Geology Palaeontology Geological Hazards Geological Application · 2014. 6. 16. · Mogok in the Shan Plateau of eastern Myanmar. Myanmar has suffered from more than 16 large earthquakes

วารสารสมาคมธรณีวิทยาแหงประเทศไทย JOURNAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF THAILAND 2008-2009 ISSN 1513 2587 Number 1

SPECIAL ISSUE

Geology Palaeontology

Geological Hazards Geological Application

Co-editors Pochara Nilayon

Sompis C. Elwood

Editor Sommai Techawal

สมาคมธรณีวิทยาแหงประเทศไทยGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF THAILAND

The Geological Society of Thailand, a non-profit scientific organization was incorporated in Bangkok in March 1968 with head-quarters at the Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand. Its objectives are: to exchange knowledge and opinion among geologists and interested persons; to diffuse technical knowledge and results of investigation by publication and other activities; to cooperate with and to assist to any local and overseas society and organization; and to promote for the advancement of geological sciences.

BOARD OF DIRECTORS 2008 – 2010 President Mr. Araya Nakanart Vice-President 1 Mr. Surawit Pradidtan Vice-President 2 Mr. Owas Chinoroje Vice-President 3 Mr. Prapas Vichakun Vice-President 4 Dr. Tawsaporn Nuchanong Vice-President 5 Mr. Sumrit Chutsanatat Secretary Mr. Somchai Poom-im Treasurer Mrs. Sompis C. Elwood Registrar Mr. Chinapong Yisu Editor Dr. Sommai Techawal Public Relation Mr. Surachai Krobbuaban House-Master Mr. Chanintorn Sriratpinyo Member Association Mr. Pairach Choochotiros Income Promotion Mr. Protbut Chaiwannakupt Information System Mr. Mongkol Lakmueng

MEMBERSHIP There are five grades of membership, Honorary Member, Ordinary Member, Associate Member, Juristic Person Member and Student Member. The membership is granted for persons at home or abroad on formal application. PUBLICATIONS The Newsletter of Geological Society of Thailand (GST Newsletter): is distributed to the members free of charge. The Newsletter will include the Society activity, news, light articles, notes and short reports.

The Journal of the Geological Society of Thailand: is distributed free of charge to the members. The subscription price for the Journal within Thailand is 200 Baht per copy, overseas is US$ 15 per copy (surface mailing). Papers can be written in Both English and Thai.

สมาคมธรณีวิทยาแหงประเทศไทย GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF THAILAND http://www.geologythai.info; e-mail: [email protected]

12 / 14 1st floor, D1 Building, Lumpini Condo Town Ramintra-Laksi, Bang Khen, Bangkok, 10220, THAILAND tel. +66 2 197 9053 fax. +66 2 197 9053

Preface

The GST Journal volume 2008-2009 is composed of several geological aspects concerning on some works of many geologists who expressed their knowledge in basaltic sandstone in Loei, molluck shell in Krabi, and also the Cenozoic mammals in Thailand.

The other geologists still focus on geological hazards which generally interested in tsunami of 26/12/2004, and the study of Sagaing fault in Myanmar. These geological applications should be the geo-standard for the publicity which is more valuable than non geologists who discussed over the facts of their matter before.

The last interested literature is approached to the hydroelectric power project at Nam Ngum, Lao, PDR. This geological application is not only published the information of the neighboring country but also correlated the geology of northeastern region to there.

The GST hopes that these literatures will provide the knowledge of geology, palaeontology, geological hazards, and geological application of the different areas for our technical activities and alert some geologists to create their geo-knowledge for the next Journal volume.

