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Chapter 1: Introduction to Research
Q. Define research. What are its characteristics?
A. Research in simplified terms means searching for the facts searching for the replies to the
various queries and also for the solutions to the various problems. Research is an inquiry or an
investigation with a specific purpose to fulfill, it helps in clearing the various doubtful concepts
and tries to solve or explain the various unexplained procedures or phenomenon.
According to the encyclopedia of social science, research can be explained as ‘the manipulation
of generalizing to extend, connect or verify knowledge.
!here are eight commonly agreed characteristics of research"
#ystematic procedures, $ontrolled procedures, validity, rigorousness, logicality, critical thought,
ob%ectivity and accuracy.
!he characteristics of Research can be explained as follows"
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1. Empirical-
Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Loical-
Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
!. C"clical-
Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
#. $nal"tical-
Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical,descriptive, experimental and case study.
%. Critical-
Research exhibits careful and precise %udgment.
&. 'ethodical-Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic method and procedures.
(. Replica)le-
!he research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arriveat valid and conclusive results.
Q. E*plain the need and importance of research in )usiness.
A. !he significance of research in a number of fields of applied economics, whether associated
with business, industry, commerce, trade, services or to the economy in general, hastremendously increased these days. !he extremely complex character of business, its size, fast
changes in technology etc, has focused attention on the utilization of research in managing
operational problems.
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1. +estin of ne, products-
&usiness research tests the possible success of fresh products. &usinesses need to know what
kinds of services and products consumers want before they produce them. Research will reduce
risk ' Research can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is needed and ensure
that the development of a product is highly targeted towards demand.
2. uaranteein adeuate distri)ution.
&usinesses can also use research to guarantee sufficient distribution of their products. (or
instance, a consumer products company might want to speak with merchants about the various
brands they offer. !he outcomes of the business research can help managers decide where they
need to increase their product distribution.
!. In-house research is reuired for professional and self de/elopment of the ,or0ersthrouh trainin and mentorin.
)rganizational research and analysis would also be needed for assessment of performance
management, process reengineering, departmental assessment and well"being of staff members.
#. nderta0in research can help a compan" a/oid future failure.
$arrying out research can also help a business determine whether now is the right time to expand
into another town or whether it needs to apply for a new loan. *t may also help a small business
decide if a process should be altered or if more needs to be done to meet the requirements of the
customer base.
%. tud"in the competition.
&usinesses frequently make use of research to study key rivals in their markets. &usinesses will
often begin with secondary research information or information which is currently accessible.
Research is important for any organization to remain competitive in the market. !he top function
of research is to supply a business with an outlet to correctly determine its customers. +ith the
help of surveys, an organization can analyze the preferences of its target consumers.
(urthermore, these studies could also provide a business the chance to examine its competitors in
the industry and analyze and emulate key strategies which could help in its operations.
*t can also help in the recruitment of employees. *ts through proper research that human resource
managers are able to determine and recruit qualified manpower. Recruitment of workers with the
right skills and attitudes aids the company to improve its productivity levels. Research for the
right staff members can be done via the internet, consultancy firms and institutions of higher
learning.
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A proper knowledge of the employees and healthy conversation would be important factors for a
manager to boost performance of the individuals in the team. A good approach, winning attitude
and behaviour of the manager with proper systems set up would certainly call for sound research
to understand and improve the system
Q. E*plain the need and importance of research in social sciences.
A. +hile identifying order in the complexity of social life is the most fundamental goal of social
research there are many other, more specific goals that contribute to this larger goal. !hey are
quite diverse. (or example, the goal of testing theories about social life contributes to the larger
goal of identifying order in complexity so does the goal of collecting in"depth information on
the diverse social groups that make up society. Another factor that contributes to the diversity of
the goals of social research is the simple fact that social research reflects society, and society
itself is diverse, multifaceted, and composed of many antagonistic groups. *t follows that the
goals of social research are multiple and sometimes contradictory. !oday, no single goal
dominates social research.
-. *dentifying general patterns and relationships
. !esting and refining theories
/. 0aking 1redictions
2. *nterpreting culturally or historically significant phenomena
3. 4xploring 5iversity
6. 7iving 8oice
9. Advancing :ew !heories
1. Identif"in eneral patterns and relationship
#ignificant social phenomena may be significant because they are common or general they
affect many people, either directly or indirectly. !his quality of generality makes knowledge of
such phenomena valuable. !hus, one of the ma%or goals of social research is to identify general
patterns and relationships. *n some corners, this ob%ective is considered the primary goal becausesocial research that is directed toward this end resembles research in the hard sciences. !his
resemblance gives social research more legitimacy, making it seem more like social physics and
less like social philosophy or political ideology.
