Fossils FIN HR

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Portable Collections Program

Fossils


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Table of Contents

Checklist: Whats in the Case? 1

Information for the Teacher: 3

How to Handle and Look At Museum Specimens

An Introduction to Fossils

Information About the Specimens in the Case

Activities to Do with Your Students: 11

1 Introductory Activity: Paleo Puzzle

2 Examining and Classifying Fossils

3 Make a Fossil Cast

4 Footprint Forensics

5 Create A 3-D Geologic Time Model

6 Additional Activities and Curricular Connections

Resources and Reference Materials: 24

Vocabulary Words

Connections with New York State Learning Standards

Corresponding Field Trips

Bibliography and Web Resources


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FOSSILS 1

Specimens

Whats in the Case?

CHECKLIST: WHATS IN THE CASE?

Tabulate coral

#658

Gastropod#0042

Trilobites (2)

#0731, 0995

Fossil fish

#1380

Brachiopods (3)

#0052, 0946

Pelecypod

#0978

Echinoderm#0538

Shark tooth#1283

Baculite

#0984, 0996, 0997

Ichthyosaurus vertebra

#1278

Ammonites (2)

#0996, 0997

Eurypterid

#1117

Dinosaur footprint

#1343

Gastrolith

#1264

Oreodont jaw section

#1329


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FOSSILS 2

Specimens

Whats in the Case?

CHECKLIST: WHATS IN THE CASE?

Petrified wood

#1787

Insect in amber

#0999

Fern leaf

#0908

Graveyard

#0658

Tools & Resources

Geologic Time Chart (laminated poster) from Brooklyn Childrens Museum

Eyewitness: Fossil by Paul D. Taylor

Fossils Tell of Long Ago by Aliki Brandenberg


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FOSSILS 3

Learning to handle objects from the Museums natural

history collection with respect can be part of the

educational experience of the case. Please follow

these guidelines in handling objects in the case:

Students may handle the specimens, carefully,

under your supervision.

Hold larger specimens with two hands.

Hold them by the solid part of the body or by

the strongest area rather than by rims, edges or

protruding parts.

Do not shake objects or the plexiglass cases they

may be housed in.

Temperature differences, direct sunlight, and

water can be very harmful to museum objects.

Please keep the objects away from radiators and

open windows, and keep them secure.

Learning about paleontology by examining fossil

specimens is much different from reading about it

in a book. Specimens have the power to tell us

many things, provided we are willing to look atthem in detail and think about what those details

mean. Encourage your students to carefully

examine the fossils and touch them gently. Have

them describe the specimens shape, size, and color.

Ask them questions about what they see, and what

their observations might tell them. For example:

What do you see in the specimens? Describe

their shape, color, and structure. (It is important

that your students use visual clues based on their

observations when giving their answers.)

What do you want to know about them?

What else can you see?

You can assist this process by encouraging your

students to examine individual fossils in detail, and

to think about what those details might mean. Ask

them questions about what they see, and what that

might tell them. As the conversation begins to grow,

you can ask more questions about the specimen:

What does this fossil look like? How does it com-

pare to other specimens in the case? What kind of fossil is this? How was it preserved?

How can you tell?

Providing books and Internet access for researching

these and other questions encourages students to

make discoveries that further their knowledge about

fossils.

Guidelines for Handling MuseumSpecimens

Notes about Object-BasedLearning and Inquiry

INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER


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FOSSILS 4

An Introduction to Fossils

To the teacher

Millions of years ago, the world looked very different

from how it does now. Trilobites and ammonites lived

in New York City. Dinosaurs roamed Connecticut and

New Jersey. In Wyoming, there were ancient seas full

of fish where now there are grassy plains and hills.

How do we know all this? Through fossils!

Fossils provide us with a record of life on Earth from

its earliest times, a topic that has fascinated genera-

tions of children (and adults) and continues to inspire

movies, books, and even toys. The authentic fossil

specimens in this Portable Collections case let your

students hold in their hands a piece of ancient history.

You can use these fossils to fuel students curiosity

and enthusiasm about ancient life, and to introduce

its scientific side as well. The activities in this teacher

guide support exploration into how fossils are made,

discovered, and classified. Wherever possible, we have

also included connections to other curriculum areas,

including the arts and language arts.

What is a fossil?A fossil is the remains of an organism (plant or

animal) that lived long ago. There are the two types

of fossils: body fossils, where the organism itself or

some part or impression of it was preserved, and

trace fossils, that preserve evidence of the

organisms presence but not the organism itself.

Trace fossils are more common, since a single

organism will move around and leave lots of

evidence over time, whereas it has only one body.

How are fossils created?

The methods by which fossils are formed are quite

varied and often dramatic, ranging from simple

footprints that have hardened into molds to actual,

whole bodies preserved by freezing.

Simple burial. The organism died and was buried

under successive layers of soil. Its hard parts

usually bones or shellswere all that survived

decay. Shark and mammal teeth and tusks are

good examples of unaltered fossils.

Alteration. This is a variation of burial in which the

hard parts are dissolved by circulating water and

are replaced by minerals. If this happens very

slowly, the microscopic structures of the organismare duplicated. If it happens quickly, only the gen-

eral form shows. Fossils formed by alteration are

called replacement fossils. Petrifaction, which

means turning to stone, and involves replace-

ment of organic material by the mineral silica, is a

type of alteration.

Freezing. Organisms that froze after death and

have not changed are very rare and never very

old. They are usually mammoths and rhinoceroses

of the last ice age that fell into pits of ice and were

frozen. (There are no examples of frozen fossils in

the case.) Compression orcarbonization. Compression occurs

when layers of sediment press so hard on the

organic remains that they are flattened. At its most

extreme, the plant or animal is reduced to a shiny

black carbon film in the form of its original shape.

Many leaf fossils are the result of carbonization.

Molds and casts. Sometimes shells, tree stumps,

or other remains were trapped in sediment that



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FOSSILS 5

An Introduction to Fossils (continued)

hardened. Eventually the dead organism decayed

and dissolved, leaving a cavity known as a natural

mold. It may fill up with other sediments, in whichcase it becomes a cast.

Amber. Amber is the fossilized sap of ancient pine

trees. Sometimes it contains fossil insects or other

small animals that got trapped in the sticky sap.

