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page 1 of 31 General histology – selected basic schemes List for the final exam A. Cell biology 1. Draw and label cell membrane. cross section of cytoplasmic membrane – phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane protein, cholesterol molecule, glycocalyx drawing of phospholipid molecule – highlight hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion 2. Draw and label cell anatomy. cytoplasmic membrane nucleus and nucleolus endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus mitochondria 3. Draw and label cell junctions together with apical complex. draw two adjacent cells and their junctions zonula occludens zonula adhaerens desmosome nexus highlight apical and basolateral part of cells 4. Draw and label nutrition uptake by cells. pinocytosis fagocytosis transcytosis – scheme of the process 5. Draw and label nucleus of eukaryotic cell, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria. nuclear envelope – two layers of membrane nuclear pore heterochromatin and euchromatin, nucleolus granular (rough, with ribosomes) and agranular (smooth) ER connected cisternae of Golgi apparatus (cis, medial, trans) transport vesicules inner and outer mitochondria membrane intermembranous space inner membrane cristae and matrix outline the localisation of respiratory complex proteins

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General histology – selected basic schemes List for the final exam

A. Cell biology 1. Draw and label cell membrane.

cross section of cytoplasmic membrane – phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane protein, cholesterol molecule, glycocalyx

drawing of phospholipid molecule – highlight hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion 2. Draw and label cell anatomy.

cytoplasmic membrane

nucleus and nucleolus

endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus

mitochondria 3. Draw and label cell junctions together with apical complex.

draw two adjacent cells and their junctions

zonula occludens

zonula adhaerens

desmosome

nexus

highlight apical and basolateral part of cells 4. Draw and label nutrition uptake by cells.

pinocytosis

fagocytosis

transcytosis – scheme of the process 5. Draw and label nucleus of eukaryotic cell, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria.

nuclear envelope – two layers of membrane

nuclear pore

heterochromatin and euchromatin, nucleolus

granular (rough, with ribosomes) and agranular (smooth) ER

connected cisternae of Golgi apparatus (cis, medial, trans)

transport vesicules

inner and outer mitochondria membrane

intermembranous space

inner membrane cristae and matrix

outline the localisation of respiratory complex proteins

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6. Draw and label basal membrane.

basal lamina consisting of lamina densa and lamina lucida

reticular lamina

glycoprotein – laminin

basis of the cell attached to lamina lucida 7. Draw and label cell cycle.

G1 – S – G1 – M

draw schemes of individual mitotis phases (position of chromosomes, cell division): prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

8. Draw and label protein synthesis starting with DNA and RNA.

transcription of DNA into RNA

mRNA translation into protein sequence, ribosome, codon and anti-codon, created protein

small and large subunit of ribosome B. Epithelial tissue 9. Draw and label free surface modifications – microvilli, stereocilia and kinocilia. Give an

example for each modification.

microvilli: brush border, striated border, short, fingerlike projections of the cytoplasm

microvilli structure: they contain actin microfilaments anchored in terminal web (actin + myosin), top of villi = glycoprotein glycocalyx

stereocilia – variety of microvilli = long, branching, fingerlike, nonmotile

kinocilia: long motile projections of the cells, 5-10 µm in length and 0.5 µm in diameter

kinocila structure: 9 pairs of microtubules are surrounding two central tubules (axoneme), the peripheral pairs = doublet, they share 23 common protofilaments, they are made of tubulin, dynein – the extending arms, nexin – links of dublets, the central pair enclosed in central sheath and linked to the doublets by radial spokes

10. Draw and label simple epithelia. Give examples.

simple squamous epithelium = single layer of uniform flat cells, flat nuclei

simple cuboidal epithelium = single layer of uniform cuboidal cells, rounded nuclei

simple columnar epithelium = single layer of uniform columnar cells, oval nuclei

pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium = single layer of cells of various shapes and heights

11. Draw and label stratified squamous epithelia. Give examples.

stratified squamous epithelia nonkeratinized: nuclei present in superficial cells

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stratified squamous epithelia keratinized: stratum basale, str. spinosum, str. granulosum (str. lucidum), str. corneum, str. corneum desquamans

12. Draw and label stratified columnar epithelium and transitional epithelium. Give

examples.

stratified columnar epithelium = few layers of columnar cells

transitional epithelium – 2 schemes – changing shapes of cells, umbrella cells 13. Draw and label Goblet cell in the context of two epithelia in which is present – give

examples.

unicellular endoepithelial gland, mucus-producing cell within a simple columnar and pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium

14. Draw and label classification of glandular epithelia according to shape. Give examples.

the duct portion may be branched (= compound gland) or unbranched (simple gland)

the glandular portion may be tubular, acinar or tubuloacinar

branched glandular portion (branched gland) 15. Draw and label classification of glandular epithelia according to the secretion pattern.

Give examples.

eccrine gland – sweat gland

apocrine gland – aromatic gland

holocrine gland – sebaceous gland 16. Draw and label classification of glandular epithelia according to secretory product. Give

examples.

serous cells with basophilic zymogen granules, round nuclei, abundant GER

mucous cells with flattened nucleus on the cell base, mucus-containing vesicles

seromucous mixed gland: Gianuzzi lunule, two types of secretion units, mucous cells in tubular part of gland, serous cells in alveolar part.

C. Connective tissue

17. Draw and label fixed cells of the connective tissue proper.

fibroblast: oval nucleus with nucleoli, granular endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, secretory vesicles, production of extracellular matrix (procollagen, proelastin)

fibrocyte: less cytoplasm and cell processes when compared to a fibroblast

reticular cell: star-shaped cell, oval nucleus, producing reticular fibres

fat cell (adipocyte): multilocular (nucleus in the centre, a number of mitochondria, lipid

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droplets) and unilocular (spherical shape with one large fat droplet, excentric nucleus and thin layer of cytoplasm)

pigment cell (melanocyte): cytoplasmic processes, melanin granules (melanosomes) 18. Draw and label wandering cells of the connective tissue proper.

macrophage (histiocyte): round to oval shape, irregular excentrically placed nucleus, Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum, phagocytic vesicles, lysosome, phagosome, peptide-MHC complex on the surface

plasma cell (plasmocyte): round-shaped, spherical nucleus with „cartwheel“ effect, presence of granular endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, secretory vesicles, immunoglobulin’s synthesis

mastocyte (heparinocyte) – oval shape, small nucleus, many secretory granule (heparin and histamine)

