also to analyze their psychology, the psychological motivations behind these terrorists. When we do that, it does not mean that we agree with them. We are just analyzing it, in order to fi nd a solution to it. So these are just some of my comments and I think I stuck to the time.

柳原 次にハムディ教授、お願いします。Hamdy Hassan: It’s my turn. I have three general observations that maybe answer many

questions addressed to me and my colleagues. The fi rst issue is the dilemma of the conceptualization and legalization of the so-called Islamic State (IS). I know that some of my colleagues here in the room are from the college of law or from an international law background.

First, there is a contradiction between the Islamic State and the current international law because by per se it is an anti-nation entity. The Islamic caliphate doesn’t recognize national borders because they believe in the ummah, which is binding by religion. Anybody who is a Muslim or having Pledge of Allegiance (Bay’ah) for their caliph, he or she will be part of their own visionary or imaginary empire state. So you cannot consider it as part of the current international system.

I need to put it, according to my political science background, into a broader issue of the non-state actor. So what is the diff erence according to the international law between Daesh or Hezbollah in Lebanon? Or the other groups in Africa like Boko Haram, they are occupying lands but they are not a state. But there is a kind of defi nition on how to treat them. So according to the Rome Convention, establishing ICC, the International Criminal Code, you can treat them as criminals, you can seek them for justice.

And also, according to the the regional organizations such as the African Union, It would be impossible to accept the Existence of IS as a legitimate state. The Africans will never recognize any regime that comes from unconstitutional changes, through a coup d’état or any form of armed violence. So it is solved.

But the problem here, it is not the rules of international law. It is the politics of international relations. The rule of hegemonic power. For example, you have the politicized responsibility to protect. According to this responsibility to protect, which came into existence after the cold war in order to save the interests of the United States and Western powers, they intervened illegally in Iraq. The invasion of Iraq was against the rules of international law. They never sought any authorization from the United Nations when they

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intervened in Libya. In Libya, the authorization was to protect the civilians, so instead of protecting civilians, they wanted to change the regime, so it became regime change.

So look here at the double standard of the international relation or the hegemonic powers in international relations.

Thus, if you want to legalize the Islamic State, which is a terrorist organization contradicting our system, our civilized system, you have some other non-state actors. I have been in northern Somalia. There was a functioning state in Somaliland, working, delivering public goods, but the only missing component is international recognition. You are recognizing a failed state in Mogadishu, it’s a failed state, but you have a functioning one in the northern part of the country. The only missing element in order to be a state is international recognition. But because of the politics of regional powers, it doesn’t have it.

We need to look at the politics of international relations, not to the rules of the international law. This is very important because the United States of America decided that Saddam Hussein is a tyrant, so they invaded Iraq. So what is the diff erence between Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and Hosni Mubarak in Egypt? They never intervened in Egypt. Both are tyrants, yes, but this is the politics of international relations. This is an important issue.

So I cannot recognize it here, but how to treat it? Yes I can treat them by this Rome Convention, by the rules of international laws. So for example, you can see in Kenya, in many cases in front of ICC, you have the two warring parties like in Sudan or in Uganda or in DRC for example, they have the two, the non-state actors are there and you can treat them according to the international law. So it’s very dangerous if we will seek to legalize the IS. This is my fi rst point.

My second point, in order to understand these regional politics, the rule of Turkey, the rule of Qatar, why some of them are supporting IS. Now we have to look at the people’s uprising in the Middle East after the cold war. You have declining powers and rising powers.

There are two regional or three regional projects. The Turkish project and the Iranian project. So the Iranian, as Shia, they are gaining. They are controlling Damascus, Beirut, Baghdad and now they are supporting the Houthi rebels in Yemen. So it’s like a trap. They are going behind the Gulf states, and this is why the Gulf states, like Qatar, in addition to Turkey, became, like my colleague said, the highway for jihadism. This is again local and regional politics in the area. We cannot understand the whole phenomena without looking at these regional dynamics and local dynamics. Who supported IS? Many wealthy, rich people in the Gulf. They sent them money because they are Salafi s and we came to fi nd ourselves between a very complicated confrontation between Salafi sm and super Salafi sm. Yes. This is exactly what is there.

