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ContentsContentsContentsContentsContents

Foreword iii

1. Resources and Development 1

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 14

3. Water Resources 23

4. Agriculture 34

5. Minerals and Energy Resources 50

6. Manufacturing Industries 65

7. Life Lines of National Economy 81

AppendixI 94

AppendixII 95

AppendixIII 97

Glossary 98
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Everything available in our environmentwhich can be used to satisfy our needs,provided, it is technologically accessible,economically feasible and culturallyacceptable can be termed as Resource.

The process of transformation of thingsavailable in our environment involves aninter- dependent relationship betweennature, technology and institutions. Human

beings interact with nature throughtechnology and create institutions toaccelerate their economic development.

Do you think that resources are free gifts

of nature as is assumed by many? Theyare not. Resources are a function of humanactivities. Human beings themselves areessential components of resources. Theytransform material available in ourenvironment into resources and use them.

These resources can be classified in thefollowing ways

(a) On the basis of origin biotic and abiotic

(b) On the basis of exhaustibility renewable

and non-renewable

(c) On the basis of ownership individual,

community, national and international

(d) On the basis of status of development

potential, developed stock and reserves.

Can you identify and name the various itemsused in making life comfortable in our

villages and towns. List the items and namethe material used in their making.

Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship betweennature, technology and institutions

Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources

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2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA II

TYPESOFRESOURCES

On the Basis of OriginBiotic Resources: Theseare obtained from

biosphere and have life such as human beings,flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.

Abiotic Resources:All those things which arecomposed of non-living things are called abioticresources. For example, rocks and metals.

On the Basis of Exhaustibility

Renewable Resources: The resourceswhich can be renewed or reproduced byphysical, chemical or mechanical processesare known as renewable or replenishableresources. For example, solar and windenergy, water, forests and wildlife, etc. Therenewable resource may further be dividedinto continuous or flow (Fig.1.2).

Non-Renewable Resources:These occur overa very long geological time. Minerals and fossilfuels are examples of such resources. Theseresources take millions of years in theirformation. Some of the resources like metalsare recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot

be recycled and get exhausted with their use.

On the Basis of Ownership

Individual Resources:These are also ownedprivately by individuals. Many farmers ownland which is allotted to them by governmentagainst the payment of revenue. In villagesthere are people with land ownership but thereare many who are landless. Urban people ownplots, houses and other property. Plantation,pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc. aresome of the examples of resources ownership

by individuals. Make a list of resources ownedby your household.

Community Owned Resources: There areresources which are accessible to all themembers of the community. Village commons(grazing grounds, burial grounds, villageponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots,

playgrounds in urban areas are de factoaccessible to all the people living there.

National Resources: Technically, all theresources belong to the nation. The countryhas legal powers to acquire even privateproperty for public good. You might have seen

roads, canals, railways being constructed onfields owned by some individuals. UrbanDevelopment Authorities get empowered by thegovernment to acquire land. All the minerals,

water resources, forests, wildlife, land withinthe political boundaries and oceanic area upto12 nautical miles (19.2 km) from the coasttermed as territorial water and resourcestherein belong to the nation.

International Resources: There areinternational institutions which regulate someresources. The oceanic resources beyond 200

km of the Exclusive Economic Zonebelong toopen ocean and no individual country canutilise these without the concurrence ofinternational institutions.

Do you know that India has got the right tomine manganese nodules from the bed ofthe Indian Ocean from that area which liesbeyond the exclusive economic zone. Identifysome other resources which are international

in nature.

On the Basis of the Status of Development

Potential Resources:Resources which arefound in a region, but have not been utilised.For example, the western parts of Indiaparticularly Rajasthan and Gujarat haveenormous potential for the development of windand solar energy, but so far these have not beendeveloped properly.

Developed Resources:Resources which aresurveyed and their quality and quantity have

been determined for utilisa tion. Thedevelopment of resources depends ontechnology and level of their feasibility.

Stock:Materials in the environment whichhave the potential to satisfy human needs buthuman beings do not have the appropriatetechnology to access these, are included among

Identify at least two resources from eachcategory.

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3RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

stock. For example, water is a compound oftwo inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen,

which can be used as a rich source of energy.But we do not have the required technicalknow-how to use them for this purpose.Hence, it can be considered as stock.

Reservesare the subset of the stock, whichcan be put into use with the help of existingtechnical know-how but their use has not

been started. These can be used for meetingfuture requirements. River water can be usedfor generating hydroelectric power butpresently, it is being utilised only to a limitedextent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc.is a reserve which can be used in the future.

An equitable distribution of resources hasbecome essential for a sustained quality of lifeand global peace. If the present trend of resourcedepletion by a few individuals and countriescontinues, the future of our planet is in danger.

Therefore, resource planning is essential for

sustainable existence of all forms of life.Sustainable existence is a component ofsustainable development.

Prepare a list of stock and reserve, resourcesthat you are familiar with from your local area.

DEVELOPMENTOFRESOURCES

Resources are vital for human survival as wellas for maintaining the quality of life. It was

believed that resources are free gifts of nature.As a result, human beings used themindiscriminately and this has led to thefollowing major problems.

Depletion of resources for satisfying thegreed of few individuals.

Accumulation of resources in few hands, which,

in turn, divided the society into two segmentsi.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor.

Indiscriminate exploitation of resources hasled to global ecological crises such as, global

warming, ozone layer depletion, environmentalpollution and land degradation.

1. Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhaustedone day, how would this affect our life style?

2. Plan a survey in your colony/village toinvestigate peoples attitude towards

recycling of the domestic/agriculturalwastes. Ask questions about :(a) What do they think about resources

they use?(b) What is their opinion about the

wastes, and its utilisation?(c) Collage your results.

Sustainable development

Sustainable economic development meansdevelopment should take place withoutdamaging the environment, and developmentin the present should not compromise with theneeds of the future generations.

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992In June 1992, more than 100 heads of statesmet in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the firstInternational Earth Summit. The Summit wasconvened for addressing urgent problems ofenvironmental protection and socio-economic development at the global level.The assembled leaders signed theDeclaration on Global Climatic Change andBiological Diversity. The Rio Conventionendorsed the global Forest Principles andadopted Agenda 21 for achieving

Sustainable Development in the 21st

century.

Agenda 21

It is the declaration signed by world leadersin 1992 at the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development (UNCED),

which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Itaims at achieving global sustainabledevelopment. It is an agenda to combatenvironmental damage, poverty, diseasethrough global co-operation on commoninterests, mutual needs and shared

responsibilities. One major objective of theAgenda 21 is that every local governmentshould draw its own local Agenda 21.

RESOURCEPLANNING

Planning is the widely accepted strategy forjudicious use of resources. It has importance

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in a country like India, which has enormousdiversity in the availability of resources. Thereare regions which are rich in certain types ofresources but are deficient in some otherresources. There are some regions which can

be considered self sufficient in terms of the

availability of resources and there are someregions which have acute shortage of some vitalresources. For example, the states of

Jharkhand, Chhatt isgarh and MadhyaPradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.

Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of waterresources but lacks in infrastructuraldevelopment. The state of Rajasthan is very wellendowed with solar and wind energy but lacksin water resources. The cold desert of Ladakhis relatively isolated from the rest of thecountry. It has very rich cultural heritage but

it is deficient in water, infrastructure and somevital minerals. This calls for balanced resourceplanning at the national, state, regional andlocal levels.