19. Draw and label biosynthesis of collagen. Draw and label reticular and elastic fibres.

collagen fibre: procollagen, tropocollagen, overlapping of tropocollagen triple helices within a microfibril, fibril, collagen bundle

shape of reticular fibres, their relation with fibrocytes or reticular cells

elastic fibres: oxytalan microfibrils surronding the elastin core

20. Draw and label mesenchyme. Give an example.

mesenchymal undifferentiated cells (star shaped)

reticular fibres, ground substance, fibroblasts 21. Draw and label loose (collagenous) connective tissue. Give an example.

collagen and elastic fibres

fibroblast, macrophage, mastocyte

capillaries, nerve fibres 22. Draw and label regular dense connective tissue. Give an example.

tendon: collagen fibres running in parallel bundles, fibrocytes

yellow ligament: collagen and elastic fibres, fibroblasts 23. Draw and label hyaline cartilage. Give an example.

chondrocytes in lacunes with basophilic capsule, isogenous groups

ground substance with type II collagen fibrils

perichondrium with fibroblasts, collagenous connective tissue, blood and lymhatic vessels and nerves

24. Draw and label elastic cartilage. Give an example.

individual chondrocytes or isogenous groups of chondrocytes

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elastic fibres embedded within the ground substance

type II collagen fibres

perichondrium with fibroblasts, collagenous connective tissue, vessels and verves 25. Draw and label fibrous cartilage - give an example. Draw and label ultrastructure of

chondrocyte.

without perichondrium, on the surface of cartilage there is dense collagen connective tissue

indvidual chondrocytes or chondrocytes forming columns

coarse type I collagen fibres, either irregular bundles or parallel bundles

chondrocyte ultrastructure: nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, matrix exocytosis

26. Draw and label histology of compact bone.

lamellae forming Haversian systems (osteons), interstitial lamellae

Haversian canal with a blood vessel

osteocytes with projections running through bone canaliculi

canals of Volkmann

periosteum with collagenous connective tissue, Sharpey’s fibres and fibroblasts

endosteum on the inner bone surface 27. Draw and label histology of spongy (cancellous) bone.

branched bony trabeculae built by lamellar bone, osteons in thick trabeculas

large spaces among the trabecules contain either red or yellow bone marrow

osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts 28. Draw and label intramembraneous (desmogenous) ossification. Give an example of bone

formed via the desmogenous ossification.

mesenchyme with fibrocytes and reticular cells gradually condensed into bone blastema

osteoblasts producing unmineralized bone matrix (osteoid) on the surface of newly formed bone trabecules

osteocytes buried within the bone matrix, osteoclasts in Howship´s lacunes

blood vessels within the connective tissue among the bone trabecules 29. Draw and label ossification of a long bone (stages of long bone formation).

cartilage template, periostal bone collar of desmogenous origin round the diaphysis

ossification centres in diaphysis and in epiphyses

epiphyseal plates built by hyaline cartilage

ossification of epiphyseal plates

bone marrow cavity

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30. Draw and label zones of endochondral ossification. Give an example of bone formed via

chondrogenous ossification.

reserve zone of hyaline cartilage

proliferative zone (mitoses of chondroblasts)

hypertrophic zone (huge chondrocytes)

zone of calcified cartilage

zone of erosion with blood capillaries, chondroclasts and osteoprogenitor cells

osteoid zone with newly formed bone trabecules, osteoblasts producing bone matrix D. Blood 31. Erythrocytes – morphology and number in men and women in peripheral blood. Draw

(including their appropriate staining and size) and label.

size: 7.5 µm x 2.5 µm

morphology: biconcave disc without a nucleus

4-5.8 mil./mm3 in men; 3,5-4,2 mil./mm3 in women

eosinophilic cytoplasm 32. Draw (including their appropriate staining and size) and label granulocytes – morphology

and differential count (% of all leukocytes).

neutrophils (60-70%), size 10-12 µm, granules smaller then in basophils and eosinophils with limited affinity to stain, segmented nucleus – gradually at first horseshoe-shaped (band or stab form), then becomes bilobed and as the cell ages, so does the number of lobes in its nucleus (increase up to five)

eosinophils (2-5 %), size 10–15 µm, bilobed nucleus, large pink granules (take up reddish/orange colour)

basophils (0,5-1%), size: 8–10 µm, bilobed S-shaped nucleus, large basophilic granules 33. Draw (including their appropriate staining and size) and label agranulocytes –

morphology and differential count.

lymphocytes (20-30%), size: 6-10 µm, large nucleus almost fills the cell, nucleus surrounded by a small rim of cytoplasm

monocytes (3-8%), the largest leukocyte 15-20 µm, kidney-shaped nucleus, azurophilic granules (lysosomes)

34. Draw and label thrombopoisesis and blood platelets – morphology and number in

peripheral blood.

oval-shaped thrombocyte, size 2-4 µm, hyalomere and granulomere, tubular system

150 000-400 000/mm3 of peripheral blood

thrombopoiesis: hemocytoblast, megakaryoblast, megakaryocyte, thrombocyte

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35. Draw (including appropriate staining and size) and label erythropoiesis.

haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) – 25 µm, rounded cell, rounded nucleus, nucleoli, low cytoplasm to nucleus ratio

proerythroblast – 15-20µm, purple cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleoli

basophilic erythroblast – 12-15µm, blue cytoplasm, more ribosomes

polychromatophilic erythroblast – 8-10µm, purple to pink cytoplasm

eosinophilic erythroblast – 6-8µm, nucleus still present, pinkish to reddish cytoplasm

reticulocyte – remnants of organelles (ribosomes, ER), no nucleus

erythrocyte (normocyte) 36. Draw and label lymphopoiesis.

haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) – 25 µm, rounded cell, rounded nucleus, nucleoli, low cytoplasm to nucleus ratio

lymphoblast

T- and B-lymphocytes, plasmocytes differentiating from B-lymphocytes, NK cells 37. Draw and label monopoiesis (monocytopoiesis).

haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) – 25 µm, rounded cell, rounded nucleus, nucleoli, low cytoplasm to nucleus ratio

monoblast

monocyte

macrophage 38. Draw and label granulopoiesis (granulocytopoiesis).

haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) – 25 µm, rounded cell, rounded nucleus, nucleoli, low cytoplasm to nucleus ratio

promyelocyte with azurophilic granules

myelocytes with specific granules

metamyelocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils E. Muscle tissue 39. Draw and label smooth muscle cell – 2 schemes with a longitudinal and a cross section.

long, spindle-shaped cell, nucleus in central position, granular endoplasmic reticulum, caveoli, gap junctions, myosin and actin, dense body

40. Draw and label skeletal muscle – 2 schemes with a longitudinal and cross section.

large multinucleated fibres, nuclei situated on the periphery, sarcolemma, sarcomere

striation with anisotropic and isotropic bands

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41. Draw and label ultrastructure of skeletal muscle fibre including scheme of a sarcomere.

