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7/30/2019 Hartwig, Bhaskar Critique of PDM_pubd
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[JCR10.4 (2011) 485-510] (print) ISSN 1476-7430doi: 10.1558/jr.10i4.485 (onlin) ISSN 1572-5138
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PERSPECTIVE
BHASKARS CRITIQUE OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSE OF MODERNITY1
by
Mervyn Hartwig2
Abstract. Uniqul among ontmporar philosophis, Ro Bhaskars ss-
tm o ritial ralism and mtaRalit attmpts to sulat (draw out th
ral strngths o and surpass) th philosophial disours o modrnit
onsidrd as a dialtiall dloping totalit. This papr sstmatiall
xpounds and ommnts on Bhaskars mtaritiqu o that disours and
situats it rif in rlation to Jrgn Harmass arlir ritiqu.
Key words: Bhaskar; ritial ralism; udaimonia; go-historiit; Har-
mas; philosophial disours o modrnit; philosoph o mtaRalit
Acronyms
CM lassial modrnism
CN ritial naturalism
CR ritial ralism
DCR dialtial ritial ralism
EC th thor o xplanator ritiqu
HM high modrnismM th thor and prati o modrnization
PDM philosophial disours o modrnit
PM postmodrnism
PMR th philosoph o mtaRalit
TDCR transndntal dialtial ritial ralism
T/F ourgois triumphalism/ rgrssi undamntalism
TR transndntal ralism
1 This is a risd rsion o a plnar addrss to th Smposium on Contmporar
Soial and Cultural Thoris, Institut o Europan and Amrian Studis, Aadmia
Sinia, Taipi, Taiwan, Nomr 2010.
2 37 Stokwll Grn, Stokwll, London SW9 9HZ, UK. Mrn Hartwig is ounding
ditor oJournal o Critical Realismand ditor and prinipal author oDictionary o Critical
Realism.
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Introduction
Th philosophial disours o modrnit (PDM) is th rolutionar philo-
sophial disours, th hallmark o whih is th sl-dning sujt,3 that
aompanid th ris and onsolidation o th apitalist sstm rom its irth
in th sixtnth and sntnth nturis to its urrnt gloalizing phas.
It displad a philosophial disours in whih popl dnd thmsls
in rlation to a osmi ordr iwd as intrinsiall maningul, alual
and sard, and will in du ours in turn displad, prhaps ritial
ralism,4 whih aspirs to sulat (i.. snthsiz and transnd) it. Expt in
th ontingnt mattr o its origins, th PDM is not an intrinsiall Europan
or Eurontri phnomnon. It is th philosophial rftion o th gloal-
izing dnami o th apitalist mod o prodution whih otains at th llo th ral rgardlss o whih partiular ntrism holds swa in th rgions
that it inads,5 although its atual ts will strongl mdiatd loal
onditions: a at o th rst gnuinl world ordr, ntr-priphr sstm6
or (in ritial ralist trms) gloal mastrsla-tp soit7 rathr than an
indpndnt Europan, thn Amrian, phnomnon. Thus, although
th disours is urrntl dominatd th Europan-Amrian philosophi-
al ommunit, who ar authorizd to st th latst ashions, this is likl to
hang whn th pintr o th world-sstm hangs.
Th onpt o modrnit or Bhaskar is losl ound up with th ph-
nomnon o go-historiit. Borrowing rom Claud Li-Strauss, Bhaskar
distinguishs th old, onrt soitis o Indignous popls who ha
no sns o histor, i.. in whih th prsnt is xprind as th ndur-
3 Modrnit an and will no longr orrow th ritria whih it taks its orintation
rom th modls supplid anothr poh; it has to create its normativity out o itsel (Har-
mas [1985] 1987, 7, original mphasis). S also Talor 1992.
4 Unlss th ontxt indiats othrwis, ritial ralism is usd throughout in itsxtndd sns to inlud dialtial ritial ralism and th philosoph o mtaRalit.
5 [T]h ral or undrpinning [th dihotomis and dualisms o th PDM] was
nothing ls than th rmorslss logi o th nasnt apitalist mod o prodution and
xploitation o natur and human ings alik, a dnami and sl-xpanding orm o
xploitation without prdnt in human histor, in whih an unonstraind and unon-
sious onatus or dri to aumulation is hurtling humanit (and with it th plant) into
risis at all our plans o soial ing (Bhaskar 2002, 172 n. 7; . 64: Simpl put, I think
modrnism is a r pur idolog o th apitalist mod o prodution).
6 Wallrstin 1974, 1980, 1989; Dussl [1993] 1995.
7 Bhaskar [1993] 2008; Hartwig 2007. Mastrsla or powr2
rlations mra powr-
or rlations o r kind, along lins o nationalit, thniit, ra, gndr, rligious
aliation, ag, disailit, t., as wll as lass. In th poh o modrnit, th onpt us-
ull alls attntion to th xploitati rlation intrinsi to th wag-laour/apital ontrat,
whih is hiddn ommodit tishism.
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ing prptuation o th past (a ommon iw o non-mastrsla popls),
rom hot historiizd soitis in whih th prsnt is sn as radiall
dirnt rom th past, a produt o hang or tim. Go-historiitis
oth (1) th qualit o haing suh a sl-rfxi onsiousnss o histor, aqualit that is aught in th undamntal ritial ralist onpt o pistmi
rlatiit; and (2) that to whih th onsiousnss rrs, th qualit o
spatializing diahroni hang that is xhiitd all soitis, though at
widl aring rats. At a mta-ll, (3), go-historiit is onptuall a
driati o asn, mraing th whol o Bing, not just human ing.
Go-historiit (3) is thus an pross o dirtional hang in th multi-
rs, .g. gologial. Go-historiit (1) th sl-rfxi onsiousnss
o hang is a rlatil rnt, mrgnt phnomnon, roughl ontm-
poranous with th rst axial iilizations or th ris o mastrsla-tp
soitis. Indd, it prsupposs th othr two dning aturs o axialit:
th nhanmnt o rfxiit and o agntialit.8 Howr, huntr-oragrs
rtainl had a past (and outsid)9 in th sns that th lid in th ull
prsn o thir anstor-rators and mths, with a kn sns o thir
own origins and distint idntit within th osmi ordr; and hot soitis
ha it in ommon with thm that, aording to th ruling idologis, thr
8 Th onpt o axialit dris rom th thmatization Karl Jasprs (who drw on
similar notions dating ak to th ightnth ntur, ut spiall in th work o Max
Wr) o an Achsenzeitor Axial Ag . 800200 bce that witnssd, rlatil indpndntl
in a rang o rgions, a multi-atd soio-ultural rolution, piotal or th susqunt
ours o go-histor, in China, India, anint Isral, Gr and (mor ontrorsiall) th
Nar East and Egpt, a k atur o whih was th disor or nhanmnt o histori-
it, rfxiit and agntialit (Jasprs [1949] 2010). For rnt analsis o th Achsenzeit
and its infun in go-histor s Arnason t al., ds, 2005. For an argumnt that th
pr-Columian iilizations o Msoamria and th Andan rgion xprind thir own
Axial rolution, s Dussl [1993] 1995. This is ongrunt with th iw o Arnason t al.
