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TERM PAPER
FUTURE POWER SOURCES
SUBMITTED BY - SHIVANI THAKUR
SECTION - C6903A63
REGISTRATION NO. - 10907687
SUBMITTED TO - MR. BHARPUR
SINGH
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my utmost gratitude and intentness to all who have
contributed in some way or the other and been
linked with the term paper from day one.
From the core of my heart. I express my sincere thanks to Mr.
Bharpur Singh.
I am extremely grateful to the respondents and all my friends
for their unconditional support and ready
assistance
Shivani thakur
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Future power sources:-
Renewable energy sources will be the sources of energy in the
future. Renewable energy is energy which
comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable
energy sources.
VARIOUS FUTURE POWER SOURCES ARE:-
1. SOLAR POWER.
2. TIDAL POWER
3. WIND POWER.
4. GEOTHERMAL POWER.
5. HYDROELECTRIC POWER.
6. HYDROGEN ECONOMY.
7. NUCLEAR ENERGY.
NOW EXPLATION ABOUT THE POWER SOURCES:-
1. SOLAR POWER:
Energy coming from sun. Solar electric systems catch energy
directly from the sunno fire, no
emissions. Some labs and companies are trying out the grown-up
version of a child's magnifying glass:
giant mirrored bowls or troughs to concentrate the sun's rays,
producing heat that can drive a generator.
But for now, sun power mostly means solar cells.
The idea is simple: Sunlight falling on a layer of semiconductor
jostles electrons, creating a current. Yet
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the cost of the cells, once astronomical, is still high. My
modest system cost over $15,000, about $10 a
watt of capacity, including batteries to store power for when
the sun doesn't shine
Solar power involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into
electricity, using sunlight hitting solar thermal
panels to convert sunlight to heat water or air, using sunlight
hitting aparabolic mirrorto heat water
(producing steam), or using sunlight entering windows forpassive
solarheating of a building. It would be
advantageous to place solar panels in the regions of highest
solar radiation. In the Phoenix, Arizona area, for
example, the average annual solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/(mday) or
2.1 MWh/(myr). Electricity demand in
the continental U.S. is 3.71012 kWh per year. Thus, at 20%
efficiency, an area of approximately 3500 square
miles (3% of Arizona's land area) would need to be covered with
solar panels to replace all current electricity
production in the US with solar power
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS:-
Solar electricity is currently more expensive than grid
electricity.
Solar heat and electricity are not available at night and may be
unavailable because of weather
conditions; therefore, a storage or complementary power system
is required foroff-the-
grid applications.
Solar cells produce DC which must be converted to AC (using a
grid tie inverter) when used in currently
existing distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of
412
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Growing Solar
A crop of photovoltaic panels33,500 of thempacks one of the
world's largest solar parks, outside Leipzig,
Germany. The panels produce up to five megawatts of electricity
and average enough to supply 1,800 homes.
Solar technology remains expensive and can't compete on a large
scale against cheaper fossil fuels without
serious government subsidies. Still, the cost of solar is
expected to decrease, and this promising power source is
making inroads in developed and developing nations alike. In
rural Kenya, for example, where many people
live far from power grids, roughly 20,000 small-scale solar
systems are purchased each year.
2. Tidal Power Generation
Tidal power can be extracted fromMoon-gravity-poweredtidesby
locating a water turbine in a tidal
current, or by building impoundment pond dams that
admit-or-release water through a turbine. The
turbine can turn an electrical generator, or a gas compressor,
that can then store energy until needed.
Coastal tides are a source of clean, free, renewable, and
sustainable energy
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Tidal power is free once the dam is built. This is because tidal
power harnesses the natural power
of tides and does not consume fuel. In addition, the maintenance
costs associated with running a
tidal station are relatively inexpensive.
Tides are very reliable because it is easy to predict when high
and low tides will occur. The tide
goes in and out twice a day usually at the predicted times. This
makes tidal energy easy to
maintain, and positive and negative spikes in energy can be
managed.Tidal energy is renewable, because nothing is consumed in
the rising of tides. Tidal power relies
on the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which pull the
sea backwards and forwards,
generating tides.
Tidal power is not currently economically feasible, because the
initial costs of building a dam are
tremendous. Furthermore, it only provides power for around 10
hours each day, when the tide is
moving in or out of the basin.