Araya Nakanart President

Geological Society of Thailand

Glossary of commonly-used Thai terms

Amphoe Administrative district below a changwat Ao Gulf; bay Ban House; home; hamlet; village Bang Riverside or waterside village Changwat Province; prefix before the name of principal city within a changwat Chiang Town, city Din Soil Doi Mountain Haad Beach Hin Rock. Hua Head; headland Huai Stream Kaeng Rapids Khao Mountain; hill Khlong River; waterway; canal King Amphoe Group of villages, but smaller than amphoe Ko Island Laem Headland Lek Small; little Mae-nam River Muang Town, river Nam Water Nam-tok Waterfall. Nong Swamp, fen, pond, reservoir Pha Hill or mountain with cliff Phu-khao Mountain Pong Salt lick Rong-rian School Rong-raem Hotel Ran-ahaan Restaurant; eating place Talay Sea Tambon Group of villages Tham Cave Yai Big; large Yao Long Wat Temple; monastery

Note: Thai is a tonal language with vowel and consonant sounds not present in spoken English; no attempt is made here to describe the correct pronunciation of words. The above romanised transliterations of the Thai are those commonly used, but other versions are

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Remote Sensing and GIS Based Approach for Earthquake Probability

Map: A Case Study of the Northern Sagaing Fault Area, Myanmar

Myint Soe1, Tateishi Ryutaro2, Daizo Ishiyama3, Isao Takashima4,

Krit Won-In5and Punya Charusiri6

1Graduate School of Engineering and Resource Science, Akita University, Akita 010-8502, Japan. 2 Center for Environment Remote Sensing, Chiba University, 1-33, Yayoi, Inage, Chiba 263-8522, Japan. 3 Center for Geo-Environmental Science, Akita University, 1-1 Tegatagakuen-cho, Akita 010-8502, Japan

4 Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand 5 Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand

6 Corresponding author: [email protected] September, 2008

Abstract

In this study, remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques were used

as decision-making tools to target potential regional-scale preliminary earthquake hazard map in the

northern part of the Sagaing Fault, Myanmar. We determined the relationships between measured

historical earthquake events and geological features, particularly lineaments (faults, folds, fractures and

geological boundaries) to identify potential probability earthquake zone. Satellite image data and

historical earthquake data were used to calculate lineament density, epicenter point density, magnitude

intensity and focal depth contour. A probabilistic seismic hazard evaluation method using weighted

overlay and kriging geostatistic GIS analysis were performed. The weighted overlay GIS analysis

classified the study area into different levels of favorability based on combination of the percent

influence of four layers, 30%, 20%, 20% and 30% influence were assigned to the epicenter point,

magnitude, depth and lineament density maps. The final results were combined and extrapolated using

a combination of weighted overlay and kriging geostatistic to develop a spatially seismic probability map.

At least two major areas (Taungthonlon and Kyaukpasat – Wuntho - Kawlin) were identified, and both

are not far from the Sagiang Fault.

Key words: Earthquake, Remote sensing, GIS, Epicenters, Lineament, Sagiang Fault, Myanmar

Journal of the Geological Society of Thailand No.1 , 29-46 , 2009 29

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Introduction

The study area, which is about 100 km

north of Mandalay (Fig. 1), covers the northern

part of the Sagaing Fault in northern Myanmar,

where earthquakes of various magnitudes and

intensities have been frequently reported

(Curray, 2003, Muang Thein and Tin Lwin Swe,

2006). The study area encompassing about

20,000 sq km is located in the northern part of

the so-called Irrawady Basin (Bender, 1983) –

the largest and north- south trending basin

bound to the east by the Sagaing Fault. At

present there has been a general consensus that

Myanmar is an earth-quake-prone country,

which lies in a major earthquake belt of the

world called Mediterranean – Himalayan belt.

Tectonically, according to Maung Thein and Tint

Lwin Swe (2006), three main areas of earthquake

epicenter concentrations have been recognized

in Myanmar, viz. one is located in Arakanyoma

mountain ranges (1 in Fig. 1), the others are

north of Mandalay or the Sagiang facet in

Irrawady Basin (2 in Fig. 1) and south of

Mogok in the Shan Plateau of eastern Myanmar.

Myanmar has suffered from more than

16 large earthquakes with strong magnitude (Mb

≥ 7) during the last 170 years (Table 1). Seismic

monitoring and seismic zoning systems and

management in Myanmar have been in the early

stage of development. The current seismic

hazard map of Myanmar is based basically on

historical seismicity. The major urban areas in

Myanmar lie in earthquake prone zones. Thus,

there is a pressing need to prepare national

seismic hazard maps for earthquake mitigation..