The availability of resources is a necessarycondition for the development of any region, butmere availability of resources in the absence ofcorresponding changes in technology andinstitutions may hinder development. There aremany regions in our country that are rich in

resources but these are included in economicallybackward regions. On the contrary there aresome regions which have a poor resource base

but they are economically developed.

Can you name some resource rich buteconomically backward regions and some

resource poor but economically developedregions? Give reasons for such a situation.

The history of colonisation reveals that richresources in colonies were the main attractionsfor the foreign invaders. It was primarily thehigher level of technological development of the

colonising countries that helped them toexploit resources of other regions and establishtheir supremacy over the colonies. Therefore,resources can contribute to development only

when they are accompanied by appropriatetechnological development and institutionalchanges. India has experienced all this indifferent phases of colonisation. Therefore, inIndia, development, in general, and resourcedevelopment in particular does not only involvethe availability of resources, but also thetechnology, quality of human resources and

the historical experiences of the people.

Conservation of Resources:Resources arevital for any developmental activity. Butirrational consumption and over-utilisationof resources may lead to socio-economic andenvironmental problems. To overcome theseproblems, resource conservation at variouslevels is important. This had been the mainconcern of the leaders and thinkers in thepast. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in

voicing his concern about resourceconservation in these words: There is enoughfor everybodys need and not for any bodysgreed. He placed the greedy and selfishindividuals and exploitative nature of moderntechnology as the root cause for resourcedepletion at the global level. He was againstmass production and wanted to replace it withthe production by the masses.

Prepare a list of resources found in your stateand also identify the resources that areimportant but deficit in your state.

What resources are being developed in yoursurroundings by the community/villagepanchayats/ward level communities with thehelp of community participation?

Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process whichinvolves : (i) identification and inventory ofresources across the regions of the country.

This involves surveying, mapping andqualitative and quantitative estimation andmeasurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving aplanning structure endowed with appropriatetechnology, skill and institutional set up forimplementing resource development plans. (iii)Matching the resource development plans withoverall national development plans.

India has made concerted efforts for achievingthe goals of resource planning right from the FirstFive Year Plan launched after Independence.

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LANDUTILISATION

Land resources are used for the followingpurposes:

1. Forests

2. Land not available for cultivation

(a) Barren and waste land(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.

buildings, roads, factories, etc.

3. Other uncultivated land (excludingfallow land)

(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops

groves (not included in net sown area),(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated

for more than 5 agricultural years).

4. Fallow lands(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for

one or less than one agricultural year),(b) Other than current fallow-(left

uncultivated for the past 1 to 5agricultural years).

5. Net sown area

Area sown more than once in anagricultural year plus net sown area isknown as gross cropped area.

LANDUSEPATTERNININDIA

The use of land is determined both by physical

factors such as topography, climate, soil typesas well as human factors such as populationdensity, technological capability and cultureand traditions etc.

Total geographical area of India is 3.28million sq km Land use data, however, isavailable only for 93 per cent of the totalgeographical area because the land usereporting for most of the north-east statesexcept Assam has not been done fully.Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmiroccupied by Pakistan and China have also not

been surveyed.

At the international level, the Club of Romeadvocated resource conservation for the firsttime in a more systematic way in 1968.Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy

was once again presented by Schumacherin his book Small is Beautiful. The seminalcontribution with respect to resourceconservation at the global level was madeby the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.This report introduced the concept ofSustainable Development and advocatedit as a means for resource conservation,

which was subsequently published in a bookentitled Our Common Future. Anothersignificant contribution was made at the EarthSummit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.

LANDRESOURCES

We live on land, we perform our economicactivities on land and we use it in different ways.Thus, land is a natural resource of utmostimportance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transportand communication systems. However, land isan asset of a finite magnitude, therefore, it isimportant to use the available land for variouspurposes with careful planning.

India has land under a variety of relieffeatures, namely; mountains, plateaus, plainsand islands. About 43 per cent of the land areais plain, which provides facilities for agriculture

and industry. Mountains account for 30 percent of the total surface area of the country andensure perennial flow of some rivers, providefacilities for tourism and ecological aspects.

About 27 per cent of the area of the country isthe plateau region. It possesses rich reservesof minerals, fossil fuels and forests.

Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief Features

Try to do a comparison between the two piecharts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and findout why the net sown area and the landunder forests have changed from 1960-61to 2002-03 very marginally.

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Find out reasons for the low proportion ofnet sown area in these states.

The land under permanent pasture hasalso decreased. How are we able to feed ourhuge cattle population on this pasture land

and what are the consequences of it? Most ofthe other than the current fallow lands are eitherof poor quality or the cost of cultivation of suchland is very high. Hence, these lands arecultivated once or twice in about two to three

years and if these are included in the net sownarea then the percentage of NSA in India comesto about 54 per cent of the total reporting area.

The pattern of net sown area varies greatlyfrom one state to another. It is over 80 per centof the total area in Punjab and Haryana and lessthan 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,

Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.

Policy (1952). It was considered essential formaintenance of the ecological balance. Thelivelihood of millions of people who live on

the fringes of these forests depends upon it.A part of the land is termed as waste landand land put to other non-agricultural uses.

Waste land includes rocky, arid and desertareas and land put to other non-agriculturaluses includes settlements, roads, railways,industry etc. Continuous use of land over along period of time without takingappropriate measures to conserve andmanage it, has resulted in land degradation.

This, in turn, has serious repercussions onsociety and the environment.

LAND DEGRADATIONAND CONSERVATIONMEASURES

We have shared our land with the past

generations and will have to do so with the

future generations too. Ninety-five per cent of

our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing

Fig. 1.4

Forest area in the country is far lower thanthe desired 33 per cent of geographical area,as it was outlined in the National Forest

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are obtained from land. Human activities havenot only brought about degradation of land

but have also aggravated the pace of natural

forces to cause damage to land.At present, there are about 130 million

hectares of degraded land in India.

Approximately, 28 per cent of it belongs to thecategory of forest degraded area, 56 per centof it is water eroded area and the rest is affected

by saline and alkaline deposits. Some humanactivities such as deforestation, over grazing,mining and quarrying too have contributedsignificantly in land degradation.

alkalinity in the soil. The mineral processing likegrinding of limestone for cement industry andcalcite and soapstone for ceramic industrygenerate huge quantity of dust in theatmosphere. It retards the process of infiltrationof water into the soil after it settles down on the

land. In recent years, industrial effluents aswaste have become a major source of land andwater pollution in many parts of the country.

There are many ways to solve the problemsof land degradation. Afforestation and propermanagement of grazing can help to some extent.Planting of shelter belts of plants, control onover grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes bygrowing thorny bushes are some of themethods to check land degradation. Propermanagement of waste lands, control of miningactivities, proper discharge and disposal of

industrial effluents and wastes after treatmentcan reduce land and water degradation inindustrial and suburban areas.

SOILASARESOURCE

Soil is the most important renewable naturalresource. It is the medium of plant growth andsupports different types of living organisms on

Fig. 1.5

Mining sites are abandoned after excavationwork is complete leaving deep scars and tracesof over-burdening. In states like Jharkhand,Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissadeforestation due to mining have caused severe

land degradation. In states like Gujarat,Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtraovergrazing is one of the main reasons for landdegradation. In the states of Punjab, Haryana,

western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation isresponsible for land degradation due to waterlogging leading to increase in salinity and Fig. 1.6: Soil Profile

Subsoil weathered

rocks sand andsilt clay

Substratumweathered parent

rock material

Unweatheredparent bed rock

Top soilthe upper soil layer

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the earth. The soil is a living system. It takesmillions of years to form soil upto a few cm indepth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate,

vegetation and other forms of life and time areimportant factors in the formation of soil.