The barrage construction can affect the transportation system in
water. Boats may not be able to
cross the barrage, and commercial ships, used for transport or
fishery, need to find alternative
routes or costly systems to go through the barrage.
The erection of a barrage may affect the aquatic ecosystems
surrounding it. The environment
affected by the dam is very wide, altering areas numerous miles
upstream and downstream. For
example, many birds rely on low tides to unearth mud flats,
which are used as feeding areas.
3. WIND ENERGY:-
This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel
the blades ofwind turbines. These
turbines cause the rotation ofmagnets, which creates
electricity. Wind towers are usually built
together on wind farms.
Wind power produces no water or air pollution that can
contaminate the environment, because
there are no chemical processes involved in wind power
generation. Hence, there are no waste by-
products, such as carbon dioxide
Power from the wind does not contribute to global warming
because it does not
generate greenhouse gases
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Wind generation is a renewable source of energy, which means
that we will never run out of it.
Wind towers can be beneficial for people living permanently, or
temporarily, in remote areas. It
may be difficult to transport electricity through wires from a
power plant to a far-away location
and thus, wind towers can be set up at the remote setting
Farming and grazing can still take place on land occupied by
wind turbines
Those utilizing wind power in a grid-tie configuration will have
backup power in the event ofapower outage
Because of the ability of wind turbines to coexist within
agricultural fields, siting costs are
frequently low
Wind is unpredictable; therefore, wind power is not predictably
available. When the wind speed
decreases less electricity is generated. This makes wind power
unsuitable for base load generation.
Wind farms may be challenged in communities that consider them
an eyesore or obstruction.
Wind farms, depending on the location and type of turbine, may
negatively affect bird migration
patterns, and may pose a danger to the birds themselves
(primarily an issue with older/smaller
turbines).
Wind farms may interfere withradarcreating a hole in radar
coverage and so affectnational
security.
Tall wind turbines have been proven to impactdopplerradar towers
and affect weather
forcasting in a negative way. This can be prevented by not
having the wind turbines in the
radar'sline of sight
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Like giant pinwheels, turbines spin at the Middelgrunden Wind
Park off Copenhagen, Denmark.
Wind generates about 20 percent of Denmark's electricity, and
the nation is a leader in turbine
technology. Other European countries, including Spain and
Germany, are also wild about wind,
making it one of the fastest growing energy sectors. By
contrast, wind produces less than one percent
of U.S. energy, though the American landscape holds vast wind
potential. It's a difference of attitudes,
says energy scientist Dan Kammen of the University of
California, Berkeley. "Effectively, we don'thave an energy
policy.
4. GEOTHERMAL POWER:-
Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath
the Earth. Two wells are drilled. One
well injects water into the ground to provide water. The
hotrocks heat the water to produce steam. The
steam that shoots back up the other hole(s) is purified and is
used to drive turbines, which powerelectric
generators. When the water temperature is below the boiling
point of water a binary system is used. A low
boiling point liquid is used to drive a turbine and generator in
a closed system similar to a refrigeration unit
running in reverse.
Economically feasible in high grade areas now
Low deployment costs.
Geothermal power plants have a highcapacity factor; they run
continuously day and night with
an uptime typically exceeding 95%.
Once a geothermal power station is implemented, there is no cost
for fuel, only for operations,
maintenance and return on capital investment
Since geothermal power stations consume no fuel, there is no
environmental impact associated
with emissions or fuel handling.
Geothermal is now feasible in areas where the Earth's crust is
thicker. Using enhanced
geothermal technology, it is possible to drill deeper and inject
water to generate geothermal power
Geothermal energy does not produce air or waterpollution if
performed correctly.
Geothermal power extracts small amounts of minerals such as
sulfur that are removed prior to
feeding the turbine and re-injecting the water back into the
injection well
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Geothermal power requires locations that have suitable
subterranean temperatures within 5 km of
surface.
Some geothermal stations have created geological instability,
even causing earthquakes strong
enough to damage buildings.