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So we need to look at the neogeopolitics of the region and its new transformation. Egypt is no more a regional power because what has happened in the Arab Spring, you have these traditional powers, are declining because of security and economic issues, but you have new rising powers. They are non-Arabs but they have their own interests. The clear manifestation of this complex situation is the polarization of Daesh as a regional issue between the Irani project and the Sunni project or the Turkish project. But who is going to fi ght Daesh? Another militia people? They are Shia, they are committing atrocities, the same way as what Daesh is doing.

At the local level, you have the consequences of misgovernance, negligence, and corruption. These radical Islamist groups always fi nd support from the local people. You have two evils. Yes. For the local people they have to choose between the two evils. Maybe Daesh is the less evil.. I have been, you know, watching when Al-Shabaab in Somalia, liberated one of the towns from the AU, the African Union, so one of the population said, we have no other choice. We have been mistreated by the government and by Al-Shabaab, so now there is no other choice for the local people to choose, and this is why they impose their own will on them. This is another point.

The third point is very important, as I said,: education. What is needed in our political thought is a genuine revival project. I’m going to quote a very intellectual Muslim scholar from South Africa, Farid Esack. He was born during the apartheid era, and this is why he is more acceptable to live in harmony with other cultures. So Farid Esack told us, and this has been mentioned many times, the dichotomy in our traditional political thought, between two paradigms, we have been taught everywhere, there are always two paradigms in Muslim political thought.

The fi rst one is the paradigm of Mecca where Muslims were minorities, oppressed, and marginalized by the kuff ar (unbelievers), and this is the oppression. Always Muslims who are in a minority situation feel oppression, feel suppressed.

And then the other model, which we inherited from this traditional kind of thinking. This is always political thought – this is not a verse in the Koran – is the Medina model. When the Muslims emigrated to Medina they called it the Medina paradigm where the Mulsims became the majority, so this is resembling the two houses of Islam: Dar al-Kufr (land of disbelief) and Dar al-Islam (land of Islam). But we forgot another paradigm.

Look at this one. When the Muslims emigrated to Abyssinia, the current day Ethiopia, Ethiopia was not a Muslim country at that time. It was under a Christian king, so the Muslims lived in a non-Muslim country, in peace. And even after the Prophet emigrated to Medina, they preferred to live there in a non-Muslim state. So we have a third paradigm representing coexistence, harmony, tolerance we’ve never been taught in our schools. In our

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jurisprudence we’ve always been taught about this dichotomy between our enemies and our fellow Muslims. We and they. This is the kind of education, my brother, who asked me about what kind of education? We need to teach our students critical thinking because look at this Salafi st group. One of the main titles of a Muslim Jurist is, “The Superiority of the Knowledge of the Predecessors Over the Knowledge of the Successors”. So they are always looking back at the glory of the past. They want to realize these old days. This is the nostalgia of them.

So what is needed is a new kind of education because there is nothing called the caliphate in the rules of Islam. It was an invention of theUmayyad dynasty. You know, when they started the caliphate as a political project, and then during the Ottoman Empire, and now you are talking about the politicization of religion. This is the heart of our problem.

So what is needed? We need to build a new modern state. It should be secular. They don’t like it in our Muslim countries. They call it rational because religion as a base of nationalism is exclusive. That is sectarian, you exclude other people. So what is needed in the modern state, if I am a Muslim or non-Muslim or not believing in anything, I am still a citizen. I have equal rights. We are not courageous enough in order to say this.

What is needed? There is no contradiction between true Islam and modernity. Modernity, a good life, like what we are seeing here. Or, you know, one of the prominent scholars in the 20th century, Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, he was the Grand Mufti of Egypt. He traveled to Paris in France. He saw a very beautiful city, organized, everything was tidy. He said, I have found Islam without Muslims. When he returned back to Egypt, with its disorganized and chaiotic life, he said, I have found Muslims without Islam. This is what we need.