Various forces of nature such as change in

temperature, actions of running water, wind andglaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contributeto the formation of soil. Chemical and organicchanges which take place in the soil are equallyimportant. Soil also consists of organic (humus)and inorganic materials (Fig. 1.6).

On the basis of the factors responsible forsoil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age,chemical and physical properties, the soils ofIndia can be classified in different types.

Classification of Soils

India has varied relief features, landforms,climatic realms and vegetation types. Thesehave contributed in the development of varioustypes of soils.

Alluvial Soils

This is the most widely spread and importantsoil. In fact, the entire northern plains are madeof alluvial soil. These have been deposited bythree important Himalayan river systems theIndus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Thesesoils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujaratthrough a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is alsofound in the eastern coastal plains particularlyin the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari,the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.

reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place ofthe break of slope, the soils are coarse. Suchsoils are more common in piedmont plainssuch as Duars, ChosandTerai.

Apart from the size of their grains orcomponents, soils are also described on the

basis of their age. According to their age alluvialsoils can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar)and new alluvial (Khadar). Thebangarsoil hashigher concentration of kankernodules thanthe Khadar.It has more fine particles and ismore fertile than thebangar.

Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.Mostly these soils contain adequate proportionof potash, phosphoric acid and lime which areideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheatand other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its highfertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively

cultivated and densely populated. Soils in thedrier areas are more alkaline and can beproductive after proper treatment and irrigation.

Black Soil

These soils are black in colour and are alsoknown as regursoils. Black soil is ideal forgrowing cotton and is also known as blackcotton soil. It is believed that climatic conditionalong with the parent rock material are theimportant factors for the formation of black soil.

This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap

(Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccanplateau and is made up of lava flows. Theycover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra,

The al luvial soil consists of variousproportions of sand, silt and clay. As we moveinlands towards the river valleys, soil particlesappear some what bigger in size. In the upper

Fig. 1.7: Alluvial Soil

Fig. 1.8: Black Soil

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India: Major Soil Types

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Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh andextend in the south east direction along theGodavari and the Krishna valleys.

The black soils are made up of extremelyfine i.e. clayey material. They are well-knownfor their capacity to hold moisture. In addition,

they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calciumcarbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. Thesesoils are generally poor in phosphoric contents.

They develop deep cracks during hot weather,which helps in the proper aeration of the soil.These soils are sticky when wet and difficult towork on unless tilled immediately after the firstshower or during the pre-monsoon period.

Red and Yellow Soils

Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocksin areas of low rainfall in the eastern and

southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yelllowand red soils are also found in parts of Orissa,Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middleGanga plain and along the piedmont zone ofthe Western Ghats. These soils develop areddish colour due to diffusion of iron incrystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks

yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

Laterite Soil

Laterite has been derived from the Latin wordlater which means brick. The laterite soil

develops in areas with high temperature andheavy rainfall. This is the result of intenseleaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of

the soil is low because most of the microorganisms, particularly the decomposers, like

bacte ria, get destroyed due to hightemperature. Laterite soils are suitable forcultivation with adequate doses of manuresand fertilizers. These soils are mainly found in

Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, MadhyaPradesh, and the hilly areas of Orissa andAssam. After adopting appropriate soilconservation techniques particularly in the hillyareas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu,this soil is very useful for growing tea andcoffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, AndhraPradesh and Kerala are more suitable for cropslike cashew nut.

Arid Soils

Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. Theyare generally sandy in texture and saline innature. In some areas the salt content is veryhigh and common salt is obtained by evaporatingthe water. Due to the dry climate, hightemperature, evaporation is faster and the soillacks humus and moisture. The lower horizonsof the soil are occupied by Kankarbecause ofthe increasing calcium content downwards. TheKankarlayer formations in the bottom horizonsrestrict the infiltration of water. After properirrigation these soils become cultivable as has

been in the case of western Rajasthan.

Fig. 1.9: Laterite Soil

Fig. 1.10: Arid Soil

Forest Soils

These soil s are found in the hilly andmountainous areas where sufficient rainforests are available. The soils texture varies

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according to the mountain environment wherethey are formed. They are loamy and silty in

valley sides and coarse grained in the upperslopes. In the snow covered areas ofHimalayas, these soils experience denudationand are acidic with low humus content. The

soils found in the lower parts of the valleysparticularly on the river terraces and alluvialfans are fertile.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soi l cover andsubsequent washing down is described as soilerosion. The processes of soil formation anderosion, go on simultaneously and generallythere is a balance between the two. Sometimes,this balance is disturbed due to humanactivities like deforestation, over-grazing,

construction and mining etc., while naturalforces like wind, glacier and water lead to soilerosion. The runningwater cuts through theclayey soils and makes deep channels asgullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivationand is known asbad land. In the Chambal

basin such lands are called ravines. Sometimes

Fig. 1.11: Soil Erosion

Fig. 1.12: Gully Erosion

water flows as a sheet over large areas down aslope. In such cases the top soil is washed away.

This is known as sheet erosion. Wind blows

loose soil off flat or sloping land known as winderosion. Soil erosion is also caused due todefective methods of farming. Ploughing in a

wrong way i.e. up and down the slope formchannels for the quick flow of water leading tosoil erosion.

Ploughing along the contour lines candecelerate the flow of water down the slopes.

This is called contour ploughing. Steps can becut out on the slopes making terraces. Terracecultivation restricts erosion. Western andcentral Himalayas have well developed terrace

farming. Large fields can be divided into strips.Strips of grass are left to grow between thecrops. This breaks up the force of the wind.

This method is known as strip cropping.Planting lines of trees to create shelter also

works in a similar way. Rows of such trees arecalled shelter belts. These shelter belts havecontributed significantly to the stabilisation ofsand dunes and in stabilising the desert in

western India.

State of Indias Environment

The village of Sukhomajri and the district of Jhabua have shown that it is possibleto reverse land degradation. Tree density in Sukhomajri increased from 13 perhectare in 1976 to 1,272 per hectare in 1992;

Regeneration of the environment leads to economic well-being, as a resultof greater resource availability, improved agriculture and animal care, and

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consequently, increased incomes. Average annual household income inSukhomajri ranged from Rs 10,000-15,000 between 1979 and 1984;

Peoples management is essential for ecological restoration. With peoplebeing made the decision-makers by the Madhya Pradesh government, 2.9million hectares or about 1 per cent of Indias land area, are being greenedacross the state through watershed management.

Source: The Citizens Fifth Report,1999 Centre of Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi

EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES EXERCISESEXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following type of resource is iron ore?

(a) Renewable (c) Flow

(b) Biotic (d) Non-renewable

(ii) Under which of the following type of resource can tidal energy be put?

(a) Replenishable (c) Abiotic

(b) Human-made (d) Non-recyclable

(iii) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?

(a) Intensive cultivation (c) Over irrigation

(b) Deforestation (d) Overgrazing

(iv) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?

(a) Punjab (c) Haryana

(b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d) Uttarakhand

(v) In which of the following states is black soil found?

(a) Jammu and Kashmir (c) Rajasthan

(b) Gujarat (d) Jharkhand

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2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.

(ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give threemain features of this type of soil.

(iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?

(iv) What are the biotic and abiotic resources? Give some examples.


(i) Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest notincreased much since 1960-61?

(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption ofresources?

PROJECT/ACTIVITY

1. Make a project showing consumption and conservation of resources in your locality.

2. Have a discussion in the class how to conserve various resources used in

your school.

3. Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this affect our life style?

4. Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the

hidden answers.

S F G S F O B R O M S U A P J

Q G A F F O R E S T A T I O N

P N R E C P R S L D M I L N F

S N A T Q X U O V A I O L A L

O D E I D R J U J L D B N B D

T G H M I N E R A L S A X M W

B V J K M E D C R U P F M H R

L A T E R I T E M V A Z T V L

A B Z O E N M F T I S D L R C

C G N N S Z I O P A X T Y J H

K J G K D T D C S L S E G E W

(i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals.

(ii) A type of non-renewable resource.

(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.

(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.

(v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion.

(vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils.

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We share this planet with millions of otherliving beings, starting from micro-organismsand bacteria, lichens to banyan trees,elephants and blue whales. This entirehabitat that we live in has immense

biodiversity. We humans along with all livingorganisms form a complex web of ecologicalsystem in which we are only a part and verymuch dependent on this system for our ownexistence. For example, the plants, animalsand micro-organisms re-create the quality ofthe air we breathe, the water we drink andthe soil that produces our food without which

we cannot survive. Forests play a key role inthe ecological system as these are also theprimary producers on which all other living

beings depend.

Flora and Fauna in India

If you look around, you will be able to findthat there are some animals and plants whichare unique in your area. In fact, India is oneof the worlds richest countries in terms ofits vast array of biological diversity, and hasnearly 8 per cent of the total number of

species in the world (estimated to be 1.6million). This is possibly twice or thrice thenumber yet to be discovered. You havealready studied in detail about the extentand variety of forest and wildlife resourcesin India. You may have realised theimportance of these resources in our dailylife. These diverse flora and fauna are so

well integrated in our daily life that we takethese for granted. But, lately, they are undergreat stress mainy due to insensitivity toour environment.

Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of musicin the world of Lepchas

Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicatemyself to you

Let me gather your music from thesprings, the rivers, the mountains, the forests,the insects and the animals

Let me gather your music from the sweetbreeze and offer it to you

Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part ofWest Bengal

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity isimmensely rich in wildlife and cultivatedspecies, diverse in form and function butclosely integrated in a system throughmultiple network of interdependencies.

Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000species of flora are found in this countryso far? Of the estimated 47,000 plantspecies, about 15,000 flowering speciesare endemic (indigenous) to India.

Find out stories prevalent in your regionwhich are about the harmonious relationshipbetween human beings and nature.

Some estimates suggest that at least 10per cent of Indias recorded wild flora and20 per cent of its mammals are on thethreatened list. Many of these would now becategorised as critical, that is on the vergeof extinction like the cheetah, pink-headedduck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet,and plants like madhuca insignis (a wild

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variety of mahua) and hubbardiaheptaneuron,(a species of grass). In fact, noone can say how many species may havealready been lost. Today, we only talk of thelarger and more visible animals and plants

that have become extinct but what aboutsmaller animals like insects and plants?

Let us now understand the differentcategories of existing plants and animal

species. Based on the International Union forConservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN), we can classify as follows

Normal Species:Specieswhose populationlevels are considered to be normal fortheir survival, such as cattle, sal, pine,rodents, etc.

Endangered Species:These are specieswhich are in danger of extinction. Thesurvival of such species is difficult if thenegative factors that have led to a decline in

their population continue to operate. Theexamples of such species are black buck,crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, liontailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer inManipur), etc.

Vulnerable Species:These are specieswhose population has declined to levels fromwhere it is likely to move into the endangeredcategory in the near future if the negativefactors continue to operate. The examples ofsuch species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant,Gangetic dolphin, etc.

Rare Species:Species with small populationmay move into the endangered or vulnerablecategory if the negative factors affecting themcontinue to operate. The examples of suchspecies are the Himalayan brown bear, wild

Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.

Endemic Species:These are species whichare only found in some particular areasusually isolated by natural or geographical

barriers. Examples of such species are theAndaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman

wild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh.

Extinct Species:These are species whichare not found after searches of known orlikely areas where they may occur. A speciesmay be extinct from a local area, region,country, continent or the entire earth.Examples of such species are the Asiaticcheetah, pink head duck.

Do you know that among the largeranimals in India, 79 species of mammals,44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 ofamphibians are threatened? Nearly 1,500plant species are considered endangered.Flowering plants and vertebrate animalshave recently become extinct at a rate

estimated to be 50 to 100 times theaverage expected natural rate.

Vanishing Forests

The dimensions of deforestation in India arestaggering. The forest cover in the country isestimated at 637,293 sq km, which is 19.39per cent of the total geographical area.(dense forest 11.48 per cent; open forest 7.76per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent).

According to the State of Forest Report

(1999), the dense forest cover has increased

by 10,098 sq km since 1997. However, thisapparent increase in the forest cover is dueto plantation by different agencies. The Stateof Forest Report does not differentiatebetween natural forests and plantations.Therefore, these reports fail to deliver

accurate information about actual loss ofnatural forests.

15FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Fig. 2.1

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depleted our forests and wildlife. The greatestdamage inflicted on Indian forests was duringthe colonial period due to the expansion of therailways, agriculture, commercial and scientificforestry and mining activities. Even after

Independence, agricultural expansioncontinues to be one of the major causes ofdepletion of forest resources. Between 1951 and1980, according to the Forest Survey of India,over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was convertedinto agricultural land all over India. Substantialparts of the tribal belts, especially in the north-eastern and central India, have been deforestedor degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a typeof slash and burn agriculture.

Fig. 2.2: A few extinct, rare and endangered species

Asiatic Cheetah: where did they go?

The worlds fastest land mammal, thecheetah (Acinonyx jubantus), is a unique andspecialised member of the cat family and

can move at the speed of 112 km./hr. Thecheetah is often mistaken for a leopard. Itsdistinguishing marks are the long teardrop-shaped lines on each side of the nose fromthe corner of its eyes to its mouth. Prior tothe 20th century, cheetahs were widelydistributed throughout Africa and Asia.Today, the Asian cheetah is nearly extinctdue to a decline of available habitat andprey. The species was declared extinct inIndia long back in 1952.

What are the negative factors that cause suchfearful depletion of the flora and fauna?

If you look around, you will be able to findout how we have transformed nature into aresource obtaining directly and indirectly fromthe forests and wildlife wood, barks, leaves,rubber, medicines, dyes, food, fuel, fodder,manure, etc. So it is we ourselves who have

Are colonial forest policiesto be blamed?

Some of our environmental activists say thatthe promotion of a few favoured species, inmany parts of India, has been carriedthrough the ironically-termed enrichmentplantation, in which a single commercially

valuable species was extensively plantedand other species eliminated. For instance,

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Large-scale development projects have alsocontributed significantly to the loss of forests.Since 1951, over 5,000 sq km of forest wascleared for river valley projects. Clearing offorests is still continuing with projects like theNarmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh,

which would inundate 40,000 hectares offorest. Mining is another important factor

behind deforestation. The Buxa Tiger Reservein West Bengal is seriously threatened by the

ongoing dolomite mining. It has disturbed thenatural habitat of many species and blockedthe migration route of several others, includingthe great Indian elephant.

Many foresters and environmentalists holdthe view that the greatest degrading factors

behind the depletion of forest resources aregrazing and fuel-wood collection. Though, theremay be some substance in their argument, yet,

the fact remains that a substantial part of thefuel-fodder demand is met by lopping ratherthan by felling entire trees. The forestecosystems are repositories of some of thecountrys most valuable forest products,

minerals and other resources that meet thedemands of the rapidly expanding industrial-urban economy. These protected areas, thusmean different things to different people, andtherein lies the fertile ground for conflicts.

teak monoculture has damaged the naturalforest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinusroxburghii) plantations in the Himalayashave replaced the Himalayan oak (Querciusspp.) and Rhododendronforests.