2. +estin and Refinin +heories
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A primary goal of social research is to improve and expand the pool of ideas known as theories
by testing their implications and to refine their power to explain. !esting is carried by deriving
hypotheses from theories and the implications of these theories are then tested with data that bear
directly on the hypotheses. *deas and hypotheses that fail to receive support gradually lose their
appeal, while those that are supported more consistently gain greater stature in the pool. !esting
theories can also serve to refine them. &y working through the implications of a theory and then
testing this refinement, it is possible to progressively improve and elaborate a set of ideas.
!. 'a0in 3redictions
+hile social researchers use theories to derive ;predications; about what they expect to find in a
set of data, they also use accumulated social scientific knowledge to make predictions about the
future. $onsider the following example< Research indicates that ethnic conflict tends to increase
when the supply of economic rewards and resources decreases. !hus, a social scientist would
predict increased ethnic tension in an ethnically diverse country that has %ust experienced a
serious economic downturn. 1rediction is often considered the highest goal of science. +e
accumulate knowledge so that we can anticipate things to come.
#. Interpretin Culturall" or 4istoricall" inificant 3henomena
=nowledge of general patterns is not the only kind of valuable knowledge, however, especially
when it comes to understanding social life. *n the social sciences, knowledge of specific
situations and events, even if they are atypical is also highly valued. !he significance of most
historical phenomena derives from their atypically, the fact that he are dramatically non"routine,
and form their impact on who we are today.
%. E*plorin Di/ersit"
Another ma%or goal of social research is to explore and comprehend the social diversity that
surrounds us. +hile this goal may seem similar to the goal of identifying general patterns, and
does complement it in some respects, it is quite different. (or example, one general pattern is that
education and economic development tend to go together countries with better schools and
higher literacy rates tend to be richer. >owever, the fact that a general pattern exists doesn?t meanthat there aren?t important and interesting exceptions. #ome poor countries have well"developed
educational systems and very high literacy rates and some rich countries have poorly developed
schools and surprisingly low levels of literacy.
&. i/in 5oice
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#ometimes the goal of exploring diversity is taken one step further, and the researcher studies a
group not simply to learn more about it, but also to contribute to its having an expressed voice in
society. *n research of this type, the ob%ective is not only to increase the stock of knowledge
about different types, forms, and processes of social life, but to tell the story of specific groups,
usually in a way that enhances its visibility in society.
8ery often the groups studies in this way are marginal groups, outside the social mainstream.
!his approach to social research asserts that every group in society has a ;story to tell;.
(. $d/ancin 6e, +heories
0any different kinds of social research advance theory, even research that seeks to interpret
historical or cultural significance. !he testing of theories @goal also advances theory in the
limited sense that these tests indicate which theoretical ideas have more support as explanations
of social life. !he goal of advancing theory as it used here, however, involves more than
assessing and refining existing ideas. +hen theory is advanced, ideas are elaborated in some new
way. !o advance theory it is not necessary to come up with a complete model of society or even
some part of it. !he development of new ideas and new concepts is the most that research
seeking to advance theory usually accomplishes.
+hile the deduction"versus"induction distinction is a simple and appealing way to differentiate
kinds of social research, most research includes elements of both. (or this reason some
philosophers of science argue that all research involves retroduction " the interplay of induction
and deduction. *t is impossible to do research without some initial ideas, even if the goal is to
give voice to research sub%ects. !hus, almost all research has at least an element of deduction.#imilarly, almost all research can be used to advance theory in some way. After all, social
theories are vague and imprecise. 4very test of a theory refines it, whether or not the test is
supportive. Research involves retroduction because there is typically a dialogue of ideas and
evidence in social research
B. tate and e*plain the o)7ecti/es of research?
A. !he ultimate aim of research is to generate measurable and testable data, gradually adding to
the accumulation of human knowledge. Ancient philosophers believed that all answers could be
achieved through deduction and reasoning rather than measurement. #cience now usesestablished research methods and standard protocols to test theories thoroughly. *t is important to
remember that science and philosophy are intertwined and are essential elements of human
advancement, both contributing to the way we view the world. #cientific research, however,
allows us to test hypotheses and lay solid foundations for future research and study.
:o theory or hypothesis can ever be completely proved or disproved, but research enables us to
make valid assumptions about the universe.