Z lines with sacromere borders, actin binding to Z-lines, myosin

A-band, I-band, M-line

a triade consisting of T–tubule invaginating towards the transverse cisterns of sarcoplasmatic reticulum

nuclei on the periphery, mitochondria in sarcoplasm 42. Draw and label cardiac muscle – 2 schemes with a longitudinal and cross section.

cardiac myocytes, intercalated discs, central position of nucleus, lipofuscin granules near the poles of nuclei, mitochondria

endomysium with a rich capillary bed 43. Draw and label ultrastructure of the intercalated disc.

maculae adherentes (desmosomes), fascia adherens, gap junctions 44. Draw and label cardiac conducting system.

SA node, bunde of His, AV node, Purkyně fibres (less myofibrils, larger then cardiomyocytes)

E. Nerve tissue 45. Draw and label a neuron.

perikaryon (soma), nucleus, nucleolus, Nissl’s body (GER), mitochondria

dendrites, axon, axon hillock, initial segment

myelin sheath, node of Ranvier, Schwann cells, telodendria, effector 46. Draw and label types of neurons according to number of processes – give examples.

apolar: embryonic neuroblasts

unipolar: photoreceptors in the retina

bipolar: second neuron of the retina

pseudounipolar: sensitive neurons in spinal ganglia

multipolar: motoneuron of anterior horn of spinal cord 47. Draw and label peripheral nerve.

epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium, myelin sheath, Schwann cells, axons, nuclei of Schwann cells

vasa nervorum

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48. Draw and label myelinated and unmyelinated axons in peripheral nerve system – development of myelin sheath (3 schemes) and section of myelinated axon.

development: axon, Schwann cell and its membrane wrapped around the axon, myelin formation

longitudinal section: axon, Schwann cells, layers of myelin, node of Ranvier

multiple axons enfolded by Schwann cell 49. Draw and label reflex arc.

skin receptor, aferent sensory fibre, spinal ganglion, with pseudounipolar neuron, posterior spinal horn

interneuron of the spinal cord, multipolar motoric neuron the anterior horn, efferent motor fibres, muscle effector

50. Draw and label motor end plate.

axon, myelin, synaptic vesicles

synaptic cleft, junctional folds, muscle fibre 51. Draw and label synapse and neurotransmitter circulation.

axon, microtubules, microfilaments, mitochondria

presynaptic membrane, synaptic cleft, postsynaptic membrane, receptors, synaptic vesicles (transmitter)

52. Draw and label neuroglia.

fibrous astrocyte (with long pedicles), protoplasmatic astrocyte (pedicles with perivascular feet)

oligodendrocyte

microglia (spiny processes)

ependymal cells (cilia) lining CNS cavities 53. Draw and label meninges.

periosteum, dura mater (dense colagen tissue, dural sinuses)

arachnoidea (loose connective tissue), arachnoid villi (granulations) protruding to the venous sinuses, subarachnoideal space

pia mater (loose collagenous connective tissue with blood vessels)

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Special histology – selected basic schemes List for the final exam

A. Digestive system:

54. Lip skin layers with epidermis, dermis, hair follicles sweat glands sebaceous glands skeletal muscle (m. orbicularis oris) labial glands (mixed seromucous) vestibular mucosa with stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium

55. Tooth (undemineralized section) enamel with prisms, Hunter-Schreger lines, incremental lines of Retzius dentin with canals (tubules) containing Tomes’ fibres of odontoblasts predentin odontoblasts loose connective tissue of the pulp, blood vessels and nerves cementum covering the root

56. Dorsum of the tongue stratified squamous keratinized (filiform papillae) and non-keratinized epithelium filiform papillae fungiform papillae with connective tissue stroma serous glands of Ebner skeletal muscle fibres and interstitial connective tissue

57. Root of the tongue stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium circumvallate papilla surrounded by a trench taste buds serous glands of Ebner mucous glands of Weber lymphatic follicles of the lingual tonsil crypts of the lingual tonsil

58. Soft palate nasal mucosa with pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium and goblet cells seromucous glands skeletal muscle fibres, (adipose tissue) minor mucous glands oral mucosa with stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium

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59. Oesophagus stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium of the mucosa (lamina epithelialis

mucosae) lamina propria mucosae lamina muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle cells) tunica submucosa – loose connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves (mucous glands) muscularis externa – the inner circular and the outer longitudinal muscle layer adventitia – loose connective tissue (or serosa in the intra-abdominal portion)

60. Stomach simple columnar epithelium and gastric glands of the mucosa (lamina epithelialis

mucosae) lamina propria mucosae with gastric glands lamina muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle cells) tunica submucosa – loose connective tissue muscularis externa – the inner oblique, the middle circular, the outer longitudinal smooth

muscle layer tunica serosa

61. Gastric glands (principal gastric glands) simple columnar epithelium gastric pits (foveolae gastricae) mucous neck cells chief (peptic) cells parietal (oxyntic) cells enteroendocrine and undifferentiated cells

62. Duodenum simple columnar epithelium and goblet cells of the mucosa (lamina epithelialis mucosae) intestinal villi intestinal crypts (crypts of Lieberkühn) lamina propria mucosae with lymphoid follicles lamina muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle cells) submucosa – loose connective tissue submucosal mucous glands of Brunner muscularis externa – the inner circular and the outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer tunica serosa

63. Large intestine simple columnar epithelium and goblet cells of the mucosa (lamina epithelialis mucosae) lamina propria mucosae lymphoid follicles

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lamina muscularis mucosae submucosa – loose connective tissue muscularis externa – the inner circular and the outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer tunica serosa