So many people looking for this kind of renewal project of the Islamic discourse but we still stick in our traditional educational system to these ideas of the past. I cannot fi nd any diff erence between the formal religious institutions in Muslim countries and Daesh regarding many Islamic issues. For example Al Azhar teaches the law of apostasy and killing the apostate. Al Azhar upholds the institution of jizya “extracting tribute from religious minorities”. Thus it has the same position regarding women, Christians and other minorities, like Daesh. So this is a kind of education we need to reform. This is a soft approach.Yanagihara(柳原): Okay, Prof. Hamdy. Thank you very much for your talk.Hamdy: I’m sorry for… [applause]

柳原 Thank you very much. [Japanese] それでは沖さん、よろしくお願いします。沖 まずは今井さんからの質問のうち国際刑事裁判所にかかわるものついてお答えさせていただきます。ジェノサイドや人道に対する罪に該当するようなイスラーム国の行為に関し、ICCは何か行っていないのかというご質問だったかと思います。この点につきましては、2015年 4 月

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8 日にICCが声明を出していまして「イスラーム国の行為は明らかかにジェノサイド等にあたり違法な行為である」としつつも、ローマ規定上ICCが管轄権を有することは困難である旨述べております。ICCが行動することが国際政治的に必要であるとか、望ましいであるとかいう話はございますが、法的にそれが可能なのかと言いますとICCはこの事件を扱うことはできない。規定上、そうなるということになるかと思います。 また、今井さんの「イスラーム国は奴隷制を復活していて、それを中道派のイスラーム法学者はどうとらえているのか」という点に関して、直接のお答えにはならないかもしれませんが、ブロコップという欧米のイスラーム法学者がイスラーム法での奴隷制のとらえ方について研究書を出しています。「イスラーム法的にも近代に近づき、奴隷制はイスラーム法的にも認められるものでなく変わってきた」という過程が描かれています。イスラーム法の「可変性」を特徴的に示したものといえるかと思います。 吹田先生のご質問の「ダール・イスラームやダール・ハルブと分けたとして文化財はどうなるか、非ムスリムと共存できるのか」。とらえ方によっては「できない」という考え方もあるのだろうと思いますが、より支持されやすいイスラーム法理論であれば、そういうことは可能なのではないかと思われます。 中野先生の 2つ目の質問。「国際法学者に求められていることは何か」という点に関してです。先生は「主権国家体制に代わるイスラームに適合する体制を構想すること」とおっしゃっていますが、私といたしましても、そういうことになるのかなと思います。イスラーム国ということは現実的にはないかもしれませんが、中庸なカリフ制の、中田先生とか小杉先生がおっしゃる穏健なカリフ制をもった政体が今後できてくる可能性もあるのではないか。そういうところとの折衷は考えてもいいのではないかと思っています。 もう一つの「イスラーム国が国家としての国際法上の要件として何が欠けているのか」という点ですが、少なくとも外交能力は欠けているのかなと思います。また、基本的要件ではないかもしれませんが、当然の前提になっている国際法を遵守する意思が今の状況だと欠けていると見なさざるをえないと考えます。 竹下先生から「ハムディ先生がおっしゃるイスラーム国は国家を目指している。沖は、イスラーム国は国家ではないと言う。その間で国家のとらえ方にずれがあるのではないか」とのご指摘を頂きました。おっしゃる通りだろうとおもいます。今回の私の報告で言及致しました「国家」は国際法上、法的にとらえられる国家でありまして、ハムディ先生が言及される「国家」よりもかなり狭いものになっています。今回、「なぜイスラーム国に対して国際法学者は戦わないのか」といったようなご批判も出ました。アフガニスタンの話も出されましたが、アフガニスタンの時でも国際法上の議論は出されていました。ただ実際に介入が行われた。なぜこの違いがあるのか。当時の 9・11のテロに伴う雰囲気があるのではないか。関係する国が直接アメリカだった。国際政治の問題になってしまうというのは、その通りですが、そういう限界が国際法にはある。その限界を踏まえた上で「ここまでしかできないから、今後、新しいレジームをつくっていく」という話もできると思いますので、弱点は弱点として受け入れる必要はある