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1. Observation and Description
!he first stage of any research is to observe the world around us and to ask questions about why things
are happening. 4very phenomenon in the universe has a reason behind it, and the aims of research are to
understand and evaluate what is happening. >owever simple the phenomenon or however easy it appears
to be to generate logical and intuitive answers, scientific research demands rigorous testing for a truth to
be accepted. 5escribing the overall behavior of the sub%ect is the first stage of any research, whether it is
a case study or a full"blown ?true experimental design?.
2. 3redict
!his stage is where you must make a statement of intent and develop a strong hypothesis. !his
must be testable, with aims of research being to prove or disprove this statement. At this stage,
you may express your personal opinion, favoring one side or the other. Cou must make a
statement predicting what you expect the final answer to be. Cou must, however, keep an open
mind and understand that there is a chance that you may be wrong. Research is never about right
or wrong but about arriving at an answer, which improves our knowledge of natural processes.
!. Determination of the Causes
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!his is often the ?business end? for many areas of scientific research and is where one of
the predictions is tested, usually by manipulating and controlling variables. !he idea is to
generate numerical data that can determine the cause with one of the many statistical tests. (or
example, a small"scale global warming study might study Antarctic ice cores to determine the
historical levels of carbon dioxide throughout history. *n this experiment, time would be the
manipulated variable, showing how levels of the greenhouse gas have changed over time.
Statistical procedures are then utilized to either prove or disprove the hypothesis and
prediction.)f course, very little research gives such a black and white answer, but opens up new
areas of potential study and allows scientists to focus on a specific direction.
#. E*planation
After determining the causes, the next layer of the research process is to try to find possible
explanations of ?+hyD? and ?>owD? things are happening. (or most areas, this stage involves
sifting through and reviewing earlier studies about similar phenomena. 0ost research is built
upon the work of previous researchers, so there should be a wealth of literature resourcesavailable. *f we look at a topical example, 7lobal +arming is an area with which most of us are
familiar and has been the sub%ect of thousands of studies. *ntuitively, most of us would state that
humanity pumping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is responsible for a worldwide rise in
temperatures.
!he aims of research may be to establish ?+hat are the underlying causes and relationships
between the different processes fueling this trendD? *n most cases, it is necessary to review earlier
research and try to separate the better quality sources from the inaccurate or poorly designed
studies. *t is equally important to take into account any opposing points of view and accept that
they may be equally valid. 4xplanation is about coming up with viable reasons and you must tryto be as ob%ective and unbiased as possible.
B. What are the t"pes of research?
A. Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of
research" the knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates etc .
8$IC REE$RC4
!he research is done for knowledge enhancement and does not have immediate commercial
potential" for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. *t is called basic, pure
and fundamental research. !he main motivation is to expand man?s knowledge, not to create or
invent something. !here is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic
research. &asic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. 5r.7.#moot says
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Epeople cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what is going to develop from the basic
researchF 4.g.
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!he process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental
connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships. #tatistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research.
#tatistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and commerce.
Buantitative research involving the use of structured questions, where the response options have
been 1re"determined and large number of respondents is involved. eg
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8. >istorical research
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/. 0ost of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied
by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers. !he concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business
organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers.
!hus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the informationKdata obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.
2. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. !his results in duplication and fritters away resources. !his problem can be solved
by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of sub%ects on which and the
places where the research is going on. 5ue attention should be given toward identification of
research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to
the industries.
3. !here does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter"university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. >ence, there is need for developing a code of
conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. 0any researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. !his causes unnecessary delays in the completion of
research studies. All possible efforts are made in this direction so that efficient secretarial
assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. Gniversity 7rants
$ommission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
9. Mibrary management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the timeand energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, %ournals, reports, etc., rather than in
tracing out relevant material from them.
I. !here is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this %ob in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of
the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the
concerning agencies.
J. !here may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating to
the process of data collection and related things.
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Chapter 2: Research methodolo"
B. E*plain Research methodolo"9 research methods and techniues.
A. Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. *t may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. *n it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. *t is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methodsKtechniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi"square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean
and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying varioustechniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is
necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ
from problem to problem. (or example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously
evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. #imilarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. >e has to specify very clearly and precisely
what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing
research operations. *n other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during
the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. #ince the ob%ect of
research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the
available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a
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solution possible. =eeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three
groups<
• *n the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. !hese methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution
• !he second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns /.