64. Appendix simple columnar epithelium and goblet cells of the mucosa (lamina epithelialis mucosae) several lymphoid follicles lamina muscularis mucosae submucosa – loose connective tissue muscularis externa – the inner circular and the outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer tunica serosa

65. Liver – hepatic lobules (morphological units) interlobular vein and artery interlobular bile duct with simple cuboidal epithelium portal triad within the portal (portobiliary) space connective tissue delimiting the classic lobular units central vein hepatocytes arranged as anastomosing trabecular epithelium venous sinusoids

66. Liver – hepatic (portal) acini (functional units) central cein portal space with the portal triad terminal branches of hepatic arterioles and portal venules connecting the triads

(circumlobular vessels) zone 1 (periportal) nearest to the terminal branches of afferent vessels, zone 2 intermediate zone, and zone 3 around the central venous drainage

67. Gall bladder simple columnar epithelium of the mucosa (lamina epithelialis mucosae) lamina propria mucosae (elevated into villi-like projections) smooth muscle layer with circular and oblique bundles tunica serosa

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68. Pancreas serous acini with basophilic cells intralobular duct interlobular duct and blood vessels within the interlobular connective tissue islets of Langerhans with alpha, beta and delta cells and sinusoids

69. Parotid gland serous acini with basophilic cells intralobular duct striated duct with simple columnar cells interlobular connective tissue with blood vessels adipocytes

70. Sublingual and submandibular gland serous acini with basophilic cells (prevailing in the submandibular gland) mucous units (prevailing in the sublingual glands) serous demilunes (demilunes of Gianuzzi) intralobular and interlobular ducts interlobular connective tissue with blood vessels

B. Respiratory system 71. Trachea pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium and goblet cells thick basal membrane lamina propria mucosae with blood vessels tubulo-acinar, seromucous glands in the submucosa hyaline cartilage with perichondrium paries membranaceus with smooth trachealis muscle tunica adventitia with loose connective tissue

72. Epiglottis non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium on the anterior surface pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium on the posterior surface lamina propria mucosae with loose connective tissue tubulo-acinar, seromucous glands in the submucosa elastic cartilage with perichondrium

73. Lungs bronchi with pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium, plates of hyaline cartilage,

seromucous glands and circular smooth muscle cells bronchioles with simple cuboidal or low columnar epithelium and with smooth muscle

cells

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alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli interalveolar septa with capillaries type I pneumocytes (simple squamous) type II pneumocytes (simple cuboidal cells with secretory bodies)

C. Urinary system 74. Renal cortex fibrous capsule renal corpuscle – glomerulus and Bowman's capsule vascular pole of the glomerulus with afferent and efferent arteriole and macula densa juxtaglomerular cells urinary pole of the glomerulus with the proximal tubule urinary space Bowman's capsule - simple squamous epithelium on the outer (parietal) wall, podocytes

on the juxtacapillary (visceral) wall mesangial cells among the glomerular capillaries proximal tubule distal tubule interstitial connective tissue

75. Renal medulla loop of Henle – thick limb with simple cuboidal epithelium, thin limb with simple

squamous epithelium interstitial connective tissue collecting duct with simple cuboidal or low columnar epithelium 76. Ureter transitional epithelium (urothelium) with umbrella cells on the surface lamina propria mucosae with loose connective tissue inner longitudinal smooth muscle bundles outer circular smooth muscle bundles external adventitia with loose connective tissue, nerves and blood vessels

77. Urinary bladder transitional epithelium (urothelium) with umbrella cells on the surface lamina propria mucosae with loose connective tissue inner longitudinal smooth muscle bundles middle circular smooth muscle bundles inner longitudinal smooth muscle bundles external adventitia with loose connective tissue, nerves and blood vessels (optionally:

tunica serosa – peritoneal covering)

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D. Male reproductive system 78. Testis tunica albuginea testis (dense collagenous connective tissue) septa partitioning the testis into lobules convoluted seminiferous tubules seminiferous epithelium with spermatogenic cells and supportive Sertoli cells steroid-producing interstitial Leydig cells, capillaries rete testis with simple cuboidal epithelium

79. Epididymis efferent ductules (ductuli efferentes) lined by a ciliated columnar epithelium and shorter

non-ciliated cells, surrounded by smooth muscle cells duct of the epididymis with pseudostratified columnar epithelium and stereocilia, circular

smooth muscle layer loose interstitial connective tissue among the ducts 80. Prostate fibrous capsule fibromuscular interstitial connective tissue with smooth muscle cells and blood vessels prostatic glands with follicles/canals lined with simple columnar epithelium amyloid bodies/prostatic concretions 81. Spermatic cord ductus deferens lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia lamina propria mucosae smooth muscle bundles - external and internal longitudinal bundles and with a middle

circular muscle sheet arterioles and venous plexus peripheral nerves skeletal muscle (m. cremaster) loose connective tissue connecting all the structures

E. Female reproductive system

82. Ovary simple cuboidal epithelium (thickened peritoneal mesothelium) tunica albuginea (dense collagenous connective tissue) ovarian cortex with follicles primordial, primary and secondary (antral) follicle tertiary (Graafian) follicle: oocyte, zona pellucida, membrana granulosa and its basal

lamina, corona radiata, antrum folliculi filled with the liquor, theca folliculi interna et externa

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atretic follicle corpus luteum corpus albicans with hyaline connective tissue ovarian medulla with blood vessels 83. Uterine tube mucosa with folds, lined by simple columnar epithelium (ciliated and secretory cells) lamina propria mucosae with loose connective tissue inner circular smooth muscle layer outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer tunica serosa

84. Uterine wall endometrium (mucosa) with simple columnar epithelium, tubular endometrial glands connective tissue stroma between the glands with blood vessels myometrium composed of smooth muscle fasciculi and connective tissue perimetrium (serosa, i.e. mesothelium and loose connective tissue)

85. Proliferating endometrium functional layer basal layer adjacent to the myometrium straight and narrow uterine glands with mostly regular shape, columnar cells highly cellular endometrial stroma

86. Endometrium – late secretory phase or decidualized highly irregular and tortuous glands with secretion in the lumen spiral blood vessels of the functional layer stroma with oedema or navicular cells with light cytoplasm (glycogen, lipids)