(2005, 3) that, whil rom on point o iw th Axial Ag is a historial priod with moror lss larl dnd hronologial oundaris, rom anothr th strutural aspts sup-
posdl ommon to th ultural rakthroughs o th Axial Ag would sm to distinguish
on tp o iilization rom othrs, and xampls o this tp might mrg in dirnt
historial sttings, not onl thos o th original Axial Ag. It might, in othr words,
appropriat to spak o axial iilizations as a gnral atgor with an opn-ndd histori-
al ld o appliation, rathr than iilizations o th Axial Ag. Suh onsidrations issu
in a onpt o multipl axialitis, allowing or intrprting .g. th ris o Islam as a
nw axial iilization (Arnason t al. 2005, 35, 8). Bhaskars onpt o mastrsla-tp
soitis is a mor astrat and gnral atgor that onstllationall mras th axial
iilizations as wll as thir sussors on th stag o world histor. His prinipl o axial
rationalit, oupld with th axiom o unirsal solidarit, and groundd togthr with it in
th pratial ordr, proids a mtathortial asis or th rsolution o disputs (Bhaskar
with Hartwig 2010, 801, 198).
9 Bhaskar 2002, 103.
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is no utur, in th sns that qualitati soial hang is unthinkal: rom
th prspti o total histor, n as historiit (1) mrgd in hot soit-
is, it was rozn ndism and ontologial monoaln, suh that thr
was a histor on, ut not an longr (Marx) (s 5, low). Hot soitis,inluding thos o our own modrnit, ar thus onl hal go-historiizd,
split twn past and utur th dominant outlook laks a sns o th
uturiito praxis10 and rampant trnizationo th status quo d-go-
historiizs. A udaimonian soit, ontrast, would ull historiizd,
omining an awarnss oth (a) o radial dpartur rom th past and ()
o utur hang as nssar and dsiral or human fourishing with a
(r-)nhantd iw o th osmos as th unolding o Bing and o its own
ontinuit and onntdnss with this pross mraing pross and
hang, opnnss to th utur as an ssntial part o our ing.11 W would
li our lis in th momnt, ut in th ull prsn oth o th past and
o th utur, suh that th distaniatd prsnt was prsnt to itsl not
asnt, as in th ast-twith puntualist hr-now o markt soitis. World
go-historiit (2), whr all human soitis ar aught up in th gloal-
izing pross o apital, onstituting a nw rhthmi, was inauguratd in
th dawn o modrnit as w know it.12
Habermas on the Philosophical Discourse o Modernity
Th onpt o th philosophial disours o modrnit as a unid ph-
nomnon rst gaind widsprad urrn with th puliation o Jrgn
Harmass ook o th sam nam in 1985. Harmass ritiqu o th PDM
ommns with G. W. F. Hgl, th rst Europan philosophr to dlop a
lar onpt o modrnit, and his ritiqu o th sujt-ntrd rason o
th Europan Enlightnmnt, ut is ousd largl on th disours o post-
modrnit and its radial rlatiization and rdution o rason, in ordr toidnti and larl mark out a road indiatd ut not takn: th determinate
ngation o sujt-ntrd rason rason undrstood as communicative
ation th rplamnt o th sujtiist paradigm o onsiousnss
and postmodrnism an intrsujtiist paradigm o ommuniati
ation in whih rason is onstrud in trms o unord mutual undr-
standing and riproal rognition.13 It is a powrul ritiqu that has a
good dal in ommon with Bhaskars, and Harmas dos o ours ritiqu
10 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 251.
11 Bhaskar 2002, 128; . So 2008.
12 Hartwig 2007.
13 MCarth 1987, ii, x, xi, original mphasis.
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othr aspts o th PDM lswhr in his our, ut rom a ritial ralist
point o iw ths ritiqus ar sriousl fawd.
Thus, rst, Harmass ritiqu o positiism and mpiriism las th
positiist aount o a ausal law and sin intat in rlation to th naturalworld, issuing in an instrumntalist-manipulati onption o th intrst
inorming th natural sins and th sphr o laour.14 Thr is argu-
al muh mor to sin and knowldg-onstituti intrsts than instru-
mntal rationalit or stratgi ation. For ritial ralism, sin, inluding
natural sin, proprl undrstood and pratisd, has a ital rol to pla in
this and manipation in arriing at th undrstanding to whih th par-
adigm o mutual undrstanding aspirs.15 Sond, and rlatdl, Harmass
ulturalist ronstrution o Marx, on o th k gurs o high modrnism,
within a linguisti paradigm orlooks that Marx was argual an impliit si-
nti ralist and thial naturalist,16 whos philosoph o praxis, moror,
annot rdud to a prodution paradigm as opposd to a paradigm o
ommuniation.17 Third, Harmass prolmati ronstrution o Marx is
ound up with th grounding o his this in a dialti o disours or om-
muniati ation to th nglt o th mor gnral atgor o agn or
intntional ation as suh,18 whih indd h assimilats to th linguisti par-
adigm, rormulat[ing] th onpt o praxis in th sns o ommuniati
ation.19
Othrwis xprssd, whras or Bhaskar ation onstllationallontains sph-ation, Harmas tnds to rdu th ormr to th lattr.
14 Bhaskar [1989] 2010, 188; s also Bhaskar [1986] 2009, 23031 n. 5; [1991] 2010,
142; 2002, 38. As a no-Kantian who, lik Wr, sks to omin positiism with hrm-
nutiism, Harmas is ulnral to th main thrust o th ritial ralist ritiqu o oth
thos traditions. S spiall Bhaskar [1979] 1998.
15 Thr is no ountrpart in Harmas o th Bhaskarian thor o xplanator ri-
tiqu, whih ts transitions rom ats to alus and thor to prati and onluds
that soial thor just is moral philosoph, ut as sin (Bhaskar [1991] 2010, 145).
16 In th 1980s Bhaskar ronstrutd th matur Marx as a sinti ralist (s sp-iall Bhaskar [1989] 2010, h. 7, Dialtis, matrialism and thor o knowldg, 115
45). BhaskarsDialectic: The Pulse o Freedom([1993] 2008), as Alan Norri has suggstd to
m, proids a wa o onstruing th thought o Marx, oth oung and matur, and its
onrn with this and politial onom, alination and xploitation, as a dlopmntal
unit.
17 Harmas 1976; [1985] 1987, Ltur 3, Exursus on th osolsn o th produ-
tion paradigm.
18 [I] thr is a sns in whih th idal ommunit, oundd on prinipls o truth,
rdom and justi, is alrad prsnt as a prguration in r sph-intration, might
on not tmptd to suppos that qualit, lirt and ratrnit ar prsnt in r
transation or matrial xhang ? It is an rror to suppos that this must ha a lin-
guisti oundation; just as it is an rror to suppos that it is autonomous rom sin or
histor (Bhaskar [1986] 2009, 210). C. Norri 2010, 1234, 225, 22830.