• !he third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the
like.
B. What is scientific method of research and its reuisitesD
A. !he scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. !o be termed scientific, a method
of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence sub%ect to specific principles
of reasoning. !he )xford 4nglish 5ictionary defines the scientific method as ;a method or
procedure that has characterized natural science since the -9th century, consisting in systematic
observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modificationof hypotheses.;
!he scientific method is an ongoing process, which usually begins with observations about the
natural world. >uman beings are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions
about things they see or hear and often develop ideas @hypotheses about why things are the way
they are. !he best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways, including
making further observations about nature. *n general, the strongest tests of hypotheses come
from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data. 5epending on
how well the tests match the predictions, the original hypothesis may require refinement,
alteration, expansion or even re%ection. *f a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported ageneral theory may be developed.
+hatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. )ne expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria<
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-. !he purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
. !he research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
/. !he procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
ob%ective as possible.
2. !he researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
3. !he analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. !he validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. $onclusions should be confined to those %ustified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
9. 7reater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
*n other words, we can state the requisites of a good research as under<
-. ood research is s"stematic< *t means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. #ystematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does re%ect the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
. ood research is loical< !his implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.*nduction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. *n fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
/. ood research is empirical< *t implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.
2. ood research is replica)le< !his characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions
B. Descri)e the steps in scientific research process.
A. !he overall process involves making con%ectures @hypotheses, deriving predictions from
them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to
determine whether the original con%ecture was correct. !here are difficulties in a formulaic
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statement of method, however. !hough the scientific method is often presented as a fixed
sequence of steps, they are better considered as general principles. :ot all steps take place in
every scientific inquiry @or to the same degree, and are not always in the same order. As noted
by +illiam +hewell @-9J2'-I66, ;invention, sagacity, NandO genius; are required at every step.
Formulation of a question
!he question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation, as in ;+hy is the sky blueD;,
but can also be open"ended, as in ;>ow can * design a drug to cure this particular diseaseD; !his
stage frequently involves looking up and evaluating evidence from previous experiments,
personal scientific observations or assertions, andKor the work of other scientists. *f the answer is
already known, a different question that builds on the previous evidence can be posed. +hen
applying the scientific method to scientific research, determining a good question can be very
difficult and affects the final outcome of the investigation.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a con%ecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question, that
may explain the observed behavior of a part of our universe. !he hypothesis might be very
specific, e.g., 4instein?s equivalence principle or (rancis $rick ?s ;5:A makes R:A makes
protein;, or it might be broad, e.g., unknown species of life dwell in the unexplored depths of the
oceans. A statistical hypothesis is a con%ecture about some population. (or example, the
population might be people with a particular disease. !he con%ecture might be that a new drug
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will cure the disease in some of those people. !erms commonly associated with statistical
hypotheses are null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is the con%ecture that
the statistical hypothesis is false, e.g., that the new drug does nothing and that any cures are due
to chance effects. Researchers normally want to show that the null hypothesis is false. !he
alternative hypothesis is the desired outcome, e.g., that the drug does better than chance. A final
point< a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, meaning that one can identify a possible
outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis
otherwise, it cannot be meaningfully tested.
Prediction
!his step involves determining the logical consequences of the hypothesis. )ne or more
predictions are then selected for further testing. !he more unlikely that a prediction would be
correct simply by coincidence, then the more convincing it would be if the prediction were
fulfilled evidence is also stronger if the answer to the prediction is not already known, due to the
effects of hindsight bias @see also post diction. *deally, the prediction must also distinguish the
hypothesis from likely alternatives if two hypotheses make the same prediction, observing the
prediction to be correct is not evidence for either one over the other. @!hese statements about the
relative strength of evidence can be mathematically derived using &ayes? !heorem.
Testing
!his is an investigation of whether the real world behaves as predicted by the hypothesis.
#cientists @and other people test hypotheses by conducting experiments. !he purpose of an
experiment is to determine whether observations of the real world agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from an hypothesis. *f they agree, confidence in the hypothesis increases
otherwise, it decreases. Agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true future experiments
may reveal problems. =arl 1opper advised scientists to try to falsify hypotheses, i.e., to search
for and test those experiments that seem most doubtful. Marge numbers of successful
confirmations are not convincing if they arise from experiments that avoid risk.NIO 4xperiments
should be designed to minimize possible errors, especially through the use of
appropriate scientific controls. (or example, tests of medical treatments are commonly run
as double"blind tests. !est personnel, who might unwittingly reveal to test sub%ects which
samples are the desired test drugs and which are placebos, are kept ignorant of which are which.