Other methods. Animals caught in asphalt pits

(such as the La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles) are

fossils. So are animals that were mummified natu-

rally in semi-arid climates.

Tracks, trails, burrows, and boringsare impressions

left by an organisms movements. The most

famous fossils of this type are dinosaur footprints,

like the one in the case.

Gastroliths, coprolites, and eggs and nestsare

other examples of trace fossils. They are evidence

of the organism, but not the organism itself.

Stone tools and weapons made by ancient peoples

are also sometimes called fossils, although they are

different from natural history fossils in that they were

made by humans instead of by nature. They have

been found in many parts of the world. Some of the

oldest artifacts belonged to hunters and have been

found with the bones of extinct animals.

Why are fossils important?

Throughout geologic time the earth has been in the

process of change. These changes have drastically

altered environmental conditions and all living organ-

isms. The earth is still in the midst of many changes

that cannot be detected during the relatively short

span of our lives. Most geologic change must be con-

sidered in terms of millions, or even billions, of years.

Continents have drifted apart and together, glaciershave advanced and retreated, mountains have formed

and eroded, groups of plants and animals have

appeared, flourished and disappeared. This is the

history of our planet, and its story has been recorded

for us in fossils.

The study of fossils is called paleontology.

Paleontologists study fossils to help us understand

the life of the distant past. They use their knowledgeof living organisms to bring life to fragments of bones

and shells millions of years old. They compare the

remains of ancient life with present-day plants and

animals in order to determine what the ancient crea-

tures were like. Through their study of fossils, they

are able to identify plants and animals that flourished

millions of years ago and to reconstruct the environ-

ments they inhabited.

Fossils enable paleontologists to determine the

sequence of change and adaptation as the number of

species increased and became more complex. They

can document the evolution of elephants from pig-

sized creatures which lived 20 to 40 millions years

ago to the giants they are now. Fossils indicate that

horseshoe crabs and cockroaches, however, have

not changed in hundreds of millions of years.

Paleontologists also identify extinct creatures, such

as dinosaurs, which dominated life millions of years

ago, but are known today only through fossil

remains. The history of early humans is based on

fossil remains found in many parts of the world. Many

gaps in our knowledge of earlier life still exist, butnew discoveries are always possible as paleontologists

strive to complete the picture of the past.

Fossils are also important economically. Coal, oil, and

natural gas are all examples of fossil fuels. Coal is a

shiny black rock formed from the remains of great

trees, some 150 feet high, and other plants that

thrived in low swamps during the Carboniferous

period. Oil, which is millions of years old, is believed

to have formed from plant and animals remains.

Natural gas may have come from oil that heated up

inside the earth or from ancient plants that rotted inswamps. The topic of fossil fuels can spark lively dis-

cussions of conservation, since we are rapidly deplet-

ing these non-renewable underground resources in

our quest for energy.



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FOSSILS 6

An Introduction to Fossils (continued)

Where are fossils found?

The majority of fossils are found in sedimentary rock.

Sedimentary rock is formed from pieces (sediments)

of mud, sand, and clay that settle in layers and grad-

ually harden into rock. The sediments were produced

by the processes that wear down the earths surface.

Other rocks (igneous and metamorphic) are subject

to forces that usually destroy fossils. The materials in

sedimentary rock provide ideal conditions for preserv-

ing fossils. Remains of organisms are buried in the

sediment and lie undisturbed throughout the long

process offossilization. In many places the sedimen-

tary rock is covered with soil or glacial deposits, sofossil-bearing rock lies deep beneath the surface.

Consequently, fossil hunting is restricted to places

where the sedimentary rock is exposed, such as cliffs,

riverbanks, road cuts and quarries. Paleontologists

organize expeditions similar to those of archaeologists

to dig for fossils in areas known for their scientific

significance. Some fossils of great importance, how-

ever, have been unearthed by chance during the

course of building construction, mining, or natural

disasters that expose layers of earth previously inac-

cessible to scientists.

How do we know how old a fossil is?

The history of the Earth is told not in months, years,

or even centuries, but in millions of years. Scientists

estimate that the earth is 4-1/2 billion years old and

that life began to evolve from a few single-celled

organisms at least 3.4 billion years ago. This vast span

of time is known as geologic time. Geologists (the

scientists who study the entire history of the earth,

not just fossils) have devised a special time scale,

based on millions of years. By studying the rate at

which sediments form in bays and basins, they esti-

mated how long it took for each layer of sedimentary

rock to form. They also use index fossilsfossils thatare found only in a particular layer of sedimentary

rockto prove that different layers of rock, miles or

even continents apart, were formed at the same time.

Finally they determined that the layers fit into four

great divisions called eras. The eras are divided into

smaller units called periods. The Geological Time

Scale poster in the case shows the eras and periods,

the changing life forms in each, and the relative scale

of the eras.

Even with this scale, however, geologists cannot dateindividual fossils or rocks in years. Instead they use a

method based on the breakdown of radioactive ele-

ments (such as uranium) in the rocks around the

fossil. These elements have unstable atomic nuclei

that break down at a steady, measurable rate to form

more stable elements. By measuring the rate of the

unstable element to the stable element associated with

it, they can get an accurate measure of the age of

the rock. This is called the atomic clock method.

Words in boldface have been included in theVocabulary Words section on page 24.



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FOSSILS 7

Information About the Specimens in the Case


AMMONITES

Ammonites are extinct marinemollusks similar to the nautilus.

These small, soft-bodied crea-

tures had a hard outer shell

divided into chambers. The

colorful, pearly luster of one

of the specimens is what

remains of the inside of the

animals shell. Another specimen is embedded in

rock (called the matrix). Ammonites lived from the

early Devonian period until the end of the Cretaceous

period (about 400 to 65 million years ago). They

thrived all over the earth and were easily preserved,

so they are very common fossils. They also evolved

into different species quite rapidly. These two facts

combine to make them a very useful index fossilfor

paleontologists; since they know when different

species of ammonites existed, they can often deter-

mine the age of a layer of rock by looking at the

ammonites found within it.

TRILOBITESTrilobites are extinct members

of the arthropod family (whichincludes spiders, insects, and

lobsters). They lived from the

beginning of the Cambrian

period through the end of the

Permian period (about 542 to

248 million years ago). These

small marine animals fed on the mud of the ocean

floor. A trilobite's body was divided into three parts

the head, thorax (middle section), and tailwhich

gave the animal its name ("tri" means "three" in

Latin). Trilobites are common and well-known fossils,

with more than 15,000 species documented in thefossil record.