19 Harmas [1985] 1987, 335.
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This lads Harmas to rjt a onpt o manipation, a rsion o whih
is dndd Bhaskar, as th rappropriation o alinatd powrs ring-
ing all soial rlations within th horizon o th liworld.20 Whil Bhaskar
agrs with Harmas, against Hgl, who inoks th highr-ll sujti-it o th stat, that th appropriat modl or th mdiation o th unirsal
and th indiidual (singular) in th thial sphr is th unirsalit o an
unord onsnsus arrid at among r and qual prsons,21 h grounds
this in a mor thorough-going wa in our modid intntional prati,
inluding our disursi prati. Finall, Harmass aount o modr-
nit, modrnization and nlightnmnt in gnral ar dlopmntalist and
Eurontri,22 in th spirit o Wrs Oidntal rationalization thsis, in
partiular aus it tnds to quat th quikning o ritial rfxiit in
th Europan Enlightnmnt with its ntr on to th stag o world histor,
and dos not s or aknowldg adquatl that th onstitution o modrn
Europan sujtiit has as its indispnsal pdstal th onqust and
nslamnt or xploitation o non-Europan popls.23 Aording to Fr-
dri vandnrgh, th -olum studnt dition o philosophial ssas
Harmas pulishd in 2009 to mark his ightith irthda has not a
singl word to sa aout olonization as suh, as distint rom olonization
o th liworld.24
Undrpinning ths waknsss ar a numr o mta-rrors. (1) As a pro-tagonist o th linguisti turn, Harmas ommits a linguistid rsion o
th pistmi alla Harmass Kantian projt o attmpting to rndr
ontologial mdiations as pistmologial diisions.25 This itiats his ntir
ritiqu o postmodrnism aus h shars with his opponnts th sam
undamntal mistak, nshrind in th slogans postmtaphsis, postphi-
losoph and postontolog, whih ail to disriminat twn traditional
mtaphsis or rst philosoph, on th on hand, whih ritial ralism lik-
wis rnouns, and transndntal or sinti ralism and th ontologi-
al ralism it indiats, on th othr.26 Harmas has n a sathing riti
o ontolog, whih Bhaskar r-indiats. For Bhaskar philosoph an ral
rlatil nssar truths aout th undamntal ontours o Bing and
njos a rlati autonom rom sin; or Harmas, philosophs rol is
20 S .g. Dws 1986, 16; Harmas 1986, 177.
21 Harmas [1985] 1987, 40.
22 S .g. Dussl [1993] 1995, 910, 25, 325, 12930 and [1993] 1996, 6, 51.
23 Dussl [1993] 1995, 25.
24 vandnrgh 2010, 3.
25 Bhaskar [1986] 2009, 23031, n. 5; . 2002, 38.
26 For th dirn twn traditional and Bhaskarian mtaphsis, s Bhaskar
[1986] 2009, h. 1.3, Mtaphsis and mthod, 1027.
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rathr mrl to intgrat th rsults o th sins into a ohrnt aount
o human histor and prospts, aandoning th philosoph o histor in
aour o a thor o soial olution. Lik all dngators o ontolog, Har-
mas and th postmodrnists oprat with a tait ontolog o atualism andmpirial and/or onptual ralism.27 Harmass ddution o a onatus
to mutual undrstanding immannt within disours an sn as a partial
mo into ontolog a philosophr who othrwis dnis it.28 (2) Rlatdl,
Harmas is nsnard within th antinom o transndntal pragmatism:
[I] natur has th transndntal status o a onstitutd ojtiit, thnit annot ild th historial or mpirial ground o th onstituting suj-tiit or knowldg; onrsl i natur is th historial ground o sujti-it and/or an mpirial ground o knowldg, it annot rgardd soll
as a onstitutd or positd ojtiit: it must ssntiall initsel(andonl, so to spak, ontingntl a possil ojt o knowldg or us).29
In short, humanit annot oth onstitutd and onstitut th natural
world. (3) Harmass thor o truth aknowldgs onl thr o th our
momnts o Bhaskars thor (th thor o th truth ttrapolit) duiar,
adquating and xprssi-rrntial (intrsujti or onsnsual) truth;
it laks a onpt o truth as most undamntall ontologial and althi
th truth o things as distint rom propositions, i.. truth as ral, xisting
ojtil, indpndntl o our ass to it, as th ral rasons or thingsrom th point o iw o th possiilit o human prati.30 Finall, (4)
Harmass anti-naturalism marginalizs th xtra-ommuniati or xtra-
disursi onstraints on human agn in his thial thor onl to ha
thm rturn with a ngan in th thor o ommuniati ation in
th orm o th olonization o liworld sstm (th onom and stat
apparatuss o-ordinatd th non-linguisti mdia o mon and powr),
rproduing th Kantian antinom twn phnomnal sstm and nou-
mnal liworld a rturn that is rlatd to Harmass Wrian attmpt
to marr hrmnutiism with positiism.31 Th prospt Harmass phi-
losoph ors is thus that th puli spa o mor or lss good rasons
annot maintaind as it is swallowd up th strutural ioln that h
aknowldgs prmats modrn soitis.32 Unlik Bhaskar, Harmas ails
27 S .g. Harmas [1985] 1987, 31314; Norri 2010, 225; Bhaskar 2002, 82; Outh-
wait 1994, 4041.
28 Norri 2010, 230.
29 Bhaskar [1986] 2009, 78 n. 18, original mphasis, paraphrasing and xpanding
MCarth 1978, 111.
30 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 21421; Hartwig 2007a.
31 Bhaskar [1989] 2010, 189, s also 11314, 141, 1889; Norri 2010, 1234.
32 Norri 2010, 229.
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to draw th onlusion that, or unirsal r fourishing to possil, dis-
ursil moralizd powr2rlations must aolishd in thir ntirt, and
to dlop an manipator axiolog that mras this.
The Elements o the Bhaskarian Critique
Bhaskars ritiqu o th PDM had n initiatd (though not undr that
ruri) in 1975 with th puliation o his rst ook, A Realist Theory o Science
and, aus his philosophial mthod is on o transndntal ritiqu,33
in whih transndntal argumnts or ralist positions simultanousl ild
immannt ritiqus o rial disourss, it was ongoing rom that tim. In th
rst two ars o th nw millnnium, stimulatd isits to India, whrmodrnit, modrnization and gloalization wr (and ar) hot topis in
th aadm, Bhaskar drw th thrads o his ongoing ritiqu togthr in a
lapidar oriw in his ooks artiulating th nw philosoph o mtaRalit
(PMR),34 th thmatization o whih indd th ongoing ritiqu ds pow-
rull into. Unlik that o Harmas, this ritiqu is xpliitl situatd within
a ritiqu o th ntir Wstrn philosophial tradition35 and is positd on
th iw that modrnit as w know it should itsl situatd within th
roadr and dpr ontxt o othr possil modrnitis, oth (i) in th
sns that go-histor ould ha happnd dirntl (thr ha n
multipl axialitis [axial iilizations] and nlightnmnts, rom th prsp-
ti o whih Wstrn modrnit an sn to a partiular apitalist
and Europan orm o dlopmnt o iilizational struturs that ar ar
oldr);36 and (ii) in th sns that thr ar multipl modrnitis within th
modrn world-sstm oring rih rsours or ting a transition to th
udaimonian soit that is ntraind mtathortiall ritial ralisms
manipator axiolog as th moral althia or ojt/i o th spis. This
33 S Bhaskar [1986] 2009, 1027; Hartwig 2009a, xxxxi.
34 Bhaskar 2002a, 2002, 2002. Th xtnt to whih th philosoph o mtaRalit is
dlopmntall onsistnt with th prior phass o Bhaskars philosophial sstm and/
or nssar or thir ompltion is ontrorsial among ritial ralists. S .g. Morgan
2003; Hartwig 2011. In th tradition o ritial thor, Waltr Bnjamin appars to ha
hld, lik Bhaskar, that human manipation prsupposs that th world is nhantd and
has a mtaRal asis; . Markus 2009.