For earthquakes, we do not have a

theoretical model that successfully describes

earthquake recurrence, so we adopt probability

distributions based on the earthquake history.

On the other hand, Seismicity is associated with

major lineaments. Relationship between

earthquakes and the geological structure of the

area of earthquake based on lineaments were

studied by a number of authors. The main

seismic activity is concentrated on the first and

second rank lineaments, and some of the

important epicenters are located near the

lineament intersections (Stich et al., 2001).

Tectonic faults are often associated with

characteristic geomorphological features such as

linear valleys, ridgelines and slope breaks that can

be identified as lineaments in remotely sensed

images of digital terrain models. It supposes that

lineaments are able to detect, at least partially, the

presence of ruptures deep in the Earth crust

(Jordan, 2004). The lineament features and stripe

density fields caused by seismic activity (Arellano-

Baeza, et. al, 2006).

Myint Soea, Tateishi Ryutaro, Daizo Ishiyama, Isao Takashima, Krit Won-In, Panya Charusiri 30

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Fig. 1 Study area ( modified after Maung Thein and Tint Lwin Swe, 2006)

The rate density of future earthquake

occurrence is computed directly from past

earthquakes in the earthquake catalogue

(Rhoades and Evisons, 2005). Macroseismic

maps based on the original data are roughly

symmetrical around the epicenter (Muir Wood,

1989). The earthquake intensity is expected, with

20% probability, to be exceeded during a 50 year

period for a given location (Chiesa, 2003). Therefore,

current estimates of the hazard in the study area

are based on historical seismicity which

indicates where future seismicity is likely to

occur. The objective of this study is to set up a

preliminary earthquake hazard Map.

Remote Sensing and GIS Based Approach for Earthquake Probability Map: A Case Study of the Northern Sagaing Fault Area, Myanmar

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Methodology

We used GIS to carry out a suitability

analysis and site selection because it can handle

a large amount of data, is a powerful tool to

visualize new and existing data can help

produce new maps. Using GIS for the suitability

analysis requires assigning a set of suitability

and weighting factors. A probabilistic seismic

hazard evaluation involves obtaining through a

weighted overlay and kriging geostatistic

analysis. This study was used in the decision-

making process to select potential earthquake

hazard is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Using weighted overlay and kriging

tool, we classified the study area into different

levels of favorability based on the historical

and instrumental earthquake events data

(epicenter point distribution, magnitude, depth)

and lineament. The classified data layers were

then overlain with weightings that reflected the

importance of each data layer in the

exploration process. Finally we derived the

output raster that represents the potential of the

study area.

Weighted overlay

The weighted overlay raster calculating

process makes it possible to take all these issues

into consideration (Cabuk, 2001). It reclassifies

values in the input rasters onto a common

evaluation scale of suitability. The input rasters

are weighted relative to their importance and

added to produce the output raster.

This is the advantage of weighted

overlay approach, where one can assign

weightage to each class in a layer and the

percentage of importance/influence of that layer

to the overall output. The overlay weighted

analysis was based on the following equation

(Cabuk, 2001).

Weighted overlay = L1+L2 …...n, (1)

L = Wt x PI,

Where L is the layer, Wt is the weightage of

each class and PI is the percentage of

importance.

Kriging Geostatistics

The Kriging method can be used to

determine weighting factors and calculate the

estimation values of grid nodes, and meanwhile,

calculate the estimation variances of all grid

nodes, yielding a variance distribution of

estimation errors (Wang et al., 1999).

The Kriging data gridding method is

based on the theory of random function,

assuming sampled values at points in space to

be actual values of random variables, and

transforming the estimation of values at grid

Myint Soea, Tateishi Ryutaro, Daizo Ishiyama, Isao Takashima, Krit Won-In, Panya Charusiri

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nodes into the problem of best unbiased

estimation to random function. Thus, this

method is very suitable for the random property

of sample data and estimated values.