BRACHIOPODS

Brachiopods are small marineinvertebrates with two shells

that encase the animals soft

body (like a modern clam).

Brachiopods are commonly

known as lamp shells because

many of them are shaped like

ancient Roman oil lamps.

There are about 325 living species and about 12,000

fossil forms. Brachiopods were a dominant form of

life in the oceans for much of the Paleozoic era, which

spanned millions of years. Brachiopods evolved into

many different species, and members of the largest

species grew to more than one foot in diameter.

Billions of their shells accumulated in sea beds and

fossilized. Since fossil brachiopods are so abundant

and diverse, paleontologists use them as index fossils

to determine the age of the rocks in which they are

found.

TABULATE CORALCorals are simple aquatic ani-

mals lacking advanced organ

systems. They live together incolonies. Corals secrete a hard,

limy skeleton whose durability

accounts for the fact that they

are well represented in the

fossil record. Tabulate corals

were confined to the Paleozoic Era.

FOSSIL FISHSometime between 36 and 58

million years ago, this fossil fish

was buried in an ocean bed

located in what is nowWyoming. It was preserved in

a mud shale matrix. The brown

color defining the shape of the

fish is a thin layer of carbon

left as the organic matter decayed. The backbone

and other parts of the skeleton are visible.


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FOSSILS 8

Information About the Specimens in the Case (continued)


PELECYPODPelecypods are marine bivalves

that count oysters, mussels

and clams among their living

members. This fossil pelecy-

pod is between 13 and 25

million years old. The shell still

contains most of its original

material. It has lost much of

its color, but the hardy limy substance has changed

very little.

GASTROPOD

Gastropods are mollusks, likesnails, clams, and other shelled

animals. Gastropods have a

well-developed head and a

muscular foot, and most have

a spiral-shaped shell. This fossil

gastropod dates from the

Cretaceous period. Nothing

remains of the animals soft body, but the gloss of

its shells inner layer can still be seen in some places.

The rest of the gastropod has been replaced by

other minerals.

ECHINODERMEchinoderms are marine

animals whose bodies are

covered with hard plates or

spines. Starfish, sand dollars,

and sea urchins are echino-

derms. This specimen is a sea

biscuit that lived during the

Carboniferous period. Small

hairs that covered the body are missing, and the

original shell material and its interior have been

replaced by other minerals. The tiny holes that formthe petal design on its surface were used for breath-

ing. Sand dollars appeared in the Paleocene and, of

course, can still be found in warmer waters today.

SHARK TOOTHThis sharks tooth is between

25 and 36 million years old.

The outer layers are all original

material. According to the

fossil evidence, sharks first

appeared in the Devonian

period (385 million years ago),

when marine life was especially

abundant. Since that time sharks evolved into a wide

range of shapes and sizes. Today there are over 1100

species of cartilaginous fishes, all of which evolved

from the earliest sharks.

BACULITECollected in South Dakota,

this fossil is a piece of a shell

belonging to a baculite that

lived during the Cretaceous

period. Baculites were marine

animals related to ammonites.

Most of the original material

from this shell has been

replaced by other minerals. The patterns of white,

squiggly lines are from sutures(the part of the shell

where the walls dividing it into chambers connectedwith the inner surface of the shell wall).

Paleontologists use suture patterns to identify different

species of baculites.

ICHTHYOSAURUS VERTEBRAThis is an example of an

altered fossil, meaning that

the original bone matter dis-

solved and was replaced by

other minerals. Ichthyosaurs

(Greek for "fish lizards") were

carnivorous marine reptilesthat lived from the Triassic to

the Cretaceous period. They had streamlined, fish-like

bodies with a long snout, a large tail fin, and limbs

adapted for use as steering paddles. Although they

looked like fish, they werent; instead, ichthyosaurs

evolved from unidentified land reptiles that moved

back into the water.


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FOSSILS 9



EURYPTERIDAlso known as a sea scorpi-

on, a eurypterid is an extinct

animal whose closest living

relative is the horseshoe crab.

Eurypterids were hunters,

feeding on trilobites and

cephalopods. They could be

as big as six and a half feet

long, but most were much smaller. They had a fused

head and thorax with two pairs of eyes and six pairs

of appendages. Twelve tapering segments, usually

ending in a spike, completed the body. This specimen

shows some of those segments. Eurypterids lived inthe Paleozoic era, from the Ordovician to the Permian

periods. Their fossils are relatively rare, but have been

found on nearly every continent. The eurypterid is

the state fossil of New York State, where it lived in

the Silurian period.

DINOSAUR FOOTPRINTThis rock contains a footprint

left by a Tuberosis dinosaur

during the Jurassic period. The

dinosaur stepped in mud, and

over time the mud turned intored sandstone. This specimen

was collected from a rock for-

mation in Connecticut. Since

dinosaurs are now extinct, it is difficult for scientists

to know much about how they lived, moved, and

behaved. However, fossils like this footprint may pro-

vide paleontologists with a rare window into dinosaur

behavior. For example, the depth and shape of

footprints may demonstrate that certain species of

dinosaur walked upright or on all four legs. Also, the

distance between two footprints in a set of dinosaur

tracks may yield clues about that dinosaur's postureor how fast it could run.

GASTROLITHSmooth, round pebbles like

this one have often been

found near dinosaur bones,

or even inside dinosaur rib

cages. Some dinosaurs (espe-

cially plant-eaters) did not

have teeth suitable for grind-

ing up their food, so they

swallowed large, rough stones. The stones came to

rest in a dinosaur's stomach, where they pounded

food into smaller pieces to help the animal's diges-

tion. That is how gastroliths (stomach stones) got

their name. Eventually the gastroliths would be worndown to the point where they were too small or too

smooth to be useful for grinding. Then the dinosaurs

would get rid of the stones (by either vomiting them

up or passing them out in their dung), and swallow

new ones.

OREODONT JAW SECTIONOreodonts were sheep-sized

herbivores (plant eaters). This

specimen shows how their

broad, flat teeth were well

adapted for grazing.Oreodonts thrived all over

North America from the

Eocene (55 million to 37

millions years ago) through the Pliocene (from 5

million to about 1.8 million years ago) epochs. It is

difficult to explain their appearance in terms of

modern animals; some scientists have compared

them to small deer with pig-like heads. These animals

also have a rather strange family tree; while they were

most closely related to the modern sheep, they were

distantly linked to both pigs and camels!