Fig. 2.3

The Himalayan Yew in trouble

The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is amedicinal plant found in various parts ofHimachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.

A chemical compound called taxol isextracted from the bark, needles, twigs and

roots of this tree, and it has been successfullyused to treat some cancers the drug is nowthe biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the

world. The species is under great threat dueto over-exploitation. In the last one decade,thousands of yew trees have dried up in

various parts of Himachal Pradesh andArunachal Pradesh.

Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in anursery at Mukhali near Silent Valley

Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk

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Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching,over-exploitation, environmental pollution,poisoning and forest fires are factors, whichhave led to the decline in Indias biodiversity.Other important causes of environmental

destruction are unequal access, inequitableconsumption of resources and differentialsharing of responsibility for environmental

well-being. Over-population in third worldcountries is often cited as the cause ofenvironmental degradation. However, anaverage American consumes 40 times moreresources than an average Somalian. Similarly,the richest five per cent of Indian societyprobably cause more ecological damage

because of the amount they consume than thepoorest 25 per cent. The former shares

minimum responsibilities for environmentalwell-being. The question is: who is consumingwhat, from where and how much?

men. In many societies, women bear the majorresponsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, waterand other basic subsistence needs. As theseresources are depleted, the drudgery of womenincreases and sometimes they have to walk for

more than 10 km to collect these resources.This causes serious health problems for womenand negligence of home and children becauseof the increased hours of work, which often hasserious social implications. The indirect impactof degradation such as severe drought ordeforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits thepoor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is adirect outcome of environmental destruction.

Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to thequality of life and environment in thesubcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound

forest and wildlife conservation strategies.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

Conservation in the background of rapiddecline in wildlife population and forestry has

become essential. But why do we need toconserve our forests and wildlife? Conservationpreserves the ecological diversity and our lifesupport systems water, air and soil. It alsopreserves the genetic diversity of plants andanimals for better growth of species and

breeding. For example, in agriculture, we are

still dependent on traditional crop varieties.Fisheries too are heavily dependent on themaintenance of aquatic biodiversity.

In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationistsdemanded a national wildlife protectionprogramme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)

Act was implemented in 1972, with variousprovisions for protecting habitats. An all-Indialist of protected species was also published.

The thrust of the programme was towardsprotecting the remaining population of certainendangered species by banning hunting,giving legal protection to their habitats, andrestricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently,central and many state governmentsestablished national parks and wildlifesanctuaries about which you have alreadystudied. The central government alsoannounced several projects for protectingspecific animals, which were gravelythreatened, including the tiger, the one-

Do you know that over half of Indiasnatural forests are gone, one-third of its

wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of itssurface water bodies polluted, 40 per centof its mangroves wiped out, and withcontinued hunting and trade of wildanimals and commercially valuable

plants, thousands of plant and animalspecies are heading towards extinction?

The destruction of forests and wildlife is notjust a biological issue. The biological loss isstrongly correlated with the loss of culturaldiversity. Such losses have increasinglymarginalised and impoverished manyindigenous and other forest-dependentcommunities, who directly depend on variouscomponents of the forest and wildlife for food,drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.

Within the poor, women are affected more than

Have you noticed any activity which leadsto the loss of biodiversity around you? Writea note on it and suggest some measures toprevent it.

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horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag orhangul, three types of crocodiles fresh watercrocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial,

the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, theIndian elephant, black buck (chinkara), thegreat Indian bustard (godawan) and the snowleopard, etc. have been given full or partiallegal protection against hunting and tradethroughout India.

Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park

Project Tiger

Tiger is one of the key wildlife species inthe faunal web. In 1973, the authoritiesrealised that the tiger population haddwindled to 1,827 from an estimated

55,000 at the turn of the century. The majorthreats to tiger population are numerous,such as poaching for trade, shrinkinghabitat, depletion of prey base species,growing human population, etc. The tradeof tiger skins and the use of their bones intraditional medicines, especially in the

Asian countries left the tiger population onthe verge of extinction. Since India andNepal provide habitat to about two-thirdsof the surviving tiger population in the

world, these two nations became prime

targets for poaching and illegal trading.Project Tiger, one of the well-

publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,was launched in 1973. Initially, it showedsuccess as the tiger population went up to4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in1993, the population of the tiger had

dropped to 3,600. There are 27 tigerreserves in India covering an area of37,761 sq km Tiger conservation has been

viewed not only as an effort to save anendangered species, but with equalimportance as a means of preservingbiotypes of sizeable magnitude. CorbettNational Park in Uttaranchal, SunderbansNational Park in West Bengal, BandhavgarhNational Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska

Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, ManasTiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar TigerReserve in Kerala are some of the tigerreserves of India.

The conservation projects are now focusingon biodiversity rather than on a few of itscomponents. There is now a more intensivesearch for different conservation measures.Increasingly, even insects are beginning to finda place in conservation planning. In thenotification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and1986, several hundred butterflies, moths,

beetles, and one dragonfly have been added tothe list of protected species. In 1991, for thefirst time plants were also added to the list,

starting with six species.

Collect more information on the wildlifesanctuaries and national parks of India andcite their locations on the map of India.

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Types and Distribution of Forest and

Wildlife Resources

Even if we want to conserve our vast forest andwildlife resources, it is rather difficult tomanage, control and regulate them. In India,much of its forest and wildlife resources areeither owned or managed by the governmentthrough the Forest Department or othergovernment departments. These are classifiedunder the following categories.

(i) Reserved Forests:More than half of thetotal forest land has been declared

reserved forests. Reserved forests areregarded as the most valuable as far as theconservation of forest and wildlife resourcesare concerned.

(ii)Protected Forests:Almost one-third of thetotal forest area is protected forest, as declared

by the Forest Department. This forest land areprotected from any further depletion.

(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are otherforests and wastelands belonging to

both government and private individualsand communities.

Reserved and protected forests are alsoreferred to as permanent forest estatesmaintained for the purpose of producingtimber and other forest produce, and forprotective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has thelargest area under permanent forests,constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.

Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, WestBengal, and Maharashtra have largepercentages of reserved forests of its total forestarea whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab,Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan havea bulk of it under protected forests. All North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a veryhigh percentage of their forests as unclassedforests managed by local communities.

Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?

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Community and Conservation

Conservation strategies are not new in ourcountry. We often ignore that in India, forestsare also home to some of the traditionalcommunities. In some areas of India, local

communities are struggling to conserve thesehabitats along with government officials,recognising that only this will secure their ownlong-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve,Rajasthan, villagers have fought againstmining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. Inmany areas, villagers themselves are protectinghabitats and explicitly rejecting governmentinvolvement. The inhabitants of five villages inthe Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared1,200 hectares of forest as the BhairodevDakav Sonchuri, declaring their own set of

rules and regulations which do not allowhunting, and are protecting the wildlife againstany outside encroachments.

Sacred groves - a wealth of diverseand rare species

Nature worship is an age old tribal beliefbased on the premise that all creations ofnature have to be protected. Such beliefshave preserved several virgin forests inpristine form called Sacred Groves (theforests of God and Goddesses). These

patches of forest or parts of large forests havebeen left untouched by the local people andany interference with them is banned.