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のではないかと思います。柳原  3人のコメンテーターの方から何かございましたら。西先生から。西 主権国家であるか、犯罪者集団であるかという区別ですが、白か黒かではなく、国際法はもっとグレーゾーンを認めています。つまり、事実上の政治的な団体を認めていく可能性がある。その場合でも、グレーゾーンにおいてどのような態度をとるかが問題になっています。たとえば国際人道法違反が認められ、ICCが処罰しようとする場合、その容疑者がいる領域国に引き渡しを要求する。それはなぜかというと領域国がその容疑者に対して管轄権jurisdictionをもっていると考えるからです。これをイスラーム国(IS)に対して行うかどうか。イスラーム国に対して、重大な国際人道法違反行為を行った容疑者がいるから引き渡せと要求を行うかどうか。それを行ったからといって国家として認めたことになりませんが、しかし何らかのオーソリティと管轄権を認めることになります。国家と認めるか否か、という一回限りの決定ではなく、国際関係の各局面において、一つひとつのところで態度決定が迫られるわけで、そこを考えていかなければいけないということです。

今井 イスラーム国が国際法上の原則を守る主体になっていくかどうか、国際社会に収斂していくかどうか、に関しては多分難しいと思います。国際社会がイスラーム国を取り込もうとする努力はわかりますが、イスラーム国側がそれを自覚していない。あえて無視する側面がある。イスラーム国が現行の国際社会に収斂することがあれば、イスラーム国に似た組織、もっとラディカルな組織がどんどん出てくるのではないかと思っています。確認しておかなければいけない点は主権国家という場合、地図を見ると日本なら日本の領域をすべて完全に日本が管轄しているようなイメージがありますが、現在も主権の空白がアフリカ、中東に多くなっています。ある意味、テロリストたちが使えるような土地は増えているので、その点を国際社会は自覚して主権の空白地域をどうコントロールするかという点にも力を入れていかないと、こういう問題は終わっていかないのではないかと思います。

吹田 イスラーム国が出てきた時に「新鮮な感じがする」と素朴なことを申し上げましたが、実体がわかってくると、とてもついていけない。またカリフがイスラーム世界に一人いる形は現実にはむつかしいのではないかと思います。先日、バハレーンにいってきましたが、現地のアラビア語がエジプトとずいぶん違いました。私の語学力では表面をみているだけですが、挨拶の言葉も違う。かなり地域差があるので、どう考えてもアラブの世界やイスラームの世界をカリフ一人で統治することは現実的ではないだろうと思います。 教育は大事だろうと思います。ただこのへんに議論があっても、なかなか日本では見えてこない。日本人にとって、ヨーロッパやアメリカでいろんな議論があることはある程度見えてくる。でもイスラームの世界にも高度な法学があって、ハンバリーとか、シャーフィーという学派があるとか知られていない。ましていろんな考え方があることは知られていない。まだまだイスラム世界と日本など他の地域との交流は少ないと言わざるを得ません。これだけイスラーム国をきっかけとしてイスラームという言葉をよく聞く時代になってきたので、これからもっとイスラームの情報がほしいし、日本の情報もイスラームの世界に提供していかないといけな

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いはずで、今はお互いに夢を見ているようなところがあるのではないでしょうか。非イスラーム教徒はイスラームについて漠然としたイメージをもっているし、日本人もアラブやイスラームの世界に、エジプトに関してはミイラとかピラミッドとか漠然としたイメージをもっているが、イスラームそのもののことは考えていない。古代のことを考えていると思いますが。そういうことからこのへんはつっこんだ交流が必要かなと感じています。

柳原 まだまだご意見があろうかと思いますが、このあたりで終えることにします。座長から二つほど。このシンポジウムは結論を出すということではないと理解しています。そのなかで、多方面からの問題の接近の仕方を改めて認識することができたと思います。とりわけ我々にとって理解のしにくいカリフ制、ジハード、イスラームの家、戦争の家の概念、ムスリムとアラブとイスラームの違いについて、かなり理解を深めることができたのではないかと思っています。 私は国際法の専門だから申し上げるわけではないのですが、国際法には、ある程度限界があることはおっしゃるとおりですが、国際法が全くなくて、ポリティックスだけで世界に秩序が保てるのか、決してそうではないだろうと思っています。国際社会における法の支配を考えると、法は確かにヨーロッパ的なものが支配してきていることは事実だと思いますが、法の支配がなくなってしまった時、力の支配だけで秩序を保っていくことは決して可能ではないと思っています。 日本の二人の人質が殺害されて日本でも関心がもたれたわけですが、その後、ISに関心がもたれなくなってきているという側面があるかもしれません。しかし、必ずしもそうではないと思っています。 1週間か10日前、ISはマレーシア、インドネシアにいる日本の外交官の殺害予告を出しました。確かにターゲットは多くはムスリムの人々かもしれませんが、日本人も含めてターゲットにされている事実もあることは認識しておく必要があります。またISだけのせいではないでしょうが、ヨーロッパに移住する人たちがたくさん発生しています。難民、refugeeといっていますが、本当にrefugeeなのか。emigrant、ヨーロッパの英語放送ではemigrant crisisといっていて、refugee crisisとはいっていませんが、日本の報道では難民といっています。難民といえるかどうか、わかりませんが、大量の移住をする人々がシリアを中心としてこの地域から逃れようとしています。多くはヨーロッパに向かっている。日本への受入れも考慮しなければいけない事態も起きてくるのではないかと思っています。 私の感想を最後に今日のシンポジウムをこれで終えたいと思います。ご協力ありがとうございました。