GRAVEYARDGraveyard is the term for a

conglomeration of fossils. This

conglomeration of marine

fossils includes sponges, corals,

and crinoids, all preserved in

this one specimen.


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FOSSILS 10



INSECT IN AMBERMillions of years ago, the

insect inside this piece of

amber landed on a tree and

got stuck in its sticky resin.

Over time, that resin (or sap)

grew harder and eventually

turned into a type of fossil

known as amber. The same

chemical processes that turned the fresh resin into

fossilized amber also preserved the insect trapped

within it. Many insects, spiders, and even small

animals (like frogs or lizards) have been preserved

this way.

FERN LEAFThis fern fossil dates from the

Carboniferous period. It is a

mold of the original plant, and

was exposed when a fossil

hunter split the rock open. For

millions of years, ferns domi-

nated the earth's greenery.

They covered the floors of

damp forests and swamps all around the globe. But

the majority of fern species that existed in the era ofthis fossil fern are now extinct. For the most part,

modern ferns look the same as ferns that lived millions

of years ago. However, the fern in this specimen would

have looked more like a tree than a small plant. It

had a hard trunk and grew to a height of 13 feet!

PETRIFIED WOODThis ancient piece of wood

has turned to stone after mil-

lions of years. The original

organic material dissolved and

was replaced by other min-erals (probably a silicate, like

quartz). This process occurred

underground, when the wood

was buried under sediment. Mineral-rich water flow-

ing through the sediment deposited minerals in the

woods cells, and as the plant decayed away, a stone

cast was left in its place.

You and your students can learn more about these

specimens and other objects from around the world byvisiting Collections Central Online at

www.brooklynkids.org/emuseum.


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Introductory Activity: Paleo Puzzle

FOSSILS 11

Grades 35Related Specimens: All

Right or wrong, children tend to have already an assort-

ment of knowledge about fossils. This class discussion is

intended to make that knowledge public and sharedamong the group. It provides a starting place for the

next activity. The word puzzle introduces some basic

fossil terms, which you may define for students or ask

them to look up on their own and/or share.

Materials: Blackboard or chart paper

A small selection of specimens from the case

Copies of Paleo Puzzle worksheet on the next page,

one per student

What To Do:1 Lead a discussion on the topic of fossils. Start by asking

students what they know about fossils and about life

on earth millions of years ago. List their statements on

the board or chart paper, without comment or contra-

diction. Together the comments create a baseline of

information, imagery, and questions for the whole

class to pursue.

2 Ask the students the Discussion Questions below and

any others that you think will stimulate their thinking.

They will not have answers to everything, but even

paleontologists may not. Remind them that by askingquestions they are helping to define the scope of the

topic for the classs work.

3 Pass around one or two of the fossils from the case

(such as the eurypterid and a gastrolith) without

telling the class what they are. What makes each

object a fossil? What kind of fossil do they think it is?

Ask each student to come up with a question about

one (or both) of the fossils. List these in a second

column on the board or chart paper.

4 Hand out the Paleo Puzzle worksheet that introduces

fossil terms and have the students fill it out. After they

compare their results (the answers are below), you

can define the terms for them, or have students work

individually or in groups to look the terms up in books

or on the Internet.

Discussion Questions: What is a fossil?

What kinds of things can be fossils?

Is a fossil a real animal or plant?

What parts of an animal might become fossils? Why

might some parts become fossils and not others?

What could a fossil be made of?

How old does something have to be to be considered

a fossil?

How do we know how old a fossil is? How might a

scientist be able to tell?

See page 25 for details on how this activity meets

New York State Learning Standards.

Worksheet Answer Key:

ACTIVITY 1

Identify some of the questions generated by the discussion for students to

research. They can share their answers in a subsequent discussion, or write

a short report on their findings.

RESEARCH ANDLITERACY EXTENSION:GRADES 35

T A D E S U T Y R A T N E M I D E S

R M M B U N H I E G R O O U V Z O C

K M J G H R V B I K J L A N I E O J

K O E J K B Y C B Q D N X B M P M C

T N T I Z Y J P E M J J T Y L H U U

C I S T B Q O H T B O Y S Q Z J N Z V T G Y A G E L F E L M T E C L P C

X E P I J A M Q B Z R N M Y U E M C

H T W K A S L I J H P I I A T R U S

V E W S C T C N I L M S D I B L U V

Z R W I H R E E M O A I S L C N R R

H A X R X O Z W N G N N B C R P O W

S X R C O L R Y A O E P C R N J A F

A U W X L I N T S Q Z F U P T O S P

A L B A C U L I T E R I B W P A Y A

D F O V D C R U L U A H A D L N C O

E U B E O H O M Y D J C L C K E I D

Q A L T R Y S A A A Y R E H Z W I D

R R I O R S X P T D N O Z A L C K G

Y U W C S W Y G O L O T N O E L A P

F P E M I T L A C I G O L O E G O T

U T A L T H U A I P C Y I M F Q H E

W T F U H R T R P T T S A C I B T R

M I C T R A Z P Y R K L O A R R H N

I T K T T D C S I R T Q B Y T I H N


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PaleoPuzzle

CIRCLE THEFOLLOWINGTERMS:

AmmoniteBaculiteCastCenozoicDinosaur

EurypteridEraGastrolithGeological TimeMoldPaleontologySedimentaryTrace

T A D E S U T Y R A T N E M I D E S

R M M B U N H I E G R O O U V Z O C

K M J G H R V B I K J L A N I E O J

K O E J K B Y C B Q D N X B M P M C

T N T I Z Y J P E M J J T Y L H U U

C I S T B Q O H T B O Y S Q Z J N Z

V T G Y A G E L F E L M T E C L P CX E P I J A M Q B Z R N M Y U E M C

H T W K A S L I J H P I I A T R U S

V E W S C T C N I L M S D I B L U V

Z R W I H R E E M O A I S L C N R R

H A X R X O Z W N G N N B C R P O W

S X R C O L R Y A O E P C R N J A F

A U W X L I N T S Q Z F U P T O S P

A L B A C U L I T E R I B W P A Y A

D F O V D C R U L U A H A D L N C OE U B E O H O M Y D J C L C K E I D

Q A L T R Y S A A A Y R E H Z W I D

R R I O R S X P T D N O Z A L C K G

Y U W C S W Y G O L O T N O E L A P

F P E M I T L A C I G O L O E G O T

U T A L T H U A I P C Y I M F Q H E

W T F U H R T R P T T S A C I B T R

M I C T R A Z P Y R K L O A R R H N

I T K T T D C S I R T Q B Y T I H N


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FOSSILS 13


This activity gives your students a chance to look closely

at real fossils and form hypotheses about what these

organisms were and how they survived to tell us aboutthe past.