35 Bhaskar [1993] 2008 and [1994] 2010. Th onpt o th Wst or Oidnt nil
xmplis modrnits pnhant or (xpliit) xlusion ut (tait) inlusion o th non-
modrn Othr (whih I om on to low) in rlation to th South o th Wstrn hmi-
sphr: Aria and Latin Amria. For ritiqus o th orrlati onpt o th Orint that
him with ritial ralism, s Said 1993 and Dirlik 1997.
36 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 198, s also 16970.
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unirsal onrtl singularizd human fourishing in natur is an ojt/
i immannt in human prati, issuing, i ralizd, in a rihl dirs plan-
tar iilization o r fourishing that is not dominatd a world-sstm
and disours o modrnit as w know it.37
But, lik that o Harmas, aswll as Max Horkhimr and Thodor Adornos arlir ritiqu o th phi-
losoph o modrnit,38 and tru to th logi o immannt ritiqu, th un-
damntal imptus o Bhaskars ritiqu, as o his philosoph gnrall, is th
transndn and haling o diision and split in a roniliation that ss
an nd to th lind domination o natur and humans humans. This,
in ssn, is th ritial ralist mra.39 Howr, whil th motiating
ision o Bhaskar and Harmas is similar, th wa th arr it through is
r dirnt.
Bhaskar xpliitl situats th trajtor o ritial ralism itsl within th
widr ontxt o th PDM, pointing out that no mans all aspts o th
tradition ar rgrssi and that ritial ralism itsl onstituts so man
sussi ritiqus o its phass,40 th ris o ah o whih was assoiatd
with a rolutionar or ountr-rolutionar transition or uphaal. Th
link with soial uphaal is undrlind aus or Bhaskar th prolms o
philosoph ar losl ound up, or rsonat, with th prolms o soial
li, and ar to xplaind in trms o thm mor undamntall than
in trms o philosophs intrinsi dnamis; and rolutionar transorma-tions onorm to th non-aritrar ritrion or signiant soial hang
gnratd ritial ralisms transormational modl o soial atiit.41
This mans (1) that th dlopmnt o ritial ralism is haratrizd
a pross o doul immannt ritiqu rst o th PDM, and sond o its
own prious phass isolating and rmding, or suggsting rmdis or,
37 C. Enriqu Dussls onpt o transmodrnit, whih, howr, has th disadan-
tag onptuall, lik postmodrnism, o inluding that whih it wants to mo ond although drawing on modrnit, transmodrnit sks to orom modrnit in all its
aspts in a mo to a nw plantar plurirs that is not an ag o multipl modrnitis
o th ormr kind (Dussl 2010, Astrat). Dussls liration philosoph has muh in
ommon with Bhaskars philosoph o manipation, inluding th grounding o mani-
pator this in agn as wll as disours, ut is onsidral mor hrmnutial and
phnomnologial in orintation, sking to marr th insights o th linguisti turn with
Marx and, rlatil to ritial ralism, laking in onptual rigour and a mtathortiall
groundd mthod o argumnt. S Dussl [1980] 1985, [1993] 1996, and 2003; Alo and
Mndita, ds, 2000.
38 Horkhimr and Adorno [1947] 1973.
39 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, h. 5, Th ritial ralist mra: ritial naturalism
(19751979), 7490; Hartwig 2009.
40 Bhaskar 2002, 166.
41 S Bhaskar [1979] 1998, [1994] 2010.
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inompltnsss in ah as; and (2) that ritial ralism is not anti-mod-
rn in a rgrssi or undialtial sns. Howr, it dos maintain that
th PDM is undamntall inimial to unirsal r fourishing, or whih
w nd to mo on to a radiall dirnt worldiw that inorporats itsral strngths. Modrnit dos ha its rowning gloris, in partiular th
ida, as ull dlopd in dialtial ritial ralism and mtaRalit, o
rih indiidualism: onrtl singularizd indiidual human fourishing in
natur; ut this is otn misrognizd th PDM as atomisti gontri
indiidualism.42
Th phass o th PDM (togthr with thir assoiatd soio-politial ro-
lution) ar:
1. Classical modernism(CM) (th momnt o th irth and onsoli-dation o th apitalist world sstm, inoling th gloal olonial
xpansion o Europ and th aompaning soio-ultural-politial
rolutions o th sixtnth, sntnth and ightnth nturis;
or, th adnt o world histor, whn oth tim and go-histor
mod up a gar).43
2. High modernism(HM) (th rolutions o 1848 and 1917).
3. Th thor and prati omodernization(M) (th dat o asism,
th rolution o 1949 and th onst o th Cold War and o ormal
dolonization).
4. Postmodernism (PM) (th rolutionar uphaals o 1968 and
th arl 1970s in Wstrn Europ, and rolution and ountr-
rolution in th South, ginning with th vitnam War).
5. Bourgeois triumphalism/endismand its rgrssi simularum, rli-
gious and othrundamentalism(T/F) (th ollaps o th Soit
lo and th intnsiation o th sond phas o gloalization o
apital).
Whil distint, all ths phass ar, lik thos o ritial ralism itsl,
momnts in a dlopmntal pross, th latr phass o whih partiall
ritiqu and dpn ut also ontinu (or onstllationall ontain) what
was impliit in th arlir phass, suh that, onsidrd snhroniall, th
an ollapsd lik a olding tlsop or a Russian nsting doll: T/F >
PM > M > HM > CM. Th ar unid ao all a trmndous undrl-
ing rror:44 ontologial monoaln lading to triumphalism and ndism
(alrad impliit in th rst or as phas), and so onstitut a dialtial
42 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2011.