葛原 長時間にわたりありがとうございました。これをもちまして第 1日目のセッションを終えさせていただきたいと思います。ご熱心なご議論、お話をいただきまし報告者の皆さん、コメンテーターの皆さん、熱心にご参加いただきました参加者の皆さまに御礼申し上げたいと思います。ありがとうございました。

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■Ahmed Al-Dawoody ― 資料(1)

Al-Ni m al-Siy s wa al-Dustur f al-Isl m

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(2)

The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs

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(3)

de facto

Foreign Affairs

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(4)

Foreign Affairs

Foreign Affairs

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Al-Khil fah al- sl miyyahi Haw mish Al Daftar al-Tanw r

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(6)

Islamic Law, State and Society in Global Perspective Encounters: An International Journal for the Study of Culture and Society

Foreign Affairs

Middle East Policy

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(7)

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(8)

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(9)

Foreign Policy, Policy Paper

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sh r

ahl al- al wa al- aqd

Dabiq

Foreign Policy, Policy Paper

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Dabiq

hijrah

hijrah

Dabiq

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muj hid

muh jir

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(13)

Dabiq

ittifaq

Ummah Ummah

fitnah

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fitnah

ir sah al-d n

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j hiliyyah

Dabiq

ud d

Al-Nab al-Musalla (2): Al-Th ’ir n

ud d The Shar a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace

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diw n wil yat

Dabiq

Islam for Dummies

The Koran for Dummies

Foreign Policy, Policy Paper

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(17)

k fir

murtadd gh t

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(18)

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(19)

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(20)

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ijtih d

tajd d

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■Hamdy A. Hassan ― 資料(1)

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(2)

1 For more details about the historical roots of ISIS see: Weiss, Michael, and Hassan Hassan. ISIS: Inside the Army of Terror, New York, NY: Regan Arts, 2015 and Dhiman, S. C. Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS): Reconciliation, Democracy and Terror, Delhi: Neha Publishers & Distributors, 2015.

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2 Byman, Daniel. Al Qaeda, the Islamic State, and the Global Jihadist Movement: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2015.pp. 166-168. 3 Abu Rumman, Mohammed. Daash (ISIS): phenomenon and the truth, Amman: Abdul Hameed Shoman Foundation, 2014. 4 Marwan Kaplan, The rise of the organization of the Islamic state and regional system transformations in the Arab Mashreq, Arab policies, 2015 Issue 12,pp. 5-19.

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5 Noam Chomsky (July 8, 2008 ), It’s the Oil, Stupid! [online]. Khaleej Times, Available from: http://www.khaleejtimes.com/article/20080708/ARTICLE/307089943/1098 6 Amos, Deborah. Eclipse of the Sunnis: Power, Exile, and Upheaval in the Middle East. New York: Public Affairs, 2010. 7 Yossef, Amr, and Joseph R. Cerami. 2015. "The Original Sin: The Failure of the Arab State".

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8 Moaddel, Mansoor, and Kamran Talattof. Contemporary Debates in Islam: An Anthology of Modernist and Fundamentalist Thought. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000. 9 Moghadam, Assaf. The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.