87. Vagina stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium, pale cytoplasm (glycogen) lamina propria mucosae with loose connective tissue smooth muscle layer adventitia - loose connective tissue with vascular plexuses and nerves

88. Labium majus epidermis - stratified squamous keratinized epithelium dermis hair follicles sweat merocrine glands, sebaceous holocrine glands, aromatic apocrine glands loose connective and adipose tissue in the middle

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89. Labium minus stratified squamous epithelium with or without thin keratinized layer connective tissue with blood vessels and holocrine sebaceous glands

90. Breast - resting state small secretory acini and tubules with simple cuboidal epithelium intralobular duct, interlobular duct (lactiferous duct and sinus) myoepithelial cells surrounding the ducts dense connective tissue stroma surrounding the lobules loose adipose connective tissue among the lobules 91. Breast - lactating well developed secretory acini with apocrine secretion pattern, lined by simple cuboidal

to columnar epithelium lactiferous ducts and sinuses dilated by the presence of milk narrow bands of interlobular connective tissue stroma

92. Placenta branching chorionic villous tree intervillous space (filled by maternal blood in vivo) syncytial trophoblast cells (multinucleated) cytotrophoblast layer or Langhans’ cells core of villi containing extraembryonic mesenchyme and capillaries of the extracorporal

embryonic/fetal circulation 93. Umbilical cord simple squamous to cuboidal amniotic epithelium on the surface loose connective tissue with widely spaced fibroblasts – Wharton’s jelly two umbilical arteries left umbilical vein

F. Endocrine glands

94. Pituitary gland fibrous capsule adenohypophysis with epithelium arranged in cords or follicles, chromophobe cells,

acidophilic and basophilic cells, blood sinusoids in the interstitial tissue (optionally, somatotrophs, lactotrophs, gonadotrophs, thyreotrophs, and corticotrophs may be described)

neurohypophysis with neurosecretory fibres, neuroglial pituicytes pars intermedia

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95. Thyroid gland endocrine follicles lined by simple cuboidal or low columnar epithelium central colloid with thyreoglobulin parafollicular C-cells interstitial connective tissue with capillaries

96. Suprarenal gland perirenal adipose connective tissue fibrous capsule suprarenal cortex with zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis suprarenal medulla with chromaffin cells, neurones and venous sinusoids

G. Blood vessels and heart 97. Aorta (large elastic artery) tunica intima – endothelium and subendothelial connective tissue tunica media with fenestrated elastic lamellae, collagen and smooth muscle cells tunica adventitia with collagenous connective tissue, vasa vasorum and nervi vasorum

98. Muscular artery tunica intima – endothelium and subendothelial connective tissue tunica media with lamina elastica interna, collagen and smooth muscle cells (optionally

also lamina elastica externa) tunica adventitia with collagenous connective tissue, vasa vasorum and nervi vasorum

99. Muscular vein tunica intima – endothelium and subendothelial connective tissue, valve tunica media with collagenous connective tissue, smooth muscle cells thicker tunica adventitia with smooth muscle cells, collagenous connective tissue, vasa

vasorum and nervi vasorum

100. Wall of heart visceral layer of serosal epicardium – mesothelium and submesothelial connective tissue subepicardial adipose tissue with major coronary vessels myocardium with cardiac myocytes - centrally positioned nuclei, intercalar discs,

lipofuscin near the poles of nuclei endomysium with capillary bed endocardium and subendocardial connective tissue, Purkyně's fibres with clear

sarcoplasm

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H. Lymphatic vessels and organs

101. Lymph node fibrous capsule with dense collagenous connective tissue afferent lymphatic vessels peripheral subcapsular sinus connective tissue trabeculae extending from the capsule cortex with lymphoid follicles, germinal centres deep cortex (paracortex) medulla, medullary sinuses hilum with efferent lymphatics and blood supply

102. Palatine tonsil non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium on the oropharyngeal surface patches of thinner reticulated epithelium with lymphocytes tonsillar crypts with epithelia, lymphocytes, bacteria lymphoid follicles in the lamina propria, germinal centres of follicles fibrous hemicapsule skeletal muscle (m. palatoglossus/m. palatopharyngeus)

103. Thymus fibrous capsule with dense collagenous connective tissue septa extending from the capsule, separating individual thymic lobules cortex with densely packed thymocytes and reticular epithelium medulla with thymocytes, reticular epithelium, and Hassal's corpuscles

104. Spleen fibrous capsule with dense collagenous connective tissue connective tissue trabeculae extending from the capsule, trabecular blood vessels lymphoid follicles of the white pulp (Malpighian bodies), central arterioles within the

follicles red pulp with reticular fibroblasts, cords of Billroth, venous sinusoids and macrophages

I. Nervous system 105. Spinal cord pia mater spinal white matter, dorsal, lateral and ventral funiculi spinal grey matter, dorsal and ventral horns, dorsal and ventral grey commissure around

the central canal (optionally: lateral horn in the thoracic and upper lumbar region) motoric neurons in the ventral horns

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106. Cerebellum convoluted cerebellar cortex (grey matter) with three layers, namely I. the molecular

layer, II. the Purkyně cell layer (dendrites extending towards the molecular layer, axons running to the white matter), III. the granular layer

cerebral white matter

107. Cerebral neocortex (optionally: pia mater on the surface) I. the molecular (plexiform) lamina II. the external granular lamina III. the external pyramidal lamina IV. the internal granular lamina V. the internal pyramidal (ganglionic) lamina VI. the multiform lamina blood vessels, neuroglia

108. Peripheral nerve fibrous coat on the surface – the epineurium perineurium covering the nerve bundles reticular connective tissue – the endoneurium among the individual nerve fibres nuclei of Schwann cells myelin sheaths vasa nervorum

J. Integumentary system 109. Thick (hairless) skin – planta pedis epidermis with stratified squamous keratinized epithelium stratum corneum (keratinized layer) stratum lucidum (clear layer) stratum granulosum (granular layer) stratum spinosum (spinous or pricke cell layer) stratum basale (basal layer) dermis with collagenous connective tissue, a superficial papillary layer and a deeper

reticular layer, blood vessels sweat glands (simple tubular coiled) 110. Skin – axilla epidermis with stratified squamous keratinized epithelium stratum corneum (keratinized layer) stratum granulosum (granular layer) stratum spinosum (spinous or pricke cell layer) stratum basale (basal layer)