#uch hints can bias the responses of the test sub%ects. (urthermore, failure of an experiment doesnot necessarily mean the hypothesis is false. 4xperiments always depend on several hypotheses,
e.g., that the test equipment is working properly, and a failure may be a failure of one of the
auxiliary hypotheses. @#ee the 5uhem"Buine thesis. 4xperiments can be conducted in a college
lab, on a kitchen table, at $4R:?s Marge >adron $ollider , at the bottom of an ocean, on 0ars
@using one of the working rovers, and so on. Astronomers do experiments, searching for planets
around distant stars. (inally, most individual experiments address highly specific topics for
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reasons of practicality. As a result, evidence about broader topics is usually accumulated
gradually.
Analysis
!his involves determining what the results of the experiment show and deciding on the nextactions to take. !he predictions of the hypothesis are compared to those of the null hypothesis, to
determine which is better able to explain the data. *n cases where an experiment is repeated
many times, a statistical analysis such as a chi"squared test may be required. *f the evidence has
falsified the hypothesis, a new hypothesis is required if the experiment supports the hypothesis
but the evidence is not strong enough for high confidence, other predictions from the hypothesis
must be tested. )nce a hypothesis is strongly supported by evidence, a new question can be
asked to provide further insight on the same topic. 4vidence from other scientists and experience
are frequently incorporated at any stage in the process. 5epending on the complexity of the
experiment, much iteration may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer a question
with confidence, or to build up many answers to highly specific questions in order to answer a
single broader question.
Q. What is h"pothesis and mention its importance?
A. A hypothesis is a con%ecture, based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question,
that may explain the observed behavior of a part of our universe. !he hypothesis might be very
specific, e.g., 4instein?s equivalence principle or (rancis $rick ?s ;5:A makes R:A makes
protein;, or it might be broad, e.g., unknown species of life dwell in the unexplored depths of theoceans. A statistical hypothesis is a con%ecture about some population. (or example, the
population might be people with a particular disease. !he con%ecture might be that a new drug
will cure the disease in some of those people. !erms commonly associated with statistical
hypotheses are null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is the con%ecture that
the statistical hypothesis is false, e.g., that the new drug does nothing and that any cures are due
to chance effects. Researchers normally want to show that the null hypothesis is false. !he
alternative hypothesis is the desired outcome, e.g., that the drug does better than chance. A final
point< a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, meaning that one can identify a possible
outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis
otherwise, it cannot be meaningfully tested.
!he research process begins and ends with the hypothesis. *t is core to the entire procedure and,
therefore, is of the utmost importance. A hypothesis can be formulated in several ways yet it
always performs the basic function of predicting the final outcome of the investigation. !he
hypothesis usually occurs after inductive reasoning, in which the researcher performs a series of
observations in order to form a theory.
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P !urn your ideas into a research question.
P Review the literature.
P 5esign the study and develop your method@s.
P +riting your research proposal.
P *ssues about funding.
P )btain ethical and trust approval.
P $ollect and collate the data.
P Analyze the data and interpret findings.
P *mplications of your research for clinical practice.
P Report on the study and disseminate the findings.
A hypothesis ensures the entire research process remains scientific and reliable, following the
principles of deduction. !he hypothetico"deductive model was first proposed by =arl
1opper who suggested that theories about the world should come first and these should be usedto generate hypothesis which can be falsified by the empirical data produced by observations and
experiments.
!hough hypotheses are essential during the research process, it can produce complications with
regards to probability, significance and !ype * "!ype ** errors. A !ype * error occurs when p value
is too large and the null hypothesis is falsely re%ected and the research hypothesis is falsely
accepted. A !ype ** error occurs when the researcher falsely accepts the null hypothesis and
falsely re%ects the research hypothesis as p value is too small. !o confirm, a null hypothesis is
only used with statistics and claims there is no variation or difference between variables.
B. What are the different t"pes of h"pothesis?
A. As mentioned previously, a hypothesis is a tool of quantitative studies. *t is a tentative and
formal prediction about the relationship between two or more variables in the population
being studied, and the hypothesis translates the research question into a prediction of
expected outcomes. #o a hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or
more variables that we set out to prove or disprove in our research. study.
A hypothesis should be<
• stated clearly using appropriate terminology
• testable
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• a statement of relationships between variables
• limited in scope @focused.