Certain societies revere a particular treewhich they have preserved from timeimmemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal ofChhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassialatifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphaluscadamba) trees, and the tribals of Orissa andBihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindusindica) and mango (Mangifera indica) treesduring weddings. To many of us, peepal and

banyan trees are considered sacred.Indian society comprises severalcultures, each with its own set of traditionalmethods of conserving nature and itscreations. Sacred qualities are oftenascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plantsand animals which are closely protected. You

will find troops of macaques and langursaround many temples. They are fed daily

and treated as a part of temple devotees. Inand around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan,herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai andpeacocks can be seen as an integral part ofthe community and nobody harms them.

The famous Chipko movement in theHimalayas has not only successfully resisteddeforestation in several areas but has also shownthat community afforestation with indigenousspecies can be enormously successful.

Attempts to revive the traditional conservationmethods or developing new methods ofecological farming are now widespread. Farmersand citizens groups like the Beej Bachao

Andolanin Tehri and Navdanyahave shownthat adequate levels of diversified cropproduction without the use of syntheticchemicals are possible and economically viable.

In India joint forest management (JFM)programme furnishes a good example forinvolving local communities in themanagement and restoration of degraded

forests. The programme has been in formalexistence since 1988 when the state of Orissapassed the first resolution for joint forestmanagement. JFM depends on the formationof local (village) institutions that undertakeprotection activities mostly on degraded forestland managed by the forest department. Inreturn, the members of these communities areentitled to intermediary benefits like non-timberforest produces and share in the timberharvested by successful protection.

The clear lesson from the dynamics of both

environmental destruction and reconstructionin India is that local communities everywherehave to be involved in some kind of naturalresource management. But there is still a long

way to go before local communities are at thecentre-stage in decision-making. Accept onlythose economic or developmental activities,that are people centric, environment-friendlyand economically rewarding.

Write a short essay on any practices whichyou may have observed and practised inyour everyday lives that conserve and protectthe environment around you.

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The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence andmakes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of itslife activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen

who destroy it.

Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)

EXERCISESEXERCISES EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES


(i) Which of these statements is not a valid reason for the depletion of floraand fauna?

(a) Agricultural expansion.

(b) Large scale developmental projects.

(c) Grazing and fuel wood collection.

(d) Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.

(ii) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involvecommunity participation?

(a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement

(b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries

2. Match the following animals with their category of existence.

Animals/Plants Category of existence

Black buck Extinct

Asiatic elephant Rare

Andaman wild pig Endangered

Himalayan brown bear VulnerablePink head duck Endemic

3. Match the following.

Reserved forests other forests and wastelands belonging to bothgovernment and private individuals andcommunities

Protected forests forests are regarded as most valuable as far as theconservation of forest and wildlife resources

Unclassed forests forest lands are protected from any further depletion


(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?

(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.


(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlifein India?

(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.

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You already know that three-fourth of theearths surface is covered with water, but onlya small proportion of it accounts for freshwaterthat can be put to use. This freshwater is mainlyobtained from surface run off and ground waterthat is continually being renewed andrecharged through the hydrological cycle. All

water moves within the hydrological cycle

ensuring that water is a renewable resource.You might wonder that if three-fourth of

the world is covered with water and water is arenewable resource, then how is it thatcountries and regions around the globe sufferfrom water scarcity? Why is it predicted that

by 2025, nearly two billion people will live inabsolute water scarcity?

Water: Some facts and figures

96.5 per cent of the total volume of worldswater is estimated to exist as oceans andonly 2.5 per cent as freshwater. Nearly70 per cent of this freshwater occurs asice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica,Greenland and the mountainous regionsof the world, while a little less than 30

per cent is stored as groundwater in theworlds aquifers.

India receives nearly 4 per cent of theglobal precipitation and ranks 133 in the

world in terms of water availability perperson per annum.

The total renewable water resources of Indiaare estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum.

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associate it with regions having low rainfallor those that are drought prone. Weinstantaneously visualise the deserts ofRajasthan and women balancing manymatkas (earthen pots) used for collecting and

storing water and travelling long distances toget water. True, the availability of waterresources varies over space and time, mainlydue to the variations in seasonal and annualprecipitation, but water scarcity in most casesis caused by over- exploitation, excessive useand unequal access to water among differentsocial groups.

Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity

By 2025, it is predicted that large parts ofIndia will join countries or regions havingabsolute water scarcity.

Source: The UN World Water DevelopmentReport, 2003

WATERSCARCITYANDTHENEEDFORWATER

CONSERVATIONANDMANAGEMENT

Given the abundance and renewability ofwater, it is difficult to imagine that we maysuffer from water scarcity. The moment wespeak of water shortages, we immediately

Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink:After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinkingwater in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacentdistricts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,

meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area anddisruted traffic.

A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water inthe snow in a devastated village.

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25WATER RESOURCES

requirements but have further aggravated theproblem. If you look into the housingsocieties or colonies in the cities, you wouldfind that most of these have their owngroundwater pumping devices to meet their

water needs. Not surprisingly, we find thatfragile water resources are being over-exploited and have caused their depletion inseveral of these cities.

So far we have focused on the quantitativeaspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consideranother situation where water is sufficientlyavailable to meet the needs of the people,

but, the area still suffers from water scarcity.This scarcity may be due to bad quality ofwater. Lately, there has been a growingconcern that even if there is ample water to

meet the needs of the people, much of it maybe polluted by domestic and industrialwastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilisersused in agriculture, thus, making ithazardous for human use.

Where is then water scarcity likely tooccur? As you have read in the hydrologicalcycle, freshwater can be obtained directlyfrom precipitation, surface run off andgroundwater.

Is it possible that an area or region mayhave ample water resources but is still facing

water scarcity? Many of our cities are suchexamples. Thus, water scarcity may be anoutcome of large and growing population andconsequent greater demands for water, andunequal access to it. A large population meansmore water not only for domestic use but alsoto produce more food. Hence, to facilitatehigher food-grain production, water resourcesare being over-exploited to expand irrigatedareas and dry-season agriculture. You mayhave seen in many television advertisementsthat most farmers have their own wells andtube-wells in their farms for irrigation toincrease their produce. But have you ever

wondered what this could result in? That itmay lead to falling groundwater levels,adversely affecting water availability and foodsecurity of the people.

Post-independent India witnessedintensive industrialisation and urbanisation,creating vast opportunities for us. Today,large industrial houses are as commonplaceas the industrial units of many MNCs(Multinational Corporations). The ever-increasing number of industries has madematters worse by exerting pressure onexisting freshwater resources. Industries,apart from being heavy users of water, also

require power to run them. Much of thisenergy comes from hydroelectric power.

Today, in India hydroecl ec tr ic powercontributes approximately 22 per cent of thetotal electricity produced. Moreover,multiplying urban centres with large anddense populations and urban lifestyles havenot only added to water and energy

According to Falken Mark, a Swedish expert,water stress occurs when water availabilityis less than 1,000 cubic metre per personper day.

Indias rivers, especially the smaller ones,have all turned into toxic streams. And eventhe big ones like the Ganga and Yamunaare far from being pure. The assault onIndias rivers from population growth,agricultural modernisation, urbanisation and

industrialisation is enormous and growingby the day.. This entire life standsthreatened.

Source:The Citizens Fifth Report, CSE, 1999.

You may have already realised that theneed of the hour is to conserve and manageour water resources, to safeguard ourselvesfrom health hazards, to ensure food security,continuation of our livelihoods andproductive activities and also to preventdegradation of our natural ecosystems. Overexploitation and mismanagement of waterresources will impoverish this resource andcause ecological crisis that may haveprofound impact on our lives.