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dermis with collagenous connective tissue, blood vessels hair follicles, holocrine sebaceous glands, merocrine sweat glands, apocrine aromatic

glands

111. Eyelid epidermis with stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (stratum corneum,

granulosum, spinosum, basale) dermis with collagenous connective tissue, blood vessels hair follicles and holocrine sebaceous glands sweat glands skeletal muscle (m. orbicularis oculi) tarsal plate with dense collagenous connective tissue and Meibomian holocrine

sebaceous glands palpebral tunica conjunctiva with 2-3 layers of cuboidal or columnar epihelium

112. Pinna (auricle) epidermis with stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (stratum corneum,

granulosum, spinosum, basale) dermis with collagenous connective tissue, blood vessels hair follicles and holocrine sebaceous glands elastic cartilage with perichondrium (optional: adipose tissue) 113. Scrotum epidermis with stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (stratum corneum,

granulosum, spinosum, basale) dermis with collagenous connective tissue, blood vessels hair follicles, holocrine sebaceous glands, merocrine sweat glands, apocrine aromatic

glands tunica dartos (the dartos fascia) – smooth muscle (optionally: the external spermatic fascia, musculus cremaster and cremasteric fascia, the

internal spermatic fascia; epiorchium and periorchium (serous membranes))

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Embryology – selected basic schemes List for the final exam

A. Progenesis 114. Draw and label ovarian follicles maturation (till ovulation). primordial follicle with primary oocyte and follicular cells secondary folicle with zona pellucida, antrum folliculi, membrana granulosa and theca

folliculi Graafian (tertiary) follicle, cumulus oophorus, corona radiate Ovulation with free oocyte surrounded by zona pellucida and corona radiata layers. 115. Draw and label meiosis during oogenesis and spermatogenesis. primary oocyty, 1.st meiotic division → secondary oocyte and 1.st polar body 2.nd meiotic division after the fertilization → ovum and 2.nd polar body primary spermatocyte, 1.st meiotic division → secondary spermatocytes 2.nd meiotic division → four spermatids

116. Draw and label spermatogenesis including spermiogenesis. spermatogonia in testicular seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells primary and secondary spermatocyte, spermatids spermiogenesis – morphological transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa

(flagellum, neck, condensed heterochromatin, acrosome)

117. Draw and label fertilization, acrosomal and cortical reaction. spermatozoa penetrating the corona radiata and zona pellucida fusion of male and female pronuclei release of cortical granules into the periviteline space

118. Draw and label cleavage till implantation process. mitotic division of zygote, origin of blastomeres during the day 1-2; blastomeres still

enclosed within the zona pellucida mittic division of blastomeres during the day 3-4, morula embryo transported through the ovarian tube loss of zona pellucida, (hatching of the blastocyst) blastocyst anchoring/attached to endometrium 119. Draw and label implantation of blastula in three schemes – free blastocyst, onset if

implantation, finished implantation. loss of zona pellucida (hatching of the blastocyst), formation of blastocoel (morula

→ blastocyst) differentiation of trophoblast and embryoblast

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implantation of blastocyst into endometrium, invasion of syncytiotrophoblast, vascular lacunes in the endometrium, chorion laeve et frondosum

120. Draw and label development of chorionic villi. differentiation of trophoblast → cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast, primary

chorionic villi secondary chorionic villi with extraembryonic mesenchyme tertiary villi with fetal capillaries inside the extraembryonic mesenchyme

121. Draw and label amniotic vesicle, yolk sac, gastrula. blastocyst with embryoblast and trophoblast syncytio- and cytotrophoblast, epiblast and hypoblast, primary mesoderm, Heuserian

membrane amniotic vesicle and yolk sac and their mutual contact; exocoelom chorion (primary mesoderm, cytotrophoblast, syncytiotrophoblast), amnion (primary

mesoderm, amniotic ectoderm) 122. Draw and label embryonic disc – dorsal view and sagittal sections. ectodermal primitive streak and Hensen’s node head process = chordomesodermal process luminized notochordal canal → canal of Lieberkühn entodermal prechordal plate neurenteric canal, cloacal membrane, allantois

123. Draw and label formation of mesoderm and chorda dorsalis – dorsal view and axial sections

primitive streak and Hensen’s node, migration of ectoderm cells and origin of mesoderm formation of chorda dorsalis from the notochordal plate paraxial segmented mesoderm, intermediary mesoderm, lateral somatopleuric and

splanchnopleuric mesoderm 124. Draw and label origin of somites and coelom during gastrulation. Draw and label

segmentation of mesoderm using transversal sections. paraxial mesoderm, intermediary mesoderm, lateral mesoderm with somatopleura and

splanchnopleura, coelom relation of somites to neural tube, neural crest, chorda dorsalis, paired aortae

B. Nerve system

125. Draw and label neural plate, neural groove and neural tube – dorsal view and transverse sections.

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primitive streak and neural plate, neuroporus anterior et posterior ectoderm, coelom, prechordal plate and neural plate neural plate, neural crest, neural groove neural tube, chorda dorsalis, neural crest and somitic mesoderm

126. Draw and label division of neural tube. three brain vesicles: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon prosencephalon divided into telencephalon and diencephalon rhombencephalon divided into metencephalon (futher divided to pons and cerebellum) a

myelencephalon (medulla oblongata and spinal cord)

127. Draw and label histogenesis of central nervous system. neural crest, dorsal roof (alar) plate and ventral floor (basal) plate, sulcus limitans dorsal (afferent) and ventral (motoric) spinal root, spinal ganglia, sensitive and motor

neurons glial external and internal limiting membrane, ependyme (ciliated), neuroblasts and

spongioblasts

128. Draw and label neural crest, autonomic nervous system, placodes, derivatives of neural crest.

neural crest and neural tube division of neural crest, cells migrating from the crest: spinal ganglia, ganglia of the

autonomic nervous system including the suprarenal medulla and enteric nervous system; neuroplacodes of the cranial nerves, melanocytes