Remote Sensing Lineament Analysis

Satellite data processing and Digital Elevation

Model

A lineament map was prepared using

stereo pair image of ASTER (Advanced

Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection

Radiometer) image, Landsat 7ETM+ image and

the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)

90 meter resolution DEM image. The

lineaments were extracted and adjusted using

circle plan by TNTmips and AutoCAD

softwares. And then using Excel, the number

and lengths of lineaments were calculated.

Moellering & Kimerling (1990) used

multi-image operation of false color composites,

RGB color model in morphotectonic studies to

simultaneously analyse Digital Elevation

Model. Similarly in this study we used the RGB

color model to interpret the lineaments.

Analytical relief shading is a computer based

process of deriving a shaded relief from a digital

elevation model (DEM). In RGB shade

relief images, the sun direction created

270:0:325 (R:G:B) pseudo color shade relief

image. Pseudo color representation can increase

the contrast of hill shade image.

Anaglyph Image Generation

The stereoscopic images have been

prepared from the available ASTER stereo pair

image (15 meter resolutions) that has the

stereoscopic sensor performing nadir viewing

(3N) and simultaneous backward viewing (3B)

in VNIR Band 3. The glasses had a red colour

for the left eye and cyan colour for the right eye

was used to observe the 3D effect of the terrain.

The image has been orthorectified it to be used

for purposes requiring spatial accuracy. 3D

topographic surface views such as these provide

an excellent tool for interpretation of surficial

lineaments and bedrock geological features.

Color Composite

The RGB model of colour is that which

is normally used in the study and interpretation

of remotely-sensed images (Mather, 2003).

Since most satellite imagery is available in

multi-band formats, the examination of the data

one band at a time does not extract the

maximum information. Inter-relationships

between different wavelengths are very


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important in the recognition of features and

cover types (Legg, 1995).

False color images are produced for

manual lineament extraction because they

increase the interpretability of the data.

Different combinations of three bands are

examined and the best visual quality is obtained

with a false color image of Landsat 7ETM +

bands 7, 5 and 4 (in blue, green and red

respectively).

Final Lineament Map Generation

The above mentioned techniques were

used to extract lineaments from the satellite

image. There is no a commonly accepted

method to prepare the final lineament map.

Although any of these techniques can be used to

extract lineaments, three different techniques

were applied here in order to be sure that no

lineament is missed in the study area. The

reason for this is that the area is not

homogenous in terms of the surface

characteristics, and it is believed that each

method may enhance an aspect of the surface.

Each process will generate a GIS layer

that can be linked to other layers easily.

Presence of multiple lineament maps, however,

may result in confusion and complexity. To

overcome this problem a single lineament map

should be generated from the results of all these

methods.

The procedure for combining the

lineaments obtained from all methods into one

map. Accordingly, there is always one output

file which is overlaid every time on a different

processed image. Following steps are applied

for the generation of final map: (1) manually

extracted lineaments are overlaid onto the same

map, one map at a time. The order of the

overlay analysis is not important during this

process. (2) Duplicated lineaments are erased

from the map every time a new layer is added.

Erasing of duplicated elements is performed by

manual interpretation. In case of different

lengths, the shorter lineaments and the roads are

deleted.

According to image interpretation,

lineaments with North and South orientations

are longer and more distinct along the Sagaing

fault and exposed igneous rocks. This direction

coincides with the Sagaing main fault and they are right-

lateral fractures. Lineament distribution and its general

orientation are shown in Fig. 4. Major lineament trend

can be summarized as NS, N50-70E, and N10-40E,

under considering exaggeration due to imaging

orientation. N50-70E lineament structure widely

distributes and might be older structure before Tertiary

sedimentation in the study area.


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Fig 2. Flow chart of selection of potential earthquake


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Fig. 3 Chart of density of lineament length, counts, and cross-points

Fig. 4 Interpretation lineament and orientation by Sagaing main fault


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N-S structure is the most dominant

orientation, and is common to occur as longest

lineaments more than 60 km. The lineaments

described above are the younger lineaments

covering most of the eastern part of the Wuntho

massif. Lineaments with northwest and

southeast orientations can be seen mainly in the

southeastern region of Kawlin-Wuntho area.