+"pes of h"potheses
!here are different types of hypotheses<
• imple h"pothesis " this predicts the relationship between a single independent variable
@*8 and a single dependent variable @58 where *8 Q independent variable and 58 Q
dependent variable
• Comple* h"pothesis " this predicts the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.
>ypotheses can be stated in various ways as long as the researcher specifies or implies the
relationship that will be tested.
• Directional h"potheses
!hese are usually derived from theory. !hey may imply that the researcher is intellectually
committed to a particular outcome. !hey specify the expected direction of the relationship
between variables i.e. the researcher predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also its
nature.
• 6on-directional h"potheses
Gsed when there is little or no theory, or when findings of previous studies are contradictory.
!hey may imply impartiality. 5o not stipulate the direction of the relationship.
$ssociati/e and causal h"potheses
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• Associative hypotheses
1ropose relationships between variables " when one variable changes, the other changes. 5o not
indicate cause and effect.
• $ausal hypotheses
1ropose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables. !he independent variable
is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent variable. !he dependent variable is measured to
examine the effect created by the independent variable.
• 6ull h"potheses
!hese are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two variables or
when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a research hypothesis :ull
hypotheses can be< simple or complex associative or causal.
• +esta)le h"potheses
$ontain variables that are measurable or able to be manipulated. !hey need to predict a
relationship that can be ?supported? or ?not supported? based on data collection and analysis.
B. ources of de/elopin h"pothesis?
A. )nce you have identified you research question, it is time to formulate your hypothesis. +hile
the research question is broad and includes all the variables you want your study to consider, the
hypothesis is a statement that specific relationship you expect to find from your examination of
these variables. +hen formulating the hypothesis@es for your study, there are a few things you
need to keep in mind. 7ood hypotheses meet the following criteria<
• *dentify the independent and dependent variables to be studied.
• #pecify the nature of the relationship that exists between these variables.
• #imple @often referred to as parsimonious. *t is better to be concise than to be long"
winded. *t is also better to have several simple hypotheses than one complicated
hypothesis.
• 5oes not include reference to specific measures.
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• 5oes not refer to specific statistical procedures that will be used in analysis.
• *mplies the population that you are going to study.
• *s falsifiable and testable.
As indicated above, it is better to have several simple hypotheses than one complex one.
>owever, it is also a good idea to limit the number of hypotheses you use in a study to six or fewer. #tudies that address more hypotheses than six will often be too time consuming to keep
participants interested, and uninterested participants do not take the importance of their
responses as seriously. Another advantage to limiting the number of formal hypotheses you
formulate is that too many can make the discussion section of your paper very hard to write.
*t is important to remember that you do not have to have a formal hypothesis to %ustify all
comparisons and statistical procedures you might use. (or instance, it is only when you start
doing exploratory analysis of your data that you realize that gender is an influencing factor. Cou
do not have to back up and write a hypothesis that addresses this finding. *n fact, it is better in
most cases to not do this. Cou can report any statistical findings you feel are relevant, whether or not you have a hypothesis that addressed them.
!he final criterion listed above warrants additional mention. A good hypothesis is not only
testable, that is, something you can actually test for in your study, but is must also be falsifiable.
*t is tempting to ignore this requirement, especially as a new researcher. +e want so badly to find
great things, and for our study to turn out exactly as we expect it to, that we tend to ignore the
possibility that we dont know everything and that no prediction is failsafe when it comes to
humans. !ry to keep in mind that all research is relevant. +hether or not your findings are what
you expect, you will find something. &elieve it or not, failing to find group differences can be
%ust as important as finding expected group differences. *n fact, studies that return results inopposition to what we were hoping for, or believed would logically occur, often lead to many
more great studies than we could have hoped for. After all, it could be great for the findings of
your current research to act as a guiding principal to your future research it is likely that this
would require less work in terms of literature review, as you would always be familiar with at
least a portion of the literature that is relevant to your latest studyS
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Chapter !: Compan" sur/e"
Compan" 3rofile
Esta)lished in 1;(, the 7odre% 7roup has its roots in *ndia?s #wadeshi movement. !he
founder9 $rdeshir odre7, lawyer"turned"serial entrepreneur failed with a few businesses,
before he struck gold with the locks business that you know today. )ne of *ndias most trusted
brands, with revenues of G#5 2.- billion, 7odre% en7o"s the patronae of o/er &
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and #outh America, Asia, 4urope, Australia and Africa, and it leads the *ndian market in the
production of fatty acids, fatty alcohols and A)#.