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10 For example see: Joas Wagemakers’ book on al-Maqdisi. (2012), A quietist jihadi: the ideology and influence of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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11Moataz al-Khatib , Organization of the Islamic State : Structure and Intellectual Complexities of Reality, Available from : http://studies.aljazeera.net/files/isil/2014/11/2014112355523312655.htm

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12 Holbrook, Donald. 2015. "Al-Qaeda and the Rise of ISIS". Survival. 57, no. 2: 93-104.

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Al QaedaDefensife Jihad

Far enemy

ISbuilding the

CaliphateAppeal for skilled

people to make HijraNear enemy

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13 Hassan Abu Haniya ,Structural construction of the "Islamic State", available from : http://studies.aljazeera.net/files/isil/2014/11/2014112363816513973.htm

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(12)

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al-Forqan Ajnad Foundation

al Hayat(English)

al ITisam (Arabic)

Offi

cial Social

Media Uno

ffici

al Social Media Fo

rum

s

Jihadi & Islamic

1 Supporters 2 Large Population

3 Enemies

Regional Media Bureaus

al-Bayan radio

IS Members & Supporters

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14 Mustafa Zahran, Armed groups in the Sinai and the possibilities for expansion internally, Egyptian Institute for Political and Strategic Studies, December 20, 2015. 15 Omar Ashour, The organization of " Sinai province": military rise and political consequences - al Jazeera - July 29, 2015.

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16

17 Hamdy A. Hassan, Transformation of Islamic Discourse in Africa, Cairo: al Ahram publishing house, 2015.

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18 Ibid.

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Grand Emir

FugitivesDawa &

Recruitment Monitoring & Follow up Suicide

bombers

Invaders

Emir of Fatwa

Emir of Jihad

Commanders

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Caliphate and International Law

OKI Yutaroh Lecturer, Faculty of Law, Kyushu University

Until now various mattes concerning ‘Islamic State’ has been discussed from the viewpoint of International Law such as the serious infringements of International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law by ‘Islamic State’, legality of intervention of others states, especially United States, to the Iraq and Syria for the purpose of repression of ‘Islamic State’, and Statehood of Islamic State. Undoubtedly these issues have value of examination, however this paper argues that there is one more fundamental issue for International Law. This paper deals with this point and this is an issue concerning ‘Caliphate’. This paper shows that although the current mainstream argument of Islamic Jurisprudence and Islamic Thought explain the sovereign state system or the foundation of International Law is compatible with Islam, ‘Caliphate’ which ‘Islamic State’ has declared is incompatible with it. To develop this argument, this paper consists of three chapters. The first chapter trace the historical development of ‘Islamic State’ as a premise of the discussion of following chapters. The second chapter is about the above mentioned various matters of ‘Islamic State’ from the viewpoint of International Law. Then the last chapter ‘Caliphate and International Law’ investigate the relationship between the sovereign state system and related Islamic political or legal theory.

■沖 祐太郎 ― 資料

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The Symposium on

The Islam in the International Society

at Kansai University, Osaka,

from 14 to 16 September, 2015.

Comment on the first session

Will they comply with law, if they cannot legally act?

Taira Nishi (Professor of International Law, Kansai University) One of the most fundamental questions as to the so-called Islamic State is whether we should treat it as a complete outlaw and just try to exterminate it, punishing every jihadists of all ranks, or we should recognize it as a kind of authority to wage war and to administrate the area it occupies, requiring the organization to act within the boundaries of fundamental legal norms. The recognition of authority is a decisive element in international law of armed conflict. It concerns the legal status of an adversary, on which the whole system of norms applied in the violence depends. According to the traditional just war doctrine, three conditions are required for a belligerent to wage a just war: legitimate authority, just cause, and good intention. Among these three conditions, that of legitimate authority is the most decisive for the legal status of the belligerent. If a prince has recourse to armed forces without just cause, it wages an illegal war. The unjust war is illegal, but it is still war, because the prince has the authority to wage war. On the other hand, if a group of fighters resort to violence without any legitimate authority, the violence cannot be recognized even as war. It is just an organized crime. The same structure has been preserved in the modern international law of international armed conflict. The international law in the present day recognizes, in principle, only sovereign States as legitimate authority to have recourse to armed forces. Of course, even a State cannot wage war at will today. The Charter of the United Nations and rules of customary international law severely restrict the right to war, ius ad bellum, of a State. It is the most important principle of international law that States should refrain in their international relations from the use of force except as self-defense or as collective security. But if a State resorts to forces against this principle,