Materials: Fossils from the case

Timeline poster from the case

Copies of the What Can Specimens Tell Me? chart,

one per student OR, for a whole class exercise, a

transparency of the chart and an overhead projector

Blackboard OR chart paper for recording group

observations

What To Do:1 Depending on the age and interests of your students

and the amount of time you would like to spend, you

can do this activity using a handful of specimens or

every specimen in the case. It can be done in small

groups or as a class, looking at the specimens in turn

and filling out the chart using an overhead projector

or large chart paper.

2 For small groups, prior to the presentation of the

lesson, set the classroom up into stations (make sure

there are enough stations that you have only 34

students working at each one). Place one or more

specimens at each station.

3 Distribute the What Can Specimens Tell Me? chart

and go over it with the students. Ask them to pay

special attention to the physical properties of each of

the specimens. You may want to practice with the

class, using one of the specimens to model the

activity, if you have not already done the Introductory

Activity.

4 Have the students fill in their charts as they look at the

specimens. After a few minutes, the groups should

rotate to a new station. Repeat this step as many times

as you like.

5 Have the students reconvene as a class to discuss

their findings. You may want to use the chart paperto make notes about the students observations.

6 When you feel they have gone as far as they can with

what they observed, introduce information from your

own knowledge, this guide, or other resources about

the different types of fossils (how they were made).

Then have students sort the fossils into categories

according to how they were made.

Discussion Questions:

How could a living organism (such as a plant or ananimal) turn into a rock? What might make that

happen?

How are some of the fossils alike or different?

Which fossils give a more complete image of the

organism? Why might that be?

Which fossils are the actual organism and which ones

are a print or impression of it?

Which fossils are the oldest? How might a paleontol-

ogist tell?

Why are gastroliths and sharks teeth considered

fossils?



Examining and Classifying FossilsACTIVITY 2

Using the timeline poster provided, have students re-sort the fossils according

to geologic era and period. Which fossils are the earliest? (There will be a

number for which no clear date is possible. You can point out that

paleontologists face this dilemma, too. How do they figure out the dates?)

SCIENCEEXTENSION:GEOLOGIC TIME


16/30

PREDATORS AND PREY 14

Useyoursensestoobserveeachspecimencarefully,usingahandle

nsifnecessary.Whatcan

youtellabo

utthefossiljustbylooking

atthespecimenindetail?U

sethischarttorecord

whatyoud

iscover.

Whatcanyou

seeofthe

originalplantor

animal?Whatcolorisit?

Whatcolorandtextureis

thebackgroundofthe

fossil?Istherock

layered?

Whattypeofplantor

animalcreatedthisfossil?

Isthefossilanactual

plantoranimal,ora

printofit?Whydoyou

thinkso?

What

can

specim

ens

tellm

e?


17/30

REPTILES 15PREDATORS AND PREY 15



youtellabo



sethischarttorecord

whatyoud

iscover.

Whatcanyou

seeofthe

originalplantor



thebackgroundofthe

fossil?Istherock

layered?

Whattypeofplantor


Isthefossilanactual

plantoranimal,ora

printofit?Whydoyou

thinkso?

What

can

specim

ens

tellm

e?


18/30

REPTILES 16



youtellabo



sethischarttorecord

whatyoud

iscover.

Whatcanyou

seeofthe

originalplantor



thebackgroundofthe

fossil?Istherock

layered?

Whattypeofplantor


Isthefossilanactual

plantoranimal,ora

printofit?Whydoyou

thinkso?

What

can

specim

ens

tellm

e?


19/30

REPTILES 17



youtellabo



sethischarttorecord

whatyoud

iscover.

Whatcanyou

seeofthe

originalplantor



thebackgroundofthe

fossil?Istherock

layered?

Whattypeofplantor


Isthefossilanactual

plantoranimal,ora

printofit?Whydoyou

thinkso?

What

can

specim

ens

tellm

e?


20/30

FOSSILS 18

Make a Fossil CastACTIVITY 3

All GradesRelated Specimens: Brachiopod, tabulate coral,pelecypod, baculite, eurypterid

This is a fun and simple way to demonstrate how some

body fossils are made!

Materials: Plastic toy animals, coins, rocks, or other objects

Empty tuna cans or similar small, shallow containers;

alternatively, use strips of oak tag cut about 2 wide,

cardboard squares, and a stapler

Modeling clay

Plaster of Paris, water, container and spatula for mixing

Optional: can opener

What To Do:1 Introduce the activity by reviewing what a body fossil

is and telling the class that they will be creating a

fossil and making a cast of it.

2 Give each student a can or, if using oak tag, have

them create a small container by stapling the ends of

the oak tag together to make a ring and place it on

a cardboard square.

3 Give each student a small piece of clay and have him

or her pick an object to fossilize. First have them

roll the clay into a ball and press the ball flat, filling

the bottom of the container to not less than one inchin depth.

4 Ask students to pick one of the small objects to

fossilize, press it into the clay, and remove it, leaving

a fossil mold of the body.

5 Mix the plaster of Paris to the consistency of pancake

batter. Pour it into the containers on top of the clay

mold, and let it harden for at least 24 hours.

6 Remove the cast from the cardboard container or tin

can (it may be easiest to open the bottom of the can

with a can opener and push the cast out), and clean

off the clay. Voila! Everyone now has a fossil cast of

the object they chose.

Alternatives for Younger Students: Have students roll the clay into a ball and press it flat

on a cardboard square. Then have them press one

hand into the clay hard enough to make a print. Have

them hold their prints up to show and talk about how

animals and plants millions of years ago printed mud

and soft rocks in the same way and left their traces

for us to find.