!he $ompany operates from its factories at the following locations.
• Ambernath, 0ahrashtra
• 8alia, 7u%arat• +adala, 0aharashtra
7odre% U &oyce 0anufacturing $ompany Mimited and 7odre% (amily members are the
1romoters of the $ompany and the shareholding of promoterKpromoter group constitutes 92.I/V
of the paid up capital of the $ompany as at 0arch /-, H-3.
=inancial data for IL tandalone:
(C H-2"-3 W $rore
!otal *ncome -6J-.I9 :et 1rofit after taxes -2I.I-
!otal assets 29H.99
1aid up $apital //.3J
0arket capitalization @as on 0arch /-, H-3 --6H-./6
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CR 3olic"
1. 3ream)le
At 7odre% *ndustries Mimited @7*M, they are committed to the 7odre% 7roups ‘7ood U 7reen
vision of creating a more inclusive and greener *ndia. !heir strategic $orporate #ocial
Responsibility @$#R initiatives actively work towards the 7ood U 7reen 7oals and have helped
them carve out a reputation for being one of the most socially and environmentally responsible
companies in *ndia.
2. 3urpose
!he key purpose of this policy is to<
P 5efine what $#R means to them and the approach adopted to achieve 7ood U 7reen goals
P 5efine the kind of pro%ects that will come under the ambit of $#R
P *dentify broad areas of intervention in which the company will undertake pro%ects
P #erve as a guiding document to help execute and monitor $#R pro%ects
P 4lucidate criteria for partner implementation agencies
P 4xplain the manner in which the surpluses from $#R pro%ects will be treated
!. 3olic" tatement
!he $#R 1olicy focuses on addressing critical social, environmental and economic needs of the
marginalizedKunderprivileged sections of the society. !hrough this policy, they align their $#R
strategy with the 7odre% groups 7ood U 7reen vision and goals. !hey adopt an approach that
integrates the solutions to these problems into the strategies of the company to benefit the
communities at large and create social and environmental impact.
#. cope of CR acti/ities in IL
As a practice, they classify only those pro%ects that are over and above their normal course of
business as $#R. !his policy applies to all their $#R pro%ects and it will be further reviewed and
updated.
#.1 6ormal Course of 8usiness
7*M manufactures industrial chemicals that are used for a variety of product categories, ranging
from cosmetics and tyres to pharmaceuticals and toothpastes. !hey are the countrys leading
manufacturer of )leo chemicals U #urfactants. !hey pride themselves for delivering high quality
products at competitive prices in several countries. !heir differentiated manufacturing processes
and supply chains enable them to be the preferred supplier of chemicals to many markets in *ndia
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and abroad. As a company, they are committed to providing quality products to their customers,
creating economic value for all their shareholders, and they assign high priority to ensuring that
they fulfill all regulatory requirements
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%. ood > reen oals of odre7
&y HH, the 7roup aspires to create a more employable *ndian workforce, build a greener *ndia,
and innovate for ‘good and ‘green products. !he 7odre% groups 7ood U 7reen goals for HH
are<
P !rain - million rural and urban youth in skills that enhance their earning potential through
employability training programs
P Achieve zero waste to landfill, carbon neutrality, a positive water balance, /HV reduction in
specific energy consumption, increase utilization of renewable energy sources through the
7reener *ndia pro%ects
P 7enerate a third of our portfolio revenues from ‘good andKor ‘green products and services '
defined as products that are environmentally superior or addresses a critical social issue @e.g.,
health, sanitation, disease prevention for consumers at the bottom of the income pyramid
!heir $#R policy contributes to the 7roup"wide goals of 7odre% by adopting pro%ects in the
following areas of intervention defined in #chedule 8**<
• livelihood enhancement pro%ects
• ensuring environmental sustainability
• promoting education
• others as maybe identified in the future
&. e" focus areas of ood > reen in IL
&.1 Emplo"a)ilit"
*ndia has 6HH million people below the age of 3 out of which only IH million @-/V are
employable. Recognizing the seriousness of this problem, 7*M has undertaken pro%ects that
impart training to enhance the employment potential of underprivileged students by equipping
them with core technical skills and safety inputs while providing them with a broader industry
perspective.
&.2 reener India
!hey recognize the fact that in order to truly embed sustainability into their business, it is crucial
for them to manage and reduce the environmental impacts of their operations. !he 7reener *ndia
initiative aims to do this through its innovative pro%ects that focus on achieving 3 time"bound
goals linked to the environmental performance of the company.