This orientation coincides with the direction of

extensional fractures attended by the right

lateral strike slip fractures and they are

generally a normal fault.

GIS Analyses of evidence layer

Lineament Length Density Analysis

A grid system set at 5 km intervals was

used to obtain the data for lineament density

values: the length density of lineaments, the

numerical density of lineaments and the cross-

points density of lineaments within the unit

circular cell. The length density of lineaments is

the total length (in km) of lineaments per cell

area (km2), the number of lineaments is the total

number of lineaments per cell area (km2) and

the cross-points density is the total number of

cross points of lineaments per cell area (km2)

existing within the unit circular cell (Fig. 3).

The purpose of the lineament density analysis is

to calculate frequency of the lineaments per unit

area. This is also known as lineament-frequency

(Greenbaum, 1985). This analysis will produce

a map showing concentrations of the lineaments

over the area. First a unit area (a circular area

with a search radius) is defined by the user.

Every time, the frequency of the lineaments is

counted and the number is recorded in an ASCII

file for the center of corresponding unit area.

The resultant text file that contains X, Y and Z

values (Easting, Northing and frequency,

respectively) and is stored to be processed for

preparing density (contour) map of the area.

The test points were selected using the

grid system with equal distances of 5 km

latitudinally and 5 km longitudinally. Figure 4

shows the grid model circle sample plan of

lineament density calculation. After calculation

of the lineament density values for each radius,

the graphs for the relation between lineament

density values and radius of the unit circles

were constructed, from which the

representative elementary area point was

determined. Density is calculated by assuming

the annual density of point features around

each grid cell by the use of circular

neighbourhood. Figure 8B shows the lineament

density contour for the lineament analysis of

study area.


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Earthquake Epicenter, Intensity and Depth

Analysis

Earthquake recurrence estimates of

the background seismicity in each seismic

source zone are required. The probabilistic

seismic hazard models consider earthquakes on

faults and in background sources, random

earthquakes. Figure 5 shows the epicenter

distributions of the study area from 1964 to

2007 (data from Incorporated research

institutions for seismology (IRIS-Washington

DC). This earthquake catalogue data is

available at http://www.iris.edu/data/data.htm.

A substantial amount of scatter of

epicenters is clearly visible even along the

most prominent features. The earthquake data

derived from the Incorporated Research

Institutions for Seismology (Washington DC)

showed that the depth of the earthquakes varies

from 4 km to more than 170 km (Table 2).

Data for the study region from 1964 to 2007

showed that during this 43 year period there

were further earthquakes nearby with a

magnitude, greater than or equal to 3.0. Figures

6C and D respectively the number of the

earthquakes as the function of focal depth,

magnitude, and time of occurrence for the

compiled earthquake hypocenter catalogue

from the region.

The ground motion observations used

for earthquakes with magnitudes greater than

5.0 and observations for events with

magnitudes greater than 3.0. The earthquake

catalog for magnitudes greater than 4 are used

to describe where the future large earthquakes

may occur (Allen, 2003). Density is calculated

by assuming the annual density of distribution

point features around each grid cell by the use

of circular neighborhood. The grid cell size is

30 m while the circle radius or grid size is 5

km. The grid size selection was affected by the

positional accuracy of the epicenters (<5 km)

while the search radius was defined according

to the size of the probability anomalies. A

series of seismic epicenter point density

images was calculated from the Incorporated

Research Institutions for Seismology

(Washington DC) earthquake catalogue data

(Fig. 7A). In the same way that earthquake

intensity and focal depth contour were

calculated for the weighted overlay analysis

(Figs. 7 B and 8A).

Model Integration and Favorability Analysis

The study area was classified into

different levels of favorability based on

earthquake epicenter density, earthquake

intensity and lineament density analysis data.