From your everyday experiences, write a shortproposal on how you can conserve water.

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MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTSAND

INTEGRATEDWATERRESOURCESMANAGEMENT

But, how do we conserve and manage water?Archaeological and historical records show thatfrom ancient times we have been constructingsophisticated hydraulic structures like dams

built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes,embankments and canals for irrigation. Notsurprisingly, we have continued this traditionin modern India by building dams in most ofour river basins.

What are dams and how do they help usin conserving and managing water? Dams

were traditionally built to impound rivers andrainwater that could be used later to irrigateagricultural fields. Today, dams are built not

just for irrigation but for electricity generation,water supply for domestic and industrialuses, flood control, recreation, inlandnavigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams arenow referred to as multi-purpose projects

where the many uses of the impounded waterare integrated with one another. For example,in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra Nangal project water is being used both forhydel power production and irrigation.Similarly, the Hirakud project in theMahanadi basin integrates conservation of

water with flood control.

Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

In the first century B.C., Sringaverapuranear Allahabad had sophisticated waterharvesting system channelling the flood

water of the river Ganga. During the time of Chandragupta Maurya,

dams, lakes and irrigation systems wereextensively built.

Evidences of sophisticated irrigation workshave also been found in Kalinga, (Orissa),Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh),Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur(Maharashtra), etc.

In the 11thCentury, Bhopal Lake, one of thelargest artificial lakes of its time was built.

In the 14thCentury, the tank in Hauz Khas,Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish forsupplying water to Siri Fort area.

Source:Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997.

Fig. 3.2:Hirakud Dam

A damis a barrier across flowing water thatobstructs, directs or retards the flow, oftencreating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.Dam refers to the reservoir rather than thestructure. Most dams have a section called aspillway or weirover which or through whichit is intended that water will flow eitherintermittently or continuously. Dams areclassified according to structure, intended

purpose or height. Based on structure andthe materials used, dams are classified astimber dams, embankment dams or masonrydams, with several subtypes. According tothe height, dams can be categorised as largedams and major dams or alternatively as lowdams, medium height dams and high dams.

Multi-purpose projects, launched afterIndependence with their integrated waterresources management approach, werethought of as the vehicle that would lead thenation to development and progress,overcoming the handicap of its colonial past.

Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed thedams as the temples of modern India; thereason being that it would integratedevelopment of agriculture and the villageeconomy with rapid industrialisation andgrowth of the urban economy.

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27WATER RESOURCES

In recent years, multi-purpose projects andlarge dams have come under great scrutinyand opposition for a variety of reasons.Regulating and damming of rivers affect theirnatural flow causing poor sediment flow andexcessive sedimentation at the bottom of thereservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds andpoorer habitats for the rivers aquatic life. Damsalso fragment rivers making it difficult for

aquatic fauna to migrate, especially forspawning. The reservoirs that are created onthe floodplains also submerge the existing

vegetation and soil leading to its decompositionover a period of time.

Multi-purpose projects and large damshave also been the cause of many new socialmovements like the Narmada Bachao Andolanand the Tehri Dam Andolan etc. Resistanceto these projects has primarily been due to thelarge-scale displacement of local communities.Local people often had to give up their land,

livelihood and their meagre access and controlover resources for the greater good of thenation. So, if the local people are not benefitingfrom such projects then who is benefited?Perhaps, the landowners and large farmers,industrialists and few urban centres. Take thecase of the landless in a village does he reallygain from such a project?

Irrigation has also changed the croppingpattern of many regions with farmers shiftingto water intensive and commercial crops. Thishas great ecological consequences likesalinisation of the soil. At the same time, it hastransformed the social landscape i.e.increasing the social gap between the richerlandowners and the landless poor. As we cansee, the dams did create conflicts betweenpeople wanting different uses and benefits from

the same water resources. In Gujarat, theSabarmati-basin farmers were agitated andalmost caused a riot over the higher prioritygiven to water supply in urban areas,particularly during droughts. Inter-state waterdisputes are also becoming common withregard to sharing the costs and benefits of themulti-purpose project.

Find out more about any one traditionalmethod of building dams and irrigation works.

We have sown the crops in Asar

We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra

Floods have swollen the Damodar

The sailing boats cannot sail

Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet

Reduce the floods a little

Bhadu will come a year later

Let the boats sail on your surface

(This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar valleyregion narrates the troubles faced by peopleowing to the flooding of Damodar river known

as the river of sorrow.)

Narmada Bachao Andolan or SaveNarmada Movement is a NonGovernmental Organisation (NGO) thatmobilised tribal people, farmers,

environmentalists and human rightsactivists against the Sardar Sarovar Dambeing built across the Narmada river inGujarat. It originally focused on theenvironmental issues related to trees that

would be submerged under the damwater. Recent ly it has re -focused theaim to enable poor citizens, especiallythe oustees (displaced people) to getfull rehabilitation facilit ies fromthe government.

People felt that their suffering would notbe in vain accepted the trauma ofdisplacement believing in the promise ofirrigated fields and plentiful harvests. So,often the survivors of Rihand told us that theyaccepted their sufferings as sacrifice for thesake of their nation. But now, after thirty bitteryears of being adrift, their livelihood havingeven being more precarious, they keepasking: Are we the only ones chosen tomake sacrifices for the nation?

Source:S. Sharma, quoted in In the Belly of theRiver. Tribal conflicts over development in Narmada

valley, A. Baviskar, 1995.

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India: Major Rivers and Dams

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29WATER RESOURCES

Most of the objections to the projects arose

due to their failure to achieve the purposes forwhich they were built. Ironically, the dams thatwere constructed to control floods have

Make a list of inter-state water disputes.

Do you know that the Krishna-Godavaridispute is due to the objections raised byKarnataka and Andhra Pradeshgovernments? It is regarding the diversionof more water at Koyna by the Maharashtragovernment for a multipurpose project. This

would reduce downstream flow in theirstates with adverse consequences foragriculture and industry.

triggered floods due to sedimentation in thereservoir. Moreover, the big dams have mostly

been unsuccessful in controlling floods at thetime of excessive rainfall. You may have seenor read how the release of water from dams

during heavy rains aggravated the floodsituation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006.The floods have not only devastated life andproperty but also caused extensive soil erosion.Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains

were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser, furtheradding on to the problem of land degradation.It was also observed that the multi-purposeprojects induced earthquakes, caused water-

borne diseases and pests and pollutionresulting from excessive use of water.

RAINWATERHARVESTING

Many thought that given the disadvantagesand rising resistance against the multi-

Collect information about flood prone areas of the country

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Roof top rain water is collected using a PVC pipe Filtered using sand and bricks Underground pipe takes water to sump for

immediate usage Excess water from the sump is taken to the well Water from the well recharges the underground Take water from the well (later)

(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell

Fig 3.4:Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting

purpose projects, water harvesting systemwas a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally. In ancientIndia, along with the sophisticated hydraulicstructures, there existed an extraordinary

tradition of water-harvesting system. Peoplehad in-depth knowledge of rainfall regimesand soil types and developed wide rangingtechniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater,river water and flood water in keeping withthe local ecological conditions and their waterneeds. In hill and mountainous regions,people built diversion channels like the gulsor kuls of the Western Himalayas foragriculture. Rooftop rain water harvesting

was commonly practised to store drinkingwater, particularly in Rajasthan. In the flood

plains of Bengal, people developed inundationchannels to irrigate their fields. In arid andsemi-arid regions, agricultural fields wereconverted into rain fed storage structures thatallowed the water to stand and moisten thesoil like the khadins in Jaisalmer and Johadsin other parts of Rajasthan.