5. HYDROELECTRIC POWER:-
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In hydro energy, the gravitational descent of a river is
compressed from a long run to a single location with
adam or aflume. This creates a location where
concentratedpressure and flow can be used to
turnturbines orwater wheels, which drive a mechanical millor
anelectric generator.[42]
Hydroelectric power stations can promptly increase to full
capacity, unlike other types of power
stations. This is because water can be accumulated above the dam
and released to coincide withpeak
demand.
Electricity can be generated constantly, so long as sufficient
water is available.
Hydroelectric power produces no primary waste orpollution.
Hydropower is a renewable resource.
Much hydroelectric capacity is still undeveloped, such as in
Africa.
The resulting lake can have additional benefits such as doubling
as a reservoirforirrigation, and
leisure activities such as water sports and fishing, for example
Kielder WaterinNorthumberland, UK.
The construction of a dam can have a serious environmental
impact on the surrounding areas.
The amount and the quality of water downstream can be affected,
which affects plant life bothaquatic,
and land-based. Because a rivervalley is being flooded, the
local habitat of many species are
destroyed, while people living nearby may have to relocate their
homes.
Hydroelectricity can only be used in areas where there is a
sufficient and continuing supply of
water.
Flooding submerges large forests (if they have not been
harvested). Theresulting anaerobic decomposition of the
carboniferous materials releases methane, a greenhouse gas.
Dams can contain huge amounts of water. As with every energy
storage system, failure of
containment can lead to catastrophic results, e.g. flooding
Dams create large lakes that may have adverse effects on Earth
tectonic system causing intense
earthquakes.
Hydroelectric plants rarely can be erected near load centers,
requiring long transmission lines.
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6. HYDROGEN ECONOMY:-
Hydrogen can be manufactured at roughly 77 percent thermal
efficiency by the method of steam
reforming of natural gas When manufactured by this method it is
a derivative fuel like gasoline;
when produced by electrolysis of water, it is a form of chemical
energy storage as are storage
batteries, though hydrogen is the more versatile storage mode
since there are two options for its
conversion to useful work: (1) a fuel cell can convert the
chemicals hydrogenandoxygen into
water, and in the process, produce electricity, or (2) hydrogen
can be burned (less efficiently than
in a fuel cell) in an internal combustion engine.
Hydrogen is colorless, odorless and entirely non-polluting,
yielding pure water vapor
(with minimalNOx) as exhaust when combusted in air. This
eliminates the direct production
of exhaust gases that lead to smog, and carbon dioxide emissions
that enhance the effect
ofglobal warming.
Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element and has the best
energy-to-weight ratio of any
fuel (not counting tank mass).
Hydrogen can be produced anywhere; it can be produced
domesticallyfrom the
decomposition of water. Hydrogen can be produced from domestic
sources and the price can
be established within the country.
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Other than some volcanic emanations, hydrogen does not exist in
its pure form in the
environment, because it reacts so strongly with oxygen and other
elements.
It is impossible to obtain hydrogen gas without expending energy
in the process. There
are three ways to manufacture hydrogen;
By breaking down hydrocarbons mainly methane (steam reforming).
If oil or
gases are used to provide this energy, fossil fuels are
consumed, forming pollution andnullifying the value of using a fuel
cell. It would be more efficient to use fossil fuel
directly.
By electrolysis of water The process of splitting water into
oxygen and
hydrogen usingelectrolysis. It has been calculated that it takes
1.4 joules of electricity to
produce 1 joule of hydrogen (Pimentel, 2002).
By reacting water with a metal such as sodium, potassium, or
boron. Chemical
by-products would be sodium oxide, potassium oxide, and boron
oxide. Processes exist
which could recycle these elements back into their metal form
for re-use with additional
energy input, further eroding the energy return on energy
invested.
There is currently modest fixed infastructurefordistribution of
hydrogen that is centrally
produced, amounting to several hundred kilometers of pipeline.
An alternative would be
transmission of electricity over the existingelectrical
networkto small-scale electrolyses to
support the widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel.
Hydrogen is difficult to handle, store, and transport. It
requires heavy, cumbersome tanks
when stored as compressed hydrogen, and complex insulating
bottles if stored as
acryogenicliquid hydrogen. If it is needed at a moderate
temperature andpressure, a metal
hydride absorber may be needed. The transportation of hydrogen
is also a problem because
hydrogen leaks effortlessly from containers.