■西 平等 ― 資料(1)

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it does not lose the authority to wage war. It means that a State is recognized, even in an illegal war, as a belligerent who legitimately takes military actions and administrate the area it occupies. For example, soldiers of the State enjoy the combatant status and legitimately take part in the hostilities. If they are captured by the adversary, they should not be punished for the reason of their participating in the hostilities. The army of the State can legitimately occupy the territory of the adversary and impose levies there. Law of international armed conflict presupposes the authority of a State to wage war. Because of the authority, the State is legally obliged to let the people in its jurisdiction comply with legal rules during the war. The soldiers of its regular army can and should legally take hostile actions, even in an illegal war, without transgressing the rules of armed conflict. While the commanders of its army can legally require the obedience of the population in occupied areas to their decrees, they should, in turn, exercise the jurisdiction within the limits of international law. If the soldiers or the commanders acted without the authority of State, they would not have the possibility to legally take military activities. Now we will give the consideration to the so-called Islamic State. The Islamic State is not a State in the meaning of international law. It has never been recognized as a State, and, apparently, it will not be so recognized in the near future. The possibility that the Islamic State will be recognized as a belligerent or as a national liberation movement seems to be ignorable. Therefore, the whole of the activities of the Islamic State is not to be regarded as hostilities in the war but as criminal acts. If you ask the governments fighting the Islamic State whether they will rigidly comply with the rules of international law of armed conflict under the condition that the Islamic State soldiers should observe the rules as well, the answer must be: “Absolutely NO.” The governments never want to give the combatant status to the IS fighters. If they had combatant status, they could legitimately take part in hostilities against the governments, and they could not be punished for the reason of the hostile acts within the limits of law of war. From the viewpoint of these governments, the IS members should be punished as criminals, whether or not their activities may fall within the boundaries of law of war. One of the most serious problems concerning the Islamic State is that the organization has committed atrocities against innocent people. We have often blamed it for violating fundamental principles of international humanitarian law and human

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rights law. But, how should we let the organization respect those principles? If we tried to persuade members of the IS to comply with the principles under the present legal situation, the argument would go as following: “You belong to a criminal organization and you commit organized crimes. You must be severely punished anyway because you are a terrorist, insurgent, and criminal. But even so, you should respect the fundamental principles of international law in your criminal activities.” It does not sound persuasive very much. If we want to construct more plausible arguments to let the IS members comply with fundamental norms of international society, we should inevitably acknowledge a kind of authority to wage war. With this acknowledgement, we could say to leaders of the organization; “You have the authority to take military actions. You can legitimately order your soldiers to perform hostile activities and you can demand the obedience from the population in the area which you occupy. Therefore you are responsible for these activities. If you want to legally exercise the authority, you should make your members comply with law of war. ” Or, we could say to the IS fighters; “You have the possibility to legitimately take part in hostilities. If you act within the limits of law of war, you would not be punished for your hostile activities.” Even if they refuse to obey “Western standards,” it is possible to add an argument; “You can uphold your own standards in your jurisdiction. We respect that. But Islamic laws also demand you to humanely act even in the war. ” All of these arguments presuppose a kind of authority, or jurisdiction, of the organization. However, we cannot help hesitating to recognize that the Islamic State has any authority to wage war, seeing its systematic discrimination against women, intolerant oppression on religious minorities, and anachronistic ideology of caliphate. If these kinds of atrocities are merely deviations from a more rational political system, it may be possible to recognize its authority and negotiate with it. I don’t have enough information to know the reality of the organization. Facing the phenomena that the Islamic State effectively controls some part of the soil and mobilizes military-scale forces, we will soon be urged to choose an alternative: We will acknowledge that the organization has the authority as a political entity, and require it to comply with fundamental norms of international law, or, we will treat it as an utter outlaw and decisively take every military, political, and economic measures to eliminate it from our world.

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■今井 宏平 ― 資料(1)

出典:毎日新聞 2015年 8 月 5 日付

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ICCICC

Hamdy

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