Have students make a leaf print art by rubbing a

crayon over a piece of paper that has leaves

underneath it.

Discussion Questions: How is the toy (or other small object they use to

stand for the organism) different from a real specimen

after it dies? What happens to an animal after it dies

and is buried?

What is the difference between the way you made the

mold and the way a fossil mold would be created?

(Hint: The fossil mold would be created after the

organism was buried and then decayed, leaving a

cavity.) How might a buried fossil mold be exposed so that

someone today could discover it?



Have students imagine themselves as paleontologists looking for fossils, and tell orwrite the story of how they came across the fossil they just made in the activity

above. What kind of land were they exploring? What adventures did they have

getting to where they were digging? How deep did they dig? What tools did they

use? What happened afterwards?

LITERACYEXTENSION:


21/30

FOSSILS 19

Footprint ForensicsACTIVITY 4

Grades 35Related Specimen: Dinosaur footprint

By studying footprint patterns revealed in stages, students

examine the evidence and make hypotheses about the

story the footprints tell.

Materials: Copies of each of the Footprint Patterns, one per

student (see page following this activity) OR an over-

head transparency of each of the Footprint Patterns

What To Do:1 To prepare for this activity, make copies of the

Footprint Pattern and cut the panels apart. You will

hand out these panels to your students one at a time.

Alternatively, you can copy each section onto a sepa-

rate transparency for use with an overheard projector.

2 Ask the class what they know about reading evidence

to reconstruct an event. Have they seen movies or TV

programs where detectives or scientists find traces of

incriminating evidence? Or where skilled hunters have

interpreted footprints to track a person or an animal?

3 Explain that paleontologists use evidence to make

deductions about what happened millions of years

ago, and that they are going to do the same thing.

Emphasize that they will get the evidence in stages

and at each stage they will be forming a hypothesis

about what happened.4 Hand out or project panel 1 of the Footprint Pattern.

Ask students to examine the panel closely. Can they

tell anything about the size or nature of the animals

that made the footprints? How many were there?

Were all the tracks made at the same time? How might

the students figure that out if they were paleontologist

working in the field? What might have happened?

Encourage students to point out what evidence sup-

ports their idea. Help them distinguish between what

they see and what they infer. For example, they might

state that the animals were walking around, that they

met each other (or didnt), that they were large or

small, etc.

5 Hand out copies of panel 2 (or project it overhead),

place it to the right of panel 1, and repeat the discus-

sion. Now what do the students think happened?

What parts of their previous deductions still hold

water? What parts do they have to change? Elicit

alternative hypotheses. For example: Someone willprobably say the two animals fought, but there are

other possibilities, such as a mother picking up her

baby. Or perhaps the animals werent there at the

same time, but there was some reason for both to

circle around the same spot. Could there have been

a source of food or water there?

6 Finally, hand out or project panel 3, and place it to the

right of panel 2. Now what do your students think

might have happened? There is no one correct answer

to any of these questions.

7 Conclude by asking if the evidence supports any oneof the students hypotheses in particular. What other

evidence might shed light on the circumstances and

the events that created these footprints? What could

a paleontologist learn from this exercise? One lesson

should be that it is important to gather as much evi-

dence as possible, and to remember that there might

be parts of the story that are not represented by the

evidence.

Discussion Questions: In what directions did the animals move?

Did they change their speed and direction? How canyou tell?

Were there trees or bushes that might have kept the

animals from seeing each other?

Do we know if they were there at the same time?

How might you know what the climate was like?

What conditions were necessary for the preservation

of the footprints?




22/30

FOSSILS 20

Footprint Forensics (continued)ACTIVITY 4

Take students outdoors on a damp day. Have them find animal tracks in a

nearby park and try to interpret them.

Put large sheets of brown paper on the floor of the classroom. Have one or two

students sponge water on the soles of their shoes and then step on the paper,

leaving footprints. (You can use flour instead of water.) Then have them act out

a scenewalking along in opposite directions and stopping to greet each other,

for example, or just passing by. Have them think of other ways to interpret the

footprints. Extend the activity by having some students leave the room while

others act out a footprint story that the others interpret (out loud or in writing)

on their return to the room.

With pencil and paper, have students design their own footprint patterns. They

can use tracks of animals, birds, humans, marine creatures, and even leaf prints.

Have students share their footprint patterns with the class, or divide students

into teams and have them interpret each others stories out loud or in writing.

SCIENCE ANDLITERACY

EXTENSIONS:


23/30

Footprint

Patter

n

Panel1

P

anel2

Panel3


24/30

FOSSILS 22


The purpose of this activity is to engage students in think-

ing about how the various layers of the Earth in which

fossils are found help us map geologic time.

Materials: Geologic Time poster, from the case

3x5 cards or similar-sized paper and pencils

Tape measure

What To Do:1 Introduce the activity by showing students the

Geologic Time poster, if you have not already done so.

Review the concept of eras and periods of geologic

time. Point out how eras and periods are shown on

the poster in uneven layers. The layout of the layers onthe poster is analogous to the layers within the Earth.

The earliest eras and periods are at the bottom.

2 Have the students re-imagine the classroom as repre-

senting different areas of the Earths landscape. If the

ceiling represents the present-day level of the earths

surface, then the heights of the rooms features

desks, chairs, tables, bookshelves, the floorall repre-

sent different layers beneath the surface of the Earth.

As a class, figure out what era or period each surface

should represent. In the classroom landscape, what

level represents the Paleozoic era? What level repre-sents the Cenozoic era? [Note: These layers do not

have to be uniform throughout the classroomthe

layers within the earth are not all the same thickness

everywhere. A desk in one corner may represent the

Paleozoic, while a desk across the room may represent

the Cenozoic.]

3 Point out how the Geologic Time poster shows the

major life forms present in each era and period. Hand

out the specimens from the case and have students

write a label for each specimen with its name, geologic

era and, if available, its geologic period. This infor-

mation can come from the Information About theSpecimens section of this guide (pages 710), the

Geologic Time poster, the books in the case, or other

library or Internet resources. If there are not enough

specimens for each student, you may also hand out

pictures of fossils or extinct creatures found in books

or on the Internet.

4 Have students place the fossils and their labels on

shelves, bookcases, tabletops, or other surfaces around

the room, at the level of the classroom correspond-

ing to their geologic era or period. Again, do not

worry about the levels being uniform around the

classroomthey are not uniform within the Eartheither!