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The weighted overlay raster calculating process

makes it possible to take all these issues into

consideration. It reclassifies values in the input

rasters onto a common evaluation scale of

suitability. The input of these four raster are

weighted relative to their importance and added

to produce the preliminary earthquake hazard

output raster.

Fig. 5 Earthquake epicenter distribution of study area from 1964-2007 (after IRIS, 2008)


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The reclassification step was done for earthquake

epicenter, magnitude intensity, focal depth and

lineament analysis data in order to get

homogeneity in the input values. A weighted

overlay function was performed over the

reclassified values to create a single output that

combines these four data into a single value

depending upon the weight age assigned to each

theme.

Fig. 6 Showing focal depth (C) and magnitude (D) of earthquake


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Fig. 7 Showing earthquake epicenter density (A) and intensity (B) (after IRIS, 2008)

Fig. 8 Showing earthquake focal depth (A) and lineament density (B) (after IRIS, 2008)


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Each value class in each input raster is assigned a

new, reclassified value on an evaluation scale of 1 to

5, where 1 represents the lowest suitability and 5 the

highest.

This is based on the fact that usually the

theme or factors in the input values are not equally

important. Thus one has to prioritize the themes

depending upon their importance by assigning

weightage to them. The weightage function overlay

takes all those issues into considerations. It again

reclassifies the values in the input grid theme onto a

common evaluation scale of suitability. The input

grids are weighted by importance and added to

produce an output grid.

We used the raster calculator for

undertaking a favorability analysis and

developing and integration model. This tool

overlays raster element using a common

measurement scale and each input raster is weighted

according to its importance. The weight is

expressed as a relative percentage, and the sum of

the percent influence weights must be equal to

100%. The integration of each cell in input raster

maps is calculated by the following:

R(x1,y1) = αA(x1,y1)+βB(x1,y1)+ γ C(x1,y1)+ δD (x1,y1) (2)

Where, R, A, B, C and D denote the map cells in

the out and input rasters and α, β, γ and δ are the

coefficients of the percent influence of each

layer.

The earthquake epicenter, earthquake

intensity, focal depth and lineament density maps

were used in this weighted overlay model. In terms

of the percent influence of these layers, 30%, 20%,

20%, and 30% influence were assigned to the

epicenter, magnitude, depth, and lineament density

maps, respectively. The influence percent value

determination based on the statistics diagram of

historical earthquake catalogue and lineament.

When the weighted overlay is run, a raster of

overall suitability is created (Fig. 9).

Furthermore, the method of kriging

geostatistic has been used to develop spatially

continuous seismicity probability density

distribution map. The darkest areas are defined as

those with the highest suitable area, the dark grey

areas are high risk areas, the light grey areas are

with medium suitable area and the white areas are

of least suitable area (Fig. 10). The probability of

events depends on the probability density

distribution. The favorable zones indicated in this

map show a strong correlation with the distribution

of historical earthquake events. The zone showing

highest probability contour lies along the Wuntho-

Kawlin massive area, Kyaukpasat area and west of

Mt. Taungtonelone area. Eastern part of Mt.

Taungtonelone area, there are high lineament

density contour level and this region has high

frequency and is heavily affected by earthquake.


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Fig. 9 Potential earthquake map by model analysis


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Fig. 10 Probable density distribution map by Kriging geostatistic metho

Conclusion

We analyzed four different layers,

epicenter point distribution density, earthquake

intensity, focal depth and lineament density

using GIS model to access preliminary

earthquake hazard map in the northern part of

Sagaing fault zone, Myanmar. Digital data

layers and maps were used in Remote Sensing

and GIS to develop an earthquake hazard prone


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map. This study is to be used for new

recognition of seismic hazards and is expected

to increase the awareness for disaster

prevention. This observation also can be applied

to other seismic prone zone of mountainous

area. The study has proved that the high density

areas are clustered within seismic zones. This

can provide a valuable tool for earthquake

study, complementing other ground based and

satellite studies. However, the accuracy of this

study results depend on earthquake catalogue

data and percent influence weight determination.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Editor and the