129. Draw and label development of the eye. optic vesicle growing from the dienphalon, ectodermal lens placode optic nerve and optic cup, neural and pigmented retina layers; invagination of the lens

vesicle; eyelid, cornea eye mesenchyme (vitreous body) with hyaloid artery (→ arteria centralis retinae);

choroid, sclera,

130. Development of the inner ear, the middle ear cavity and the outer ear. inner ear: invagination of otic placode, otocyst, cochlea, sacculus, utricle, endolymphatic

duct, semicirmular canals middle ear: originating from the 1st entodermal pharyngeal pouch external ear: ear canal (the external auditory meatus) from the 1st ectodermal cleft,

pinna from the auricular hillocks on the mandibular and hyoid pharyngeal arch, eardrum

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C. Circulation

131. Draw and label formation of blood islands. blood islands in the extraembryonic mesenchyme of the yolk sac, connecting stalk and

chorionic plate/villi angioblasts, differentiating into erythroblasts and endothelial cells

132. Draw and label primitive embryonic circulation (from bilateral circulation to unification of paired blood vessels.

embryonic and extraembryonic (yolk sac) circulation umbilical vein, common cardinal vein (tributaries: pre- and postcardinal vein), vitelline

vein (from the extraembryonic circulation) heart, aorta, internal carotid artery, vitelline artery, umbilical artery

133. Draw and label heart tube formation. six venous tributaries to the sinus venosus: paired common cardinal veins, umbilical

veins, vitelline veins sinus venosus and atria ventricular space, heart bulbus, truncus with aortic arches 134. Draw and label formation of the heart loop. sinus venosus, atrio-ventricular canal, ventricles, heart bulbus, truncus with aortic arches dilated atrio-ventricular canal, future right and left atrium and right and left chamber

within the single (united) heart cavity

135. Draw and label atrial septation. sino-atrial opening (aperture) with septum spurium septum intermedium septum primum and ostium primum septum primum grows together with the septum intermedium; ostium secondum

develops septum secundum and foramen ovale

136. Draw and label septation of heart ventricles. septum intermedium and septum interventriculare with foramen interventriculare in

between bulbar ridges, aortico-pulmonary septum, separated aorta and pulmonary trunc

137. Draw and label arteries of the aortic arches. remnants of the 1st arch artery – maxillary artery remnants of the 2nd arch artery – stapedial artery

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3rd arch – common and internal carotid artery 4th arch – aortic arch (on the left) and right subclavian artery (on the right) (5th arch – no remnants left) 6th arch – pulmonary trunc and ductus arteriosus

138. Draw and label patent foramen ovale (foramen ovale apertum). blood flowing to the left atrium via pulmonary veins, left-to-right shunt from the left

atrium to the right atrium through the foramen ovale, overload of the right atrium and right ventricle

right ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary artery hypertrophy reduced (hypotrophic) aorta

139. Draw and label patent (persistent) ductus arteriosus and types of aortic coarctation. arcus aortae, truncus pulmonalis, ductus arteriosus, direction of blood flow preductal, ductal, and postductal coarctation 140. Draw and label tetralogy of Fallot. ventricular septal defect overriding aorta (aorta connected to both the right and the left ventricle) pulmonary stenosis right ventricular hypertrophy D. Digestive system 141. Draw and label delimitation of the primitive gut. relation between the amniotic sac and the yolk sac delimitation of the primitive gut (archenteron) due to expansion of the amniotic sac over

the yolk sac oral (oropharyngeal) and cloacal membrane yolk vesiccle connected to the gut via the vitelline duct (yolk stalk, omphaloenteric duct) 142. Draw and label development and the fate of ectodermal pharyngeal clefts – frontal

section. oropharyngeal membrane mandibular arch, hyoid arch, tubercles of the future external ear (pinna), first pharyngeal

cleft developing into the external meatus acusticus operculum closing the cervical sinus space

143. Draw and label development and derivatives of entodermal pharyngeal pouches. position of the tongue primordia (tuberculum impar and copula), of thyreoglossal duct

and larynx 1st pouch – tympanic (middle ear) cavity and auditory (Eustachian, pharyngotympanic)

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tube 2nd pouch – tonsillar sinus and palatine tonsil 3rd pouch – thymus and inferior parathyroid gland 4th pouch – superior parathyroid gland, ultimobranchial body (parafollicular C-cells of the

thyroid gland)

144. Draw and label skeleton and muscles of the pharyngeal arches. 1st arch – Meckel’s cartilage, malleus, incus, sphenomandibular ligament; masticatory

muscles, mylohyoid muscle, anterior belly of the digastric muscle, tensor tympani musle 2nd arch – upper part of the body of the hyoid bone, lesser cornua, stylohyoid ligament,

styloid process, stapes; mimic muscles incl. the platysma muscle; posterior belly of the digastric muscle, stylohyoid muscle, stapedius muscle

3rd arch – lower part of the body of the hyoid bone, greater cornua; stylopharyngeus muscle

4th arch – thyroid cartilage, cuneiform cartilages; pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles 6th arch – corniculate cartilages; pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles

145. Draw and label nerves of the pharyngeal arches. 1st arch – trigeminal nerve 2nd arch – facial nerve 3rd arch – glossopharyngeal nerve 4th arch – vagus nerve 6th arch – recurrent laryngeal nerve (vagus nerve)

146. Draw and label development of the tongue and thyroid gland. oropharyngeal membrane and the borderline between the ectoderm and entoderm ectodermal origin: tuberculum impar and lateral lingual swellings of the mandibular arch

→ body of the tongue entodermal origin: copula → root of the tongue thyreoglossal duct, right/left/pyramidal lobe of the thyroid, foramen caecum

147. Draw and label development of the hypophysis. stomodeum (ectoderm), oropharyngeal (oral) membrane, pharynx (entoderm) Rathke’s pouch in the roof of the stomodeum; infundibulum of the 3rd ventricle from the

diencephalon adenohypophysis originating from the Rathke’s pouch; neurohypophysis growing from

the infundibulum 148. Draw and label development of dentition – dental lamina, teeth primordia and tooth

development. labiogingival groove separating the lip from the gingiva dental lamina (growing towards the gingiva); segmentation of the lamina to 5 teeth buds