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7. NUCLEAR ENERGY:-
Nuclear fission
Nuclear power stations use nuclear fission to generate energy by
the reaction ofuranium-235 inside anuclear
reactor. The reactor uses uranium rods, the atoms of which are
split in the process offission, releasing a large
amount of energy. The process continues as achain reactionwith
othernuclei. The energy heats water to
create steam, which spins a turbine generator, producing
electricity.
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Depending on the type of fission fuel considered, estimates for
existing supply at known usage rates varies from
several decades for the currently popular Uranium-235 to
thousands of years for uranium-238. At the present
rate of use, there are (as of 2007) about 70 years left of known
uranium-235reserves economically recoverable
at a uranium price of US$ 130/kg. The nuclear industry argue
that the cost of fuel is a minor cost factor for
fission power, more expensive, more difficult to extract sources
of uranium could be used in the future, such as
lower-grade ores, and if prices increased enough, from sources
such as granite and seawater. Increasing the
price of uranium would have little effect on the overall cost of
nuclear power; a doubling in the cost of natural
uranium would increase the total cost of nuclear power by 5
percent. On the other hand, if the price of natural
gas was doubled, the cost of gas-fired power would increase by
about 60 percent.
Opponents on the other hand argue that the correlation between
price and production is not linear, but as
the ores' concentration becomes smaller, the difficulty (energy
and resource consumption are increasing,
while the yields are decreasing) of extraction rises very fast,
and that the assertion that a higher price will
yield more uranium is overly optimistic; for example a rough
estimate predicts that the extraction of
uranium from granite will consume at least 70 times more energy
than what it will produce in a reactor. As
many as eleven countries have depleted their uranium resources,
and only Canada has mines left which
produce better than 1% concentration ore.]Seawater seems to be
equally dubious as a source. As a
consequence an eventual doubling in the price of uranium will
give a marginal increase in the volumes that
are being produced.
The energy content of a kilogram of uranium orthorium, ifspent
nuclear fuel is reprocessed and fully
utilized, is equivalent to about 3.5 million kilograms of
coal.[
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The cost of making nuclear power, with current legislation, is
about the same as making coal power,
which is considered very inexpensive (see Economics of new
nuclear power plants). If a carbon taxis
applied, nuclear does not have to pay anything because nuclear
does not emit greenhouse gasses such as
CO2 nor toxic gases NO, CO, SO2, arsenic, etc. that are emitted
by coal power plants
Nuclear power does not produce any primary air pollutionor
releasecarbon dioxideandsulfur
dioxide into theatmosphere. Therefore, it contributes only a
small amount to global warming oracid rain.
Raw material extraction is much safer for nuclear power compared
to coal. Coal mining is the second
most dangerous occupation in the United States Nuclear energy is
much safer per capita than coal derived
energy
For the same amount of electricity, the life cycle emissions of
nuclear power is about 4% of coal power.
Depending on the report, hydro, wind, and geothermal are
sometimes ranked lower, while wind and hydro
are sometimes ranked higher (by life cycle emissions).
According to a Stanford study, fast breeder reactors have the
potential to power humans on earth for
billions of years, making it sustainable.
Nuclear fusion
Fusion powercould solve many of the problems offission power(the
technology mentioned above) but,
despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial
fusion reactor is expected before 2050.
[33] Many technical problems remain unsolved. Proposed fusion
reactors commonly use deuterium,
anisotope ofhydrogen, as fuel and in most current designs also
lithium. Assuming a fusion energy
output equal to the current global output and that this does not
increase in the future, then the known
current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea
water would last 60 million years,
REFERANCES:-
Serra, J. "Alternative Fuel Resource Development", Clean and
Green Fuels Fund, (2006).
Bilgen, S. and K. Kaygusuz, Renewable Energy for a Clean and
Sustainable Future, Energy Sources 26,
1119 (2004).
Energy analysis of Power Systems, UIC Nuclear Issues Briefing
Paper 57 (2004).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_taxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_taxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_breederhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_development#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_new_nuclear_power_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_taxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_breederhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_development#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium
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Silvestre, B. S., Dalcol, P. R. T. Geographical proximity and
innovation: Evidences from the Campos
Basin oil & gas industrial agglomeration Brazil.
Technovation (2009),
doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2009.01.003