Fig. 3.3

(a) Recharge through Hand Pump

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31WATER RESOURCES

Fig 3.5: Traditional method of rain water harvesting

A kul leads to a circular village tank, as the abovein the Kaza village, from which water is released asand when required.

In the semi-arid and arid regions ofRajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and

Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally hadunderground tanks or tankas for storingdrinking water. The tanks could be as large asa big room; one household in Phalodi had a tankthat was 6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and2.44 metres wide. The tankas were part of the

well-developed rooftop rainwater harvestingsystem and were built inside the main house orthe courtyard. They were connected to thesloping roofs of the houses through a pipe. Rainfalling on the rooftops would travel down thepipe and was stored in these undergroundtankas. The first spell of rain was usually notcollected as this would clean the roofs and thepipes. The rainwater from the subsequentshowers was then collected.

The rainwater can be stored in the tankastill the next rainfall making it an extremelyreliable source of drinking water when all othersources are dried up, particularly in thesummers. Rainwater, or palar pani, ascommonly referred to in these parts, isconsidered the purest form of natural water.Many houses constructed underground roomsadjoining the tanka to beat the summer heatas it would keep the room cool.

Roof top rain water harvesting is the mostcommon practice in Shillong, Meghalaya.It is interesting because Cherapunjee andMawsynram situated at a distance of 55km. from Shillong receive the highest

rainfall in the world, yet the state capitalShillong faces acute shortage of water.Nearly every household in the city has aroof top rain water harvesting structure.Nearly 15-25 per cent of the total water

requirement of the household comes fromroof top water harvesting.

Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly thepractice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on thedecline as plenty of water is available due to theperennial Rajasthan Canal, though some housesstill maintain the tankas since they do not like

the taste of tap water. Fortunately, in many partsof rural and urban India, rooftop rainwaterharvesting is being successfully adapted to storeand conserve water. In Gendathur, a remote

backward village in Mysore, Karnataka, villagershave installed, in their households rooftop,rainwater harvesting system to meet their waterneeds. Nearly 200 households have installed thissystem and the village has earned the raredistinction of being rich in rainwater. See Fig. 3.6for a better understanding of the rooftop

Find out other rainwater harvesting systemsexisting in and around your locality.

Fig. 3.6

Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns

and villages of the Thar. Rainwater that falls onthe sloping roofs of houses is taken through a pipeinto an underground tanka(circular holes in theground). built in the main house or in the courtyard.The picture above shows water being form aneighbours roof through a long pipe. Here theneighbours rooftop has been used for collection ofrainwater. The picture shows a hole through whichrainwater flows down into an underground tanka.

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Fig 3.7

BAMBOODRIPIRRIGATIONSYSTEM

In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping streamand spring wate by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent. About18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system, gets

transported over hundreds of metres, and finally reducesto 20-80 drops per minute ate the site of the plant.

Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert waterto the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again made andlaid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of water into

the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.

Picture 1:Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs onthe hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.

Picture 5 and 6

Reduced channel sections

and diversion units are

used at the last stage ofwater application. The last

channel section enableswater to be dropped near

the roots of the plant.

Picture 4:If the pipes pass a road,they are taken high above the land.

Tamil Nadu is the first and the only statein India which has made roof top rainwaterharvesting structure compulsory to all thehouses across the state. There are legalprovisions to punish the defaulters.

rainwater harvesting system which is adaptedhere. Gendathur receives an annual precipitationof 1,000 mm, and with 80 per cent of collectionefficiency and of about 10 fillings, every housecan collect and use about 50,000 litres of waterannually. From the 20 houses, the net amountof rainwater harvested annually amounts to1,00,000 litres.

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33WATER RESOURCES

EXERCISESEXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISESEXERCISES


(i) Based on the information given below classify each of the situations assuffering from water scarcity or not suffering from water scarcity.

(a) Region with high annual rainfall.

(b) Region having high annual rainfall and large population.

(c) Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.

(d) Region having low rainfall and low population.

(ii) Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-purpose river projects?

(a) Multi-purpose projects bring water to those areas which suffer fromwater scarcity.

(b) Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.

(c) Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss oflivelihood.

(d) Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and ourhomes.

(iii) Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and rewrite themcorrectly.

(a) Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban

lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.(b) Regulating and damming of rivers does not affect the rivers natural

flow and its sediment flow.

(c) In Gujarat, the Sabarmati basin farmers were not agitated when higherpriority was given to water supply in urban areas, particularly duringdroughts.

(d) Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvestinghas gained popularity despite high water availability due to theRajasthan Canal.


(i) Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.

(ii) What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?

(iii) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.


(i) Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan iscarried out.

(ii) Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvestingmethods are being carried out to conserve and store water.

1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.2. Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality.

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India is an agriculturally important country.Two-thirds of its population is engaged inagricultural activities. Agriculture is a primaryactivity, which produces most of the food that

we consume. Besides food grains, it alsoproduces raw material for various industries.

Can you name some industries based on

agricultural raw material?

Moreover, some agricultural products liketea, coffee, spices, etc. are also exported.

TYPESOFFARMING

Agriculture is an age-old economic activity inour country. Over these years, cultivationmethods have changed significantly dependingupon the characteristics of physicalenvironment, technological know-how andsocio-cultural practices. Farming varies from

subsistence to commercial type. At present, indifferent parts of India, the following farmingsystems are practised.

Primitive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is still practised in fewpockets of India. Primitive subsistenceagriculture is practised on small patches ofland with the help of primitive tools like hoe,dao and digging sticks, and family/communitylabour. This type of farming depends uponmonsoon, natural fertility of the soil andsuitability of other environmental conditionsto the crops grown.

It is a slash and burn agriculture.Farmers clear a patch of land and producecereals and other food crops to sustain theirfamily. When the soil fertility decreases, thefarmers shift and clear a fresh patch of landfor cultivation. This type of shifting allowsNature to replenish the fertility of the soil

through natural processes; land productivityin this type of agriculture is low as the farmerdoes not use fertilisers or other moderninputs. It is known by different names indifferent parts of the country.

Can you name some such types of farmings?

It isjhumming in north-eastern states likeAssam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district ofChhattishgarh, and in Andaman and NicobarIslands.

Jhumming:The slash and burn agricultureis known as Milpa in Mexico and Central

America, Conuco in Venzuela, Roca inBrazil, Masole in Central Africa, Ladangin Indonesia, Ray in Vietnam.

In India, this primitive form of cultivationis called Bewar or Dahiya in Madhya

Pradesh, Podu or Penda in Andhra Pradesh,Pama Dabi or Koman or Bringa in Orissa,Kumari in Western Ghats, Valre or Waltrein South-eastern Rajasthan, Khil in theHimalayan belt, Kuruwa in Jharkhand, andJhumming in the North-eastern region.

Fig. 4.1

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Fig. 4.2:Banana plantation in Southernpart of India

Fig. 4.3: Bamboo plantation in North-east

Can you name the type of farming Rinjhasfamily is engaged in?

Can you enlist some crops which are grown

in such farming?

Intensive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is practised in areas ofhigh population pressure on land. It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of

biochemical inputs and irrigation are used forobtaining higher production.

Can you name some of the states of Indiawhere such farming is practised?

Though the right of inheritance leading tothe division of land among successive

generations has rendered land-holding sizeuneconomical, the farmers continue to takemaximum output from the limited land in theabsence of alternative source of livelihood.

Thus, there is enormous pressure onagricultural land.

Commercial Farming

The main character

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