reviewers of this manuscript. We are grateful to

Dr Maung Thein and U Tint Lwin Swe,

Myanmar Earthquake Committee. Mr. Paul

Moiya Kia, Graduate School of Engineering and

Resource Science, Akita University for detail

and insight comments that greatly improved the

original manuscript. The authors would like to

thank Professor Ryutaro Tateishi and his

students, Center for Environmental Remote

Sensing, Chiba University, for discussions and

the developing of image processing knowledge

skills. The Consortium for Spatial Information

(CGIAR-CSI) provided SRTM DEM data. The

authors would like to thank the Global Land

Cover Facility (GLCF) which kindly provided

the Landsat 7ETM+ data of the study area. The

authors would like to thank the Incorporated

Research Institutions for Seismology

(Washington DC) earthquake data management

center.

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NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS Papers submitted to the Journal will be reviewed to maintain a high scientific level. Papers accepted become the copyright of the Journal. Manuscripts: Two copies of the manuscript, each accompanied with copies all illustrations, should be sent to the Editor of the Journal. The manuscript should be typed in one column format with all tables and figures including captions at the end of the paper. A brief informative abstract of less than 800 words should be included. Authors will be asked to send their original illustration and text typed in digital format when their papers are accepted. Layout of manuscript: Authors are recommended to use Word or any standard word-processing package use to prepare the text and use Word and/or Excel for the tables. The first page of the manuscript must include: the full title; names of authors with initials first then surname; one full forename may be given if wished; full postal addresses of all authors; the e-mail address of the corresponding author (running on from address) References: References should be listed in alphabetical order at the end of the paper. Names of journal, bulletin end other publication should be spelled out in the following standard form.

Hirano, H., 2004, Carbon cycle and bio-diversity change during the Cretaceous in Asia: background and prospect: Journal of the Geological Society of Thailand, 1, 1-10.

Srisuwon, P., 2002, Structural and sedimentological evolution of the Phrae Basin, northern Thailand: Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Royal Holloway, University of London, 503p.

Tulyatid, J. and Charusiri, P., 1999, The ancient Tethys in Thailand as indicated by nationwide airborne geophysical data: in: B. Rattansathien and S. Reib (eds.), Proceeding of the International Symposium on Shallow Tethys (ST) 5, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 335-352.

UNESCO, 1999, International Network of Geopark. World Wide Web Address: http://www.unesco.org/science/ earthsciences/geoparks/geoparks.htm.

Responsibility: All statements made in the journal lies with their authors.

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วารสารสมาคมธรณีวิทยาแหงประเทศไทย JOURNAL OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF THAILAND

2008-2009 Number 1

CONTENTS

Glossary of commonly-used Thai terms

1 Basaltic Sandstone from the Loei Suture, Northeast Thailand Koichi Okuzawa , Ken-ichiro Hisada, Hidetoshi Hara, Punya Charusiri, and Shoji Arai

11 Diversity of Cenozoic Mammals in Thailand; Contribution to

Palaeoenvironments Yaowalak Chaimanee

17 Evidence of Mollusk Shell Deposit due to Middle Holocene Marine

Regression, Wat Sai Thai, Muang, Krabi, Southern Thailand Wickanet Songtham, Lertsin Raksaskulwong

23 Assessment and Role of Regional Organization for Tsunami Risk

Reduction and Hazard Mitigation in Southeast Asia Niran Chaimanee

29 Remote Sensing and GIS Based Approach for Earthquake Probability

Map: Case Study of the Northern Sagaing Fault Area, Myanmar Myint Soea, Tateishi Ryutaro, Daizo Ishiyama, Isao Takashima, Krit Won-In, Panya Charusiri

47 Geological Aspects of Nam Ngum 2 Hydroelectric Power Project, LAO PDR

Dacha Luangpitakchumpol, Beni M. Lekhak, Choosak Chaowanapisit, Umesh Shakya

Documents

Geology Palaeontology Geological Hazards Geological Application · 2014. 6. 16. · Mogok in the Shan Plateau of eastern Myanmar. Myanmar has suffered from more than 16 large earthquakes