5 As a class, sit back and study the results. Looking at

the landscape of fossils the students have created,

have them imagine they are paleontologists on a field

expedition. They encounter different fossils everywhere

and at different levels. They do not know the relation-

ships among the fossils or how old any of them is.

How might they go about finding answers to their

questions?

Discussion Questions:

Do all specimens from the same period have to be at

the same height off the floor? What forces of nature

could cause them to be at different levels?

If you were a paleontologist, where would you look

for fossils, given that most of them are formed

underground?

Among the fossils in the case, are there more marine

organisms or more land organisms? Do you think

this is typical for all fossils? Why?

On the Geological Time poster, how does the pro-

portion of marine and land animals change as time

goes on? When do plants appear?



Create a 3-D Geologic Time ModelACTIVITY 5


25/30

FOSSILS 23

Additional Activities andCurricular Connections

Science: Archaeological DigGrades 15Simulate an archaeological dig in the classroom. In a

shallow plastic container or cardboard box, have childrenbury chicken bones that have been boiled clean in unset

plaster of Paris. (You can bury them in a single layer of

plaster, but if you would like to simulate the different

layers found in the earth, you can also create layers by

adding food coloring to different bowls of plaster. Pour

each layer in one at a time, and allow it to set at least

partially before adding the next.) When the plaster sets,

the students can use spoons, chopsticks, and other dull

instruments to dig them out. Remind them to be gen-

tle when digging around the bone itself, so as not to

damage their fossil.

Literacy: Dinosaur Word PuzzleGrades 45Print out a copy of the dinosaur word puzzle at

www.sdnhm.org/kids/dinosaur/search/print.html,

and challenge your students to see who can finish first.

Science and Health: Edible FossilsAll GradesWho knew that eating fossils could be so much fun? See

www.uky.edu/KGS/education/ceph_celery.htmfor

recipes for making celery cephalopods, ammonites in a

blanket, and prehistoric desserts.

Science: Research a FossilGrades 35Have students choose one of the geologic periods and

research its common plants and animals. Using thePaleontology Portal (see

www.paleoportal.org/index.php), they can find out

where in the U.S. (or New York State) those plants and

animals lived. With this information, have them fill in a

map with those locations. Alternatively, they may draw

an imaginary scene of a landscape during the period

they selected, featuring all the plants and animals

belonging to it.

Literacy and Music: Create a Geological RapGrades 45Have students put the names of geologic eras and periodsinto a rap song. Since many of the terms have rhyming

endings, this should not be difficult. The lyric structure of

a rap song is a series of coupletstwo lines that end in a

rhyme, followed by two lines with a different rhyme, and

so on. Students can accompany themselves by making a

variety of percussive sounds with their bodies

(www.wiki.ehow.com/Be-a-Human-Beatbox tells you

how). If students would rather sing than rap, they can

write new words to go with a familiar tune (such as

Dem Bones, found at

www.niehs.nih.gov/kids/lyrics/bones.htm).

See page 25 for details on how these activities meet


ACTIVITY 6


26/30

FOSSILS 24

Vocabulary Words

body fossil:a part of the actual animal or plant, or even its whole.Things like bones, teeth, shells, and leaves are con-sidered body fossils. Body fossils also include castsand molds that reveal the external and internal struc-ture of the organism.

burrow:a hole or holes in sedimentary rock that were dug byan animal

cast:in paleontology, a positive version of a mold, i.e.,when a mold has been filled in with sedimentarymaterial and takes on the shape of the organism thatmade the mold.

coprolites:the fossil dung of an animal.

era:a large unit of geologic time, each comprising mil-lions of years and a number of sub-divisions calledperiods. Some eras include the Pre-Cambrian,Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

extinction:when all individuals of a species have died out, thespecies is said to be extinct.

fossil:the remains or traces of organisms, including micro-scopic organisms, that lived at least 10,000 years ago.

fossilization:the process by which a living organism, plant or ani-mal, becomes a fossil.

gastrolith:a smooth, rounded stone found with dinosaurremains; long a mystery, such stones are now thoughtto have been a digestive aid for dinosaurs who swal-lowed them to help grind up food in their stomachs.

geologic timethe time in which the history of the Earth hasunfolded.

geologist:a scientist who studies the entire history of the earth,not just fossils.

index fossil:a fossilized creature that lived only in one specifictime period can be used as an indicator (index) ofthe date of the rock in which it is found.

matrix:the rock surrounding a fossil, in which it is embedded.

mold:in paleontology, a mold is the hollow shape left insedimentary rock by a decayed organism.

organism:any living thing, such as a plant or animal.

molten:in a hot, viscous (thick liquid) state.

paleontologist:a scientist who studies the history of life through itsfossil remains.

period:in geological time, a period is a unit of an era.

petrifaction:the state of being petrified, that is, the replacementof organic matter by silica over a long period of time,such that the original organism has become rock.

replacement fossil:a fossil created when inorganic minerals graduallyreplace the original organic material, at a molecularlevel, so that the structure and form of the organ-ism are retained.

sedimentary rock:layered rock formed by sequential deposits by water,wind, or ice of small rocks or organic matter, solidi-fied by pressure, over a long period of time.

trace fossil:includes things like footprints, burrows, and fossilizeddung, that trace the movements or activity of anorganism. A single animal can make thousands andthousands of traces in its lifetime, but it will onlyleave behind one body when it dies. Because ofthis, trace fossils are much more common thanbody fossils.

track:an impression, or trace, made by a single foot.

trail:an impression, or trace, made by an animal withoutlegs.