&.! Inno/atin for ood > reen
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!hey define a ‘7ood productKservice as one which addresses a critical issue for marginalized
sections of society. !he issue addressed could be related to health, hygiene, water, sanitation,
housing, education or livelihoods. A ‘7reen productKservice is that which reduces energy, 7>7
emissions, water or material consumption, eliminates toxic materials or uses recyclable,
renewable andKor natural material.
!hey continuously undertake efforts to develop good and green products or services. Research U
5evelopment activities support incubation and innovation.
&.# 8rihter i/in
!hey place great emphasis on including their employees in $#R initiatives. !o this end, &righter
7iving has been launched as a structured employee volunteering programme that provides their
employees the flexibility to leverage their skills and volunteer for the cause they are passionate
about. A typical &righter 7iving pro%ect helps address a non"profit organizations specific needs.
(. o/ernance tructure
!hey have constituted a robust and transparent governance structure to oversee the
implementation of their $#R 1olicy, in compliance with the requirements of #ection -/3 of the
$ompanies Act, H-/.
(.1 8oard-le/el CR Committee
At 7*M, their $#R governance structure will be headed by the &oard Mevel $#R committee that
will be ultimately responsible for the $#R pro%ects undertaken. !he committee will report to
their &oard of 5irectors.
(.1.1 'em)ers
• 0r. :. &. 7odre%
• 0s. !. A. 5ubash
• 0r. =. :. 1etigara
• 0r. Amit &. $houdhary
(.1.2 Responsi)ilities
• (ormulate and update their $#R 1olicy, which will be approved by the &oard of 7*M
• #uggest areas of intervention to the &oard of 7*M
• Approve pro%ects that are in line with the $#R policy
• 1ut monitoring mechanisms in place to track the progress of each pro%ect
• Recommend the $#R expenditure to the &oard of 7*M who will approve it
• 0eet at least twice a year to review the progress made
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(.2 Reportin )" ood > reen +eam
!he 7ood U 7reen !eam and the business teams will report K give feedback to the $#R
$ommittee for all $#R pro%ects undertaken.
. CR 8udet
!he total budget for the $#R pro%ects will be decided by the $#R $ommittee.
;. +reatment of urpluses
Any surplus generated from $#R pro%ects undertaken by them will be tracked and channelized
into their $#R corpus. !hese funds will be further used in development of the $#R pro%ects and
will not be added to the normal business profits
8usiness responsi)ilit" report
ustaina)ilit" efforts )" +he odre7 roup
“We make a LIVING by what we get, We make a LIFE by what WE GIVE.”- Sir Winston
h!r"hi##
!he 7odre% 7roup has always been at the forefront of philanthropic and social activities for
several decades. At 7odre%, the belief is that as organization grows in size and scale they must
play an active role in public welfare and look beyond business interests and support the well"
being of the society at large. 3V of the shares of the 7odre% 7roups holding company 7odre%
U &oyce are held in a trust that invests back in initiatives that support the environment, and
improves the quality and availability of healthcare and education.
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7odre% *ndustries Mimited, part of the larger 7odre% 7roup shares the groups environmental,
philanthropic and social ideologies and has been successfully able to VIS$%LI&E, S'%('EGISE
%N) %'$%LI&E its sustainability and social initiative.
5isuali@in > stratei@in sustaina)ilit" it its core /ision
!he 7roups desire and commitment to subservice the social and environmental needs of the
country made them go a step ahead in the year H-- when they embedded the E7odre% 7ood U
7reen *nitiativeF as a part of groups HH 8ision and #trategy. !his vision is founded on shared
value initiatives and aims to create societal value by"
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+heir 7ourne"
E+e are proud to share that 7odre% *ndustries was appreciated for its varied initiatives on
creating shared value by being awarded the 1orter 1rize in )ctober H-/. !he 1orter 1rize
named after the renowned thinker and (ather of the modern strategic field 1rofessor 0ichael 4.
1orter recognizes the strategic acumen of corporate and leaders who have epitomized the spirit of
corporate governance, and stood apart by creating value. !he central premise behind creating
shared value is that the competitiveness of a company and the health of the communities around
it are mutually dependent. Recognizing and capitalizing on these connections between societal
and economic progress has the power to unleash the next wave of global growth and to redefine
capitalism.F
A2 reen
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8i)lioraph"
• http4#*#X()R0GMA!*):• http