43 Bhaskar 2002, 103.
44 Bhaskar 2002, 123.
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totalit. Ontologial monoaln is th iw, undrpinnd ultimatl ar
o hang on th part o ruling lits, that Bing is purl positi, doid o
th ngatiit that is transndntall nssar or hang to our.45 It puts
a stop to histor on hal o th mastr-lasss, and this is th srt soialmaning o th r distintion twn th modrn and th non-modrn:
on ou sa w modrns, w ha arrid, thn ou rul out th possiil-
it o hang.46 Alongsid ut mor undamntal than th pistmi alla
and th ollaps o strutur and natural nssit in atualism, ontologial
monoaln is th third grat rror o Wstrn philosoph. It is rutd
th transndntal ddution o th atgor o asn or ral ngation and
ontrasts with ontologial polaln, whih indiats th ralit o asn
and asnting and mras hang.47
Th rlationship twn th phass o th PDM and th dloping riti-
al ralist non-prsrati sulator ritiqu is indiatd shmatiall in
Tal 1.
1. Classical Modernism
Classial modrnisms iw o th world (th impliit ontolog it srts) is
ritiqud th rst phas o ritial ralism, transndntal ralism, as atom-
isti and atualist. It is struturd around (1) ego- and anthropocentricityor -centrismoupld on to (2) abstract universality, oth o whih ar als or illusor,
manistation[s] o th logi o ommodiation (intrinsi to apitalism) and
th riation and alination it produs,48 and undamntall at odds with
th moral althia o th spis. Th gur o ntrism, whih is groundd in
th pistmi alla, hr dos dut or an iw that taks human ing or
aspts o human ing to th ntr or goal o th/its unirs (.g. go-
ntrism, Eurontrism, anthropontrism). Not just lassial modrnism ut
th ntir tradition o th PDM, Bhaskar argus, is onstitutd this inar
strutur o an go, it an indiidual or a group, lass, gndr, nation stat
(or som omplx o ths) ojtil st against a maniold, dsrid in
atualistiall unirsal trms, whih is th ojt o th gos ation (manipu-
lation and xploitation).49 This als dualit o astratd go-idntitis or
ntrisms and astrat unirsalit is manistd in th at that th disours
45 C. Horkhimr and Adornos iw in Dialectic o Enlightenment, as summarizd
Zuidraart 2007, that what is rall mthial in oth mth and nlightnmnt is th
thought that undamntal hang is impossil.
46 Bhaskar 2002, 122.
47 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, spiall 3848.
48 Bhaskar 2002, 235.
49 Bhaskar 2002, 168.
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Table 1. Th philosophial disours o modrnit and th ritial ralist and mtaRalist
sulator ritiqu
The Philosophical Discourse o Modernity The Critical Realist and MetaRealist Critique
Moment o
the PDM
Defning characteristics Corresponding CR/PMR
concepts and critique
Moment
o CR/
PMR
Main stadion and concept(s):
understanding being as
lassial mod-rnism (CM)
(1) go-, anthropo-ntriit or -ntrism,t. (atomism)(2) astrat unirsalit(atualism, irralism)(oth undrpinnd th pistmi alla)
th intrinsi xtrior
th sl as soial andintrrlatd at a un-damntal ll withth osmos; dialtialunirsalit
TR 1M non-idntit ing as struturd, dirn-tiatd and hanging;hol trinit: judgmntalrationalit, pistmi rlati-ism, ontologial ralism
high modrn-ism (HM)
(3) inomplt total-it (ritiqu o CM)(ollows rom (2))(4) lak o rfxi-it (ritiqu o CM)(ollows rom (3))
opn totalit, rfxiit;ritiqus HMs sustitu-tionism, litism, rdutimatrialism
CN 2E prossinluding asn or ngati-it and ontradition;mrgn;irrduiilit o mind
modrniza-tion thorand prati(M)
(5) unilinarit(5') judgmntalism(5") disnhantmnt
multilinarit, opnsstms;dialogu;(r-)nhantmnt
EC 3L totalit intrnal rlationalit,holisti ausalit;xplanator ritiqu
postmodrn-ism (PM)
(6) ormalism and(6') untionalism(ritiqu o PDM,strssing idntit anddirn, and rjtingunirsalit)(7) matrialism (ritiquo PDM)
apts dirn utrinstats unit or (dia-ltial) unirsalit (on-ntion) and ritiqusPMs judgmntal irra-tionalism and lak o aonpt o manipation
DCR 4D transormati agn rfxiit; manipatoraxiolog;unit-in-dirsit
triumphalismand ndism/rnasntundamntal-ism (T/F)
(8) ontologial monoa-ln (a purl positiaount o ralit, dn-gating hang)
ontologial polaln,th ralit o asn;antuatd ritiqu omatrialism (impliitonsiousnss pradsing); ritiqu o su-jtojt dualit; alsasolut o markt andothr undamntalisms
TDCR
PMR
5A spiritualitth asolut (God);unirsal sl-ralization;o-prsn; transndn
6R nhantmnt ing asintrinsiall maningul, alu-al and sard
7A/Z non-dualit (prima ounit and idntit or dir-n) orth asolut (ground-statand osmi nlop) in-nit or unendingpossiilit;gnralizd o-prsn;transndn
Note. Columns should rad rtiall (dlopmntall), suh that (roadl) T/F > PM >M > HM > CM, and PMR > TDCR > DCR > EC > CN > TR.
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oth xpliitl xluds (thr xprining diult sustaining its own
unirsalit this is th logi o ntrism) and taitl inluds (thr los-
ing th atgor o th modrn this is th logi o astrat unirsalit50)
a pr- or non-modrn Othr. Thus w ha th gur o th intrinsic exteriororpast, impliitl srtd in th disours, low th ll o onsious-
nss, as th nssar ondition o that disours, rfting th xploitation
o th xludd in ralit, whthr th xludd othr indiiduals, non-
ourgois lasss, womn, olonizd popls, t.51 a lassi xampl o a
TINA ompromis ormation.52 A TINA (thr is no altrnati) ormation
is asiall th supprssion th als o th truth on whih it dpnds and
whih sustains it (rursil ommittd thor/prati inonsistn), n-
ssaril rsulting in mrgnt rror and illusion and xmpliing philosophi-
al unsriousnss.53 So th alsit o th xlusion o th non-modrn Othrin thor, in th r onpt o modrnit (or in lassist, patriarhal, raist,
t., disourss), oms up against th truth o th inlusion o th xploitd
Othr in prati th Othr is inth On, th sla in th mastr, th priph-
r in th ntr (t.) in that th On is ruiall dpndnt on th Othr,
and oth ar part o an onl taitl aknowldgd totalit.54 Classial modrn-
isms totalityis thror (3) dtotalizd or incomplete and sl-ruting (sl-
ontraditor), and (4) laking in reexivity.54
50 Astrat unirsalit projts stional intrsts as unirsal (Bhaskar 2002, 267).
51 Bhaskar 2002, 1689, original mphasis.
52 [T]h atual onstitution o th prsumd suprior or priilgd trm o nssit
prsupposd in prati and drid its own supriorit rom th xistn and xploita-
tion o th inrior or supprssd trm (Bhaskar 2002, 170).
53 Bhaskar 2002a, 219; s also [1993] 2008, 1169. Th undamntal thrust o Bhaskars
mtaritiqu o th ntir Wstrn philosophial tradition is that it is a giant philosophial
TINA ormation in rsonan with a soial on (mastrsla-tp soit). Th ritial
ralist ritiqu oprats at th lls oth o soial orms and o philosoph. S Bhaskar
2002, 17 and [1994] 2010; Hartwig 2010. 54 As Enriqu Dussl has argud in rlation to Europs olonizd Othr, th xprin
o onqust and xploitation o othr popls is ssntial to th onstitution o th modrn
go, not onl as a sujtiit, ut as sujtiit that taks itsl to th ntr or nd o
histor (Dussl [1993] 1995, 25). For Dussl, th onqust and xploitation o th Othr
a pross inoling not on, ut thr holoausts (Indignous popls and nslad Ari-
ans as wll as Jws) has n rationalizd an irrational sacrifcial myth o modrnit, th
othr sid o th oin o its rational emancipatory nucleus (Dussl [1993] 1996, 52, original
mphasis; . Horkhimr and Adorno [1947] 1973). This mth maks th onquror and
xploitr th hro, and th itim rsponsil or thir own itimization, and is a prsistnt
thm in th disours o modrnit rom th onqust o th Amrias to th Gul Wars.
On o its k philosophial sours, as Dussl points out, is Kants iw that Enlightn-
mnt is th xit o humanit rom its ulpal immaturit Lazinss and owardi ar
th rasons wh so larg a part o humanit, long atr natur has rlasd thm rom
alin guidan (naturaliter maiorennes), nrthlss gladl rmain in lilong immaturit,
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Th atomisti go o modrnit, on th ritial ralist aount o th sl,
is an illusion: it is ral in trms o ausal a, o ours, ut laks a ral
ojt.55 On this aount, popl ar not disonntd gos ut modid
prsonalitis with transndntall ral sls or ground-stats, prooundlintrrlatd at th ll o th soial, human iolog and th undamntal
stats o th unirs.56 Th asn o an go is atuall taitl prsupposd
man manipator disourss. Thus th onpt o th udaimonian
soit on in whih th r dlopmnt o ah is a ondition or th
r dlopmnt o all prsupposs that our fourishing and dlop-
mnt is as important to m as m own. This is r similar to th injuntions
o Buddhism against th go or th priilging o ons own standpoint, and
or that mattr to th impliations o th Goldn Rul or thi o ripro-
it, solidarit and undrstanding in Christianit and othr rligions and inall sstms o unirsalizing this. But suh an thi is in no wa rstritd
to rligion or xpliit manipator disourss: it is a hiddn or unrog-
nizd atur o rda li in all soitis, nssar or human soialit
and soial onding. In ritial ralism it nds its mtathortial xprs-
sion in th prinipls o dialtial unirsalizailit and unirsal solidar-
it, groundd in th onrt unirsal. Astrat unirsalit, th n mor
undamntal gorning prinipl o modrnit, whih nds its most strik-
ing manistation in smoli logi and mon,
57
is ontrastd with dialti-al unirsalit: th unirsal dos not xist apart rom th singular and is
highl mdiatd and hanging; togthr unirsalit, prossualit, partiular
mdiations and thir onrtl singular outom onstitut th onrt
unirsalsingular. A human ing thus onsists in a or unirsal human
natur, partiular mdiations and th rhthmis o hr world-lin, uniqul
indiiduating hr as in t a natural kind sui gnris.58 Critial ral-
and wh it is so as or othrs to stalish thmsls as thir guardians. [Auklrung ist
dr Ausgang ds Mnshn aus sinr slst rshuldtn Unmndigkit Faulhit undFighit sind di Ursahn, warum in so gror Til dr Mnshn, nahdm si di Natur
lngst on rmdr Litung ri gsprohn (naturalitr maiornns), dnnoh grn
zitlns unmndig lin; und warum s andrn so liht wird, sih zu drn vor-
mndrn auzuwrn] (Kant 1783; m translation, orrowing rom Dussl spiall).
55 S sp. Bhaskar 2002, h. 2, Who am I?, 69116.
56 Th transndntall ral or ssntial or althi sl or ground-stat is ultimatl an
impliitl onsious ld o possiilit intrrlatd with all othr ground-stats as part o
a muh iggr quantum ld (Bhaskar 2002, 92). Th asi ida hr is that ultimatl
thr is onl on kind o stu inormation-nrg or lds o impliitl onsious possiil-
it with its o root mattr noldd within thm whih is ingrdint in rthing in th
multirs, so rthing is intrrlatd at a undamntal ll.
57 Bhaskar 2002, 17.
58 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 395; s also Bhaskar 2010, 1819; Hartwig 2007, 2007h;
Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 801.
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isms totalit in th human sphr, ontrast with that o th PDM, inluds
ron on th plant whil lrating th ralit and potntial o dirsit
at prsonal, ommunal and rgional lls.
2. High Modernism
Th als gontriit and astrat unirsalit o lassial modrnism wr
th ous o th ritiqu o lassial modrnism high modernism, roadl
ndorsd ritial ralism, whih rahd its apog philosophiall and
thortiall in Marx and idolog-ritiqu and Sigmund Frud. Idolog-
ritiqu xposs, rst, th rprsntation o stional intrsts as unirsal
ons,59
raling th tait dpndn o th xluding on th xludd60
apturd in th gur o th intrinsi xtrior; and this has n uilt on
minism, dpndn thor and othr momnts rprsnting th
xludd. Sond, it shows th nssar dpndn o a als thor on a
tru ground, prguring th thor o th TINA ormation.61 Howr, in its
pronnss to sustitutionism (whih rlis on som agnt othr than our-
sl to t dsiral soial hang) and litism, driing rom th lak o
an organi intlligntsia in th Gramsian sns, high modrnism is itsl ul-
nral to som aspts o its own ritiqu litism itsl rprsnts stional
intrsts as unirsal;62 and to th mtaRalist argumnt or th prima o
sl-rrntialit or th sl-transormation or sl-ralization o th human
sujt: manipator soial hang nssaril gins with sl-hang in
this sns, w annot rl on othrs (.g. th working lass or lits/xprts)
to do it or us w ha to do it oursls.63 Emanipator high modrnism is
additionall ulnral to th ritiism that it prsupposs a spiritualit that
it ails to thmatiz xpliitl or ground adquatl, whr spiritualit is most
undamntall ating in awarnss o and onsistntl with th ralit o th
hiddn non-dual sustratum o ratiit, lo, right-ation and rdom thatsstms o soial opprssion dominat and olud n as th dpnd on
thm.64
Lik lassial modrnism, high modrnism is also (with important xp-
tions that do not inlud most Marxism sin Marx) tpiall rdutil
matrialist in outlook. Rduti matrialism holds that th world is rutl
59 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 168.
60 Bhaskar 2002, 27.
61 Bhaskar 2002, 278.
62 Bhaskar 2002, 309.
63 Bhaskar 2002, 119.
64 S .g. Bhaskar 2002, 11516, 119.
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phsial, arguing that an smingl non-phsial phnomnon (.g. on-
siousnss) ull rdus to som othr idntid phsial ntit (.g. rain-
stats or nural prosss). Suh rdutionist riation has th onsqun
o d-agntiing human agn and downplaing th normous ratipowr o thought.65 Th ritial ralist ritiqu o this position was inaugu-
ratd th dmonstration o th sui gnris ralit o mind as an mrgnt
powr in Bhaskars The Possibility o Naturalism66 and is arrid through in
th philosoph o mtaRalit, with its rjtion o th notion that Bing
is xhaustil phsial and its spousal o mtaphsial realismrathr than
matrialism (or idalism).
3. Modernization
As Harmas has pointd out, th trm modrnization was introdud as
a thnial onpt onl in th 1950s, th h-da o untionalist and o-
lutionar approahs to soial thor.67 Modrnization thor and prati
was haratrizd (5) unilinearity, whr dloping ountris would
inital pass through th sam stags o onomi and politial growth as
th Wstrn world, and histor as a whol is a stor o unilinar progrss, with
Wstrn ountris in th anguard; ritial ralism ritiqus this as a ariant
o litism and (in Popprs sns) historiism and shows that its dtrminis-
ti ast is losl ound up with atualism.68 Thr ar no laws o historial
dlopmnt inxoral dtrmining a uniqu squn; histor ould ha
n, just as it ould , r dirnt. Intrinsi to unilinarit was (5') a
judgementalism ompltl at odds with modrnits own pralnt iw that
rational judgmnts onrning mattrs o alu ar impossil whr
dlopd, Wstrn and modrn ar not onl suprior to anthing inon-
sistnt with thmsls ut prsnt a modl that othrs must ollow; and (5")
an antuatd disenchantmento th world, whih had n prsnt in thPDM rom th outst, whr th world was inrasingl draind o intrinsi
maning and alu, whih wr sourd instad to th sl-dning modrn
sujt. During this priod disnhantmnt ound xprssion ao all in
65 Bhaskar 2002, 245.
66 Bhaskar [1979] 1998.
67 Harmas [1985] 1987, 2.
68 Dussl (.g. [1993] 1996, 4) ritiqus it as th dlopmntalist alla. Harmass
iw ([1985] 1987, 3) that [t]h thor o modrnization dissoiats modrnit rom
its modrn Europan origins and stlizs it into a spatio-tmporall nutral modl or pro-
sss o soial dlopmnt in gnral is orrt in rgard o stlization ut orlooks that
Europ was dmd to ha shown and to showing th wa.
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Wrian rationalization and th Nitzshan dath o God,69 ntraining a
lin o thought that issud in th poststruturalist nd o man (Fouault),
histor (Lotard) and (through its hat-dath) maning (Drrida).70
Whil rjting an iw o go-histor that ss it as an inxoral prosso dlopmnt towards a pr-ordaind goal, iwing it rathr as a radiall
opn, ontingnt, unn and multiorm pross puntuatd rgrssion
and oldak, ritial ralism dos hold that thr is a rtain tndntial ratio-
nal dirtionalit in histor. This is a latnt tlolog at th ll o th soial
ral insrid, not just in human sph (. Aplian and Harmasian dis-
ours this, dmonstrating th immannt rationalit o linguisti intrsu-
jtiit), ut mor gnrall in prati as suh a dp arning and striing
or r fourishing immannt in praxis: th puls o rdom.71 This notion
o tndntial rational dirtionalit has n dmd som to taintdwith Eurontrism, ut th struggl or rdom oms rom popl whrr
th ar rom th olonizd, th priphr, th sualtrn and so on and
to imagin that this is not so is itsl a Eurontri onit. As Bhaskar has
pointd out, th puls o rdom ould ha n thmatizd quall wll in
ritial ngagmnt with Chins, or Indian, or Indignist philosoph, as with
Wstrn.72 Likwis, in arguing or th r-nhantmnt o th world, Bhaskar
is not arguing or th imposition o an aritrar transndnt iw, wrapping
th world on mor in th mthi. On th ontrar, th argumnt is that thworld is alwas alrad nhantd,73 i.. intrinsiall maningul and alual,
and that this is osurd th disnhantd gaz in th smog o th dmi-
ral an mrgnt ll o ralit haratrizd atgorial rror, ignoran
and illusion that otains in all mastrsla-tp soitis, ut rahs its ullst
xprssion to dat in apitalist modrnit. In ordr to s th world or what it
rall is nhantd w must shd th dmi-ral.74
4. Postmodernism
Postmodrnism, along with th nw soial momnts that aompanid
it, is a aklash against th ntir tradition o th PDM, aspiring to spak on
hal o all thos who wr taitl xludd rom it. Ao all, prhaps, it is
69 Gauht [1985] 1997.
70 Bhaskar 2002, 170.
71 Bhaskar [1993] 2008; Hartwig 2007d.
72 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 138.
73 S .g. Bhaskar 2002, 243, n. 35.
74 Th onpt o dmi-ralit is rst xpliitl laoratd in Bhaskar 2000, 6, 339, ut
had n usd in oral prsntations rom 1994 (Bhaskar, prsonal ommuniation). It
uilds on th thor o th TINA ormation.
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a ration against th astratl (atualistiall) unirsalizing tndnis o
that disours, olitrati o idntit and dirn, whih am to a pak
in modrnization thor and prati. This is a r important orrti
rom a ritial ralist point o iw; it is a ration, prgurd th xprs-siist 1960s ultural rolution, against th logi o Wstrn domination in
th nam o apitalist gloalization.75 Unortunatl, howr,
in th r antuation in this phas o a nw politis o idntit and di-rn th intronntdnss and unit o humanit and indd liingorms was lost. What was missing hr was an onption o a dialtialtotalit, with th ruial onpts odialectical universalityand concrete sin
gularityasnt.76
That is to sa, postmodrnism ails to distinguish twn astrat atualist
and dialtial unirsalit, jttison[ing] unirsalit rathr than atualism!77
It dngats unirsalit, ut is itsl a unirsal modrn idolog. Th ra o
postmodrnism rought out th (6) ormalismand (6') unctionalismo th
whol tradition, whih assumd th non-autonomous plastiit o natur,
tratd as an ojt o instrumntal rasoning and prati, togthr with
(7) a materialism that was rdutionist in thor and mhanial in pra-
ti. B ormalism Bhaskar mans th undialtial gloriation o ormal,
analtial, astrat, quantitati mods o rasoning and mods o ing78
that haratrizs th dominant disourss o modrnit as a whol; and,rlatdl, th prioritization o disursi or intuiti mods o rasoning,
whih is in part rrsd postmodrnism.79 Philosophiall, mhanial
matrialism downplas th rol o idas and intntionalit in go-histor; as
manistd in Marxism it
nr am to trms with th rol o onsiousnss, idas and intntionalit,th dning haratristis o soial li, as oundational aturs o soialli. Th rsult was that its own sl-undrstanding and its own prati wasautl limitd a ailur to om to trms with th sujti and sl-transormati prrquisits o soial hang.80
75 Bhaskar 2002, 235.
76 Bhaskar 2002, 171, original mphasis.
77 Bhaskar 2002, 236.
78 Bhaskar 2002, 29.
79 Th postmodrn ritiqu o logontrism, ndorsd Harmas, nds its oun-
trpart in th Bhaskarian ritiqu o th disursi intllt, whih howr nompasss
all orms o analtial and dialtial rason, not just th philosoph o onsiousnss,
and ritiqus Harmass ommuniati rason or its atualism. S spiall Bhaskar
2002, h. 3, Th Zn o ratiit and th ritiqu o th disursi intllt, 99166. In
PMR oth th disursi and th intuiti intllt ar undrpinnd supramntal or
ground-stat onsiousnss.
80 Bhaskar 2002, 188 n.15.
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Sustantil, matrialism hings on a sns o th uttr sparatnss o th
go rom th rst o th world, whih undrwrits manipulati tratmnt
o popl as wll as th world o ojts (with whih man [sks] to ll
his own innr mptinss) and sts up a mastrsla rlationship twnth go or th modrn, and th non-go, othr or non- or pr-modrn. 81
Postmodrnism rjts and displas this go, along with unirsalit, ut
th arr o th donstruti disours rmains mstrious, unsusp-
til to rfxi situation.82 Who or what is it that pronouns th disap-
paran o th go? Critial ralism an agr that th atomisti go is a
(ausall aious) illusion ut it upholds th ralit o th modid pr-
sonalit and o th transndntall ral sl or ground-stat that undrpins
and sustains oth.83 Postmodrnisms inailit to sustain a ohrnt totalit
is mirrord in poststruturalism (and also idnt in struturalism), whih
dtotalizs th osrr rom th ld sh osrs. Nithr is thror
al to sustain an notion o itsl.84 Cruiall, th rlationship postmod-
rnism postulats twn th postmodrn and th modrn dupliats th
idologial rlationship twn th modrn and th non-modrn in th
PDM as a whol, and its dnial o ontolog and o th possiilit o a judg-
mntall rational assssmnt o othr positions ntails that it annot sustain
a onpt o manipation or indd its own rationalit, ausal a or
ralit. It mistaks a modalit o rason instrumntal or stratgi rational-it, groundd in powr
2soial rlations85 and th dominant orm o rason
in modrnit or rason itsl.86 Hr Bhaskars ritiqu joins ors with
that o Harmas: oth thinkrs position thmsls within th onati
dri to rdom linking Dsarts, Kant, Hgl and Marx, on th on hand,
and ritial thor and dialtial ritial ralism, on th othr,87 against th
wholsal poststruturalist attak on th hritag o th Enlightnmnt that
aims to sr th link twn rdom and rason. Harmas dmonstrats
that postmodrnism is unsrious: th supposdl radial ritiqu o rason
rmains tid to th prsuppositions o th philosoph o th sujt rom
whih it wantd to r itsl th othr o rason rmains th mirror
81 Bhaskar 2002, 171.
82 Bhaskar 2002, 70.
83 Bhaskar 2002, h. 2, Who am I?, 69116; 2002, xxxxi, 36.
84 Bhaskar 2002a, 208; 2002, 172; 2000, 229; . Harmas [1985] 1987, 336.
85 Morgan 2007.
86 Bhaskar distinguishs sn lls o rationalit, whih ar thn groupd into our: (1)
instrumntal; (2) ritial (inluding xplanator ritial); (3) manipator; and (4) his-
torial rason or go-historial rational dirtionalit. Ths ar st out in Hartwig 2007g,
summarizing Bhaskar [1986] 2009, 181., [1993] 2008, 261 and [1994] 2010, 147, 153.
87 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 335.
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imag o rason in powr.88 On th othr hand, Harmas joins ors with
poststruturalism, ontra Bhaskar, in assrting th prmann o disn-
hantmnt and th Wrian iron ag and th inliminailit o powr2
rlations. Whras th animating ision o Harmas is o a roniliationo modrnit whih has alln apart on th asis o orms o liing togthr
in whih autonom anddpndn an trul ntr into non-antagonisti
rlation,89 that o Bhaskar is o a unirsal r fourishing that prsupposs
th aolition o mastrsla-tp rlations in thir ntirt.
5. Triumphalism/Fundamentalism
Postmodrnisms dnial o th possiilit o th rational assssmnt o othrpositions hlpd pa th wa, with th ollaps o th Soit lo, or th
mphati rassrtion o ourgois triumphalism and ndism, with thir
undrpinning philosophial rror o (8) ontological monovalence.90 As on-
pts, triumphalism and ndism, togthr with ntrism, ntail ah othr
as ollows: ntrism triumphalism ndism.91 Th ar impliit in Marxs
ritiqu o Hgl, and ntral to th Bhaskarian ritiqu o th irralism o
th Wstrn philosophial tradition gnrall. Hgl xmplid all thr
o ths atgorial rrors whn h said: World histor trals rom ast to
wst; or Europ is th asolut nd o histor, just as Asia is th ginning.92
Triumphalism is th orwning xaggration o human powrs to know,
ontrol t. Cogniti triumphalism in Hgl, or xampl, idntis th
whol o Bing with what lis within th sop o human ogniti om-
ptn. Politiall, triumphalism ound xprssion atr 1989 in a rru-
dsn o no-imprialism, rationar nationalism and hauinism.93
Endism is th iw that histor, whil on ral, has om to an nd in th
prsnt. Thus, aording to twntith-ntur ndism, modrnit had a
ginning around aout 1500, in th light o whih its past appars as pr-histor, and it has now arrid at an nding, an rlasting posthistor. 94
Thr will o ours ontinu to a utur, aording to this iw, ut thr
will no mor qualitati soial and institutional hang or idologis o
88 Harmas [1985] 1987, 309.
89 Harmas 1986, 125.
90 Bhaskar 2002, 172.
91 Hartwig 2007.
92 Hgl [1837] 1975, 197.
93 Bhaskar 2002, 167.
94 C. Harmas [1985] 1987, h. 1, Modrnits onsiousnss o tim and its nd or
sl-rassuran, 122.
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hang: th utur will in this sns onstllationall ontaind within
th prsnt. Applid to our ontmporar situation, ndism prolaims that
thr ar no altrnatis to apitalism. Suh dnial o th ongoing natur o
go-historiit, or d-go-historiization, is haratristi o mastr-lasss,aus th ontinuation o go-histor must soonr or latr spll th nd
o thir rul, and it is a potnt moti o th Wstrn philosophial tradition,
whih assists in lgitimating that rul.95 Endism is alsid th irrduil
transormati natur o human praxis, whih asnts and rats, n as it
rprodus, th gin. Endism was nil xmplid in th work o Franis
Fukuama just as th disours o ourgois triumphalism was gtting sri-
ousl undr wa.96 Fundamntalism (or oundationalism), whthr in th
orm o markt or rligious and othr undamntalisms or th thor o
pistmolog, is th iw that ons knowldg is inorrigil or rtain
aus it is asd on induital prinipls. It inital splits ralit
into two (iz. that whih onorms to its ritrion and that whih dos
not),97 giing ris to th prolm o th On and th Othr, whthr in phi-
losoph or th politis o idntit. In ontrast to Bhaskar, modrnit limits
undamntalism to th attmpt to dnd th pr-