RESOURCES AND REFERENCE MATERIALS


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FOSSILS 25


Arts

Arts

EnglishLanguageArts

ELA

ELA

ELA

ELA

ELA

ELA

ELA

ELA

Math,Science, &Technology

MST

MST

MST

Create short pieces consisting of sounds from a varietyof traditional, electronic, and nontraditional sound

sources

Experiment and create art works, in a variety ofmediums (drawing, painting, sculpture, ceramics,printmaking, video, and computer graphics), basedon a range of individual and collective experiences

Gather and interpret information from children'sreference books, magazines, textbooks, electronicbulletin boards, audio and media presentations, oralinterviews, and from such forms as charts, graphs,maps, and diagrams

Ask specific questions to clarify and extend meaning

Present information clearly in a variety of oral andwritten forms such as summaries, paraphrases, briefreports, stories, posters, and charts

Use details, examples, anecdotes, or personal experie-nces to explain or clarify information

Observe basic writing conventions, such as correctspelling, punctuation, and capitalization, as well assentence and paragraph structures appropriate towritten forms

Create their own stories, poems, and songs using theelements of the literature they have read and appro-

priate vocabulary

Observe the conventions of grammar and usage,spelling, and punctuation

Listen attentively and recognize when it is appropri-ate for them to speak

Take turns speaking and respond to other ideas inconversations on familiar topics

Ask "why" questions in attempts to seek greater under-standing concerning objects and events they haveobserved and heard about

Question the explanations they hear from others and

read about, seeking clarification and comparing themwith their own observations and understandings

Develop relationships among observations to con-struct descriptions of objects and events and to formtheir own tentative explanations of what they haveobserved

Carry out their plans for exploring phenomenathrough direct observation and through the use ofsimple instruments that permit measurements ofquantities (e.g., length, mass, volume, temperature,and time)

aMusic

Visual Arts

Listening &Reading

Listening &Reading

Speaking &Writing

Speaking &Writing

Speaking &Writing

Speaking &Writing

Speaking &Writing

Speaking &Writing

Speaking &Writing

ScientificInquiry

Scientific

Inquiry

ScientificInquiry

ScientificInquiry

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

4

4

1

1

1

1

654321Standard Area Students willLetterSubjectStandard #

Activity

New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators (Elementary Level)

Correlations with New York State Learning StandardsThe activities included in this guide meet the following New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators for elementary students (K5):


28/30

FOSSILS 26


MST

MST

MST

MST

MST

MST

MST

Organize observations and measurements of objectsand events through classification and the preparation

of simple charts and tables

Share their findings with others and actively seek theirinterpretations and ideas

Describe the relationships among air, water, and landon Earth

Observe and describe properties of materials usingappropriate tools

Describe chemical and physical changes, includingchanges in states of matter

Analyze, construct, and operate models in order to

discover attributes of the real thing

Discover that a model of something is different fromthe real thing but can be used to study the real thing

Work effectively-Contributing to the work of a brain-storming group, laboratory partnership, cooperativelearning group, or project team; planning procedures;identifying and managing responsibilities of teammembers; and staying on task, whether working aloneor as part of a group

ScientificInquiry

ScientificInquiry

PhysicalSetting

PhysicalSetting

PhysicalSetting

Models

Models

Strategies

1

1

4

4

6

6

7

654321Standard Area Students willLetterSubjectStandard #

Activity

New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators (Elementary Level)

Correlations with New York State Learning StandardsThe activities included in this guide meet the following New York State Learning Standard Performance Indicators for elementary students (K5):


29/30

FOSSILS 27

Corresponding Field Trips

In addition to the organizations below, look forspecial National Earth Science Week activities heldannually in October.

American Museum of Natural History79th and Central Park West, Manhattan(212) 769-5200The AMNH has the worlds most spectacular collec-tion of fossils. Several corresponding websites foreducators offer downloadable guides to the galleriesand activities to go along with your visit:www.amnh.org/education/resources/rfl.php?set=b&topic_id=5&subtopic_id=80

Fossil Walking TourMany buildings in the city are made of limestone, a

sedimentary rock, or marble, a metamorphic rock.Lincoln Center, to name a prominent example, ismade of limestone and fossils are abundant in thebuildings. Scout out some local locations (perhapseven your own school building has fossils in it) andtake your students on a walking tour to find the fos-sils. Once the students get the hang of looking forthem, theres no end to where they can use this skill.

The Brooklyn Childrens Museum also offers programson a variety of natural history topics. For a listing ofprograms currently available, please see our websiteat www.brooklynkids.org, or contact the Scheduling

Assistant at 718-735-4400, extension 118.

The following books and websites may help you toenrich your experience with the objects in the case.

Moss, Jeff. Bone Poems. New York, New York:Workman Publishing, 1997.

Press, Judy. The Kids' Natural History Book:Making Dinos, Fossils, Mammoths & More!Charlotte, Vermont: Williamson PublishingCompany, 2000.

Rhodes, Frank H.T. and Paul R. Shaffer,Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. Fossils,A Golden Guide. New York, New York: St. MartinsPress, 2001.

Ward, David. Fossils (Smithsonian Handbooks).

New York, New York: DK Adult, 2002.

The Paleontology Portal:Good for looking up fossils by period or type oforganism; interactive map showing life in the U.S. ingeologic time.www.paleoportal.org/index.php

Petrified Forest National Park Triassic World:Reading and pictures for kids about what lived in theTriassic period.www.nps.gov/pefo/triassicweb.htm

Petrified Forest National Park AetosaurVirtual Dig:A slide show illustrating a paleontologist digging upan aetosaur.www.nps.gov/pefo/vtour/aetodig/aetostart.htm

San Diego Natural History Museum FieldGuide to Fossils:Find out more about individual fossils.www.sdnhm.org/fieldguide/fossils/index.html

Indianapolis Childrens Museum Dinosphere:Activities for kids, guides for teachers.www.childrensmuseum.org/dinosphere/index.html

University of California, Berkeley:Information and activities about fossils.www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/forsec/Learning.html

Museum Victoria:Information about dinosaurs.www.museum.vic.gov.au/dinosaurs

The Natural History Museum, London:Great information and activities on dinosaurswww.internt.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/dino-directory/about-teachers.dsml


Bibliography and Web Resources


30/30

AcknowledgmentsBeth Alberty

Chrisy Ledakis

Tim Hayduk

Nobue HirabayashiWhitney Thompson

Portable Collections Series CoordinatorMelissa Husby

Special ThanksDaniel Dixon

The Teachers of the New York City Department of Education

FundingThe revision of this

Portable Collections Program caset guide is made possible

by a Learning Opportunities Grant from

the Institute for Museum and Library Services.

2006

Brooklyn Childrens Museum

145 Brooklyn AvenueBrooklyn, New York 11213

718-735-4400 ext. 170

www.brooklynkids.org

For information about renting this or other Portable Collections Program cases,

please contact the Scheduling Assistant at 718-735-4400 ext. 118.

Documents

Fossils FIN HR