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forming the primordia of the primary (deciduous) teeth; primordia of the secondary (permanent) teeth growing in the palatal/lingual direction

enamel organ (of ectodermal origin) with reticulated epithelium; inner and outer layer of ameloblasts, sheath of Hertwig

mesenchyme of the dental papilla, odontoblasts mesenchymal dental follicle; cementum, periodontal membrane, alveolar bone around

the root primordium of a secondary (permanent) tooth 149. Draw and label histogenesis of the crown and root of a tooth. dental pulp, odontoblasts with Tomes’ fibres within dentinal tubules, newly formed

predentin, dentin enamel-producing ameloblasts cementoblasts, periodontal ligaments and alveolar bone around the root 150. Draw and label development of trachea and lungs; tracheo-oesophageal fistula. larynx separated by laryngotracheal groove from the ventral part of the oesophagus branched bronchial growing to the surrounding mesenchyme fistula –communication between esophagus and trachea (or other organ) 151. Draw and label rotation of the oesophagus and stomach; migration of the liver

primordium – axial sections. The relationship of the structures to the coelomic cavity – transversal sections.

stomach, coelomic cavity, dorsal and ventral mesentery rotation of the stomach – right side towards the dorsal wall of coelom, left side towards

the ventral wall of coelom; greater curvature shifted to the left side, lesser curvature shifted to the right

liver primordium shifted to the right within the ventral mesentery 152. Draw and label development of liver and pancreas. hepatic diverticle growing from the gut; branching of the hepatic diverticle to the bile

duct system (gall bladder) and hepatic cords dorsal and ventral pancreatic primordium rotation of the ventral pancreas and ductus choledochus to the dorsal direction fusion of ventral and dorsal pancreas major pancreatic duct and part of the head of pancreas originating from the ventral

pancreatic bud; accessory pancreatic duct, the body and the tail of pancreas originate from the dorsal pancreatic bud

153. Draw and label rotation of the intestine. Explain the origin of Meckel´s diverticle and

umbilical faecal fistula formation. extraembryonic jejuno-ileal knot (physiological umbilical hernia) being pulled back to the

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abdominal cavity; closing of the umbilicus and yolk stalk (omphaloenteric duct) cranial shift of the caecum (caecal diverticle), origin of the splenic flexure and transverse

colon, hepatic flexure and ascending colon extraembryonic intestinal loop being pulled back to the abdominal cavity persisting remnants of the yolk stalk (omphaloenteric duct) open at the umbilicus as

faecal fistula or blindly ending as a Meckel’s diverticle (two schemes)

E. Urogenital system 154. Draw and label segmentation of the nephrogenic mesoderm (nephrogenic cord) using

transverse and sagital sections. Draw and label the relationship of neprogenic mesoderm to the coelomic cavity.

pronephros in the cervical region mesonephros in the thoracic region metanephrogenic blastema in the lumbar region 155. Draw and label development of pronephros and mesonephros and their ducts. pronephros: mesodermal pronephric tubule, pronephric duct, glomerulus mesonephros: mesonephric tubules, mesonephric (Wolffian) duct, metanephric bud,

cloaca 156. Draw and label development of metanephros. metanephric (ureteral) bud growing from the Wolffian duct towards the

metanephrogenic blastema branching ureteric bud giving rise to the ureter, renal pelvis, major and minor calyces and

collecting tubules 157. Draw and label partitioning of the cloaca and its further development. terminal part of the colon and mesonephric duct ending in the cloaca cloacal (uro-rectal) septum dividing the cloaca to the ventral urogenital sinus and dorsal

rectum 158. Draw and label indifferent stage of gonads, their relation to coelom, mesonephros,

mesonephric duct and paramesonephric duct, relationof the mentioned structures to the cloaca.

indifferent gonade developing from the coelomic epithelium proliferation gonade medial to the mesonephros; paramesonephric (Müllerian) duct and mesonephric

(Wolffian) duct running towards cloaca and fusing in the middle line primordial gonocytes migration through the dorsal mesentery to the base of gonads sex cords in gonads mesonephros, mesonephrotic duct entering cloaca (Müllerian duct laterally)

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159. Draw and label development of ovary, ovarian (Fallopian) tube, uterus and vagina. Draw and label the development of the Wollfian duct in female.

Ovary – situated in dorsal part of the coelomic cavity , paramesonephric duct running to the cloaca, primordial gonocytes, (oocytes), primary follicle

oviduct, uterus and upper portion of vagina developing from the paramesonephric duct separated from the sinus urogenitalis/ urogenital sinus, urogenital septum between the rectum and urogenital sinus

mesonephros regression, Wolffian duct remnants 160. Draw and label indifferent stage of external genital organs . genitální tubercle (phallus) opening of the urogenital sinus urethral (internal) swellings genital (external) swellings perineum and anus F. Skeletal system, face development 161. Draw and label development of extremities. limb bud, limb fin, ectodermal ridge and mesenchyme stylopodium with one bone element, zeugopodium with two bone elements, autopodium

(carpus, metacarpus or tarsus/metatarsus, digits (fingers or toes) digital rays within the autopodium; apoptosis between the digital rays

162. Draw and label division of somitic mesoderm. somite divided into dermatome (lateral), sclerotome (medial) and myotome cranial and caudal part of sclerotomes, origin of vertebral body by fusion of the adjacent

parts of sclerotomes, relation to chorda dorsalis intervertebral muscles dermis originating from the dermatome

163. Draw and label development of vertebral body and processes. body of vertebra originating from sclerotome processus neurales (neural processes, equivalent to the pedicle and lamina) surrounding

the spinal cord and closing the vertebral (spinal) canal processus costales (costal processes) growing in the ventral direction

164. Draw and label skull of a newborn (including its circumference) – lateral and cranial view, age of obliteration of at least two of the fontanelles.

frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal bone, occipital bone anterior fontanelle, posterior fontanelle, sphenoidal fontanelle, mastoid fontanelle

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165. Draw and label development of the face including the nose. frontal process, eye, maxillar and mandibular process, stomodeum olfactory (nasal) placodes, invaginating nasal vesicles lateral and medial circumnasal ridges around the nostrils; primordium of the nasolacrimal

duct fusion of medial circumnasal ridges – nasal field formation and philtrum

166. Draw and label development of the secondary palate. maxilla and premaxilla, primary choanae (posterior nasal apertures) horizontalization of palatal processes of the maxilla, fusion of palatal processes with the

nasal septum → hard palate closure 167. Draw and label histological sections of placenta and umbilical cord. umbilical cord – two umbilical arteries, single umbilical vein (left), Wharton’s jelly,

amniotic epithelium (outer layer) placenta: chorion, tertiary chorionic villi (syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast,

extraembryonic mesenchyme, embryonic blood vessels); vascularized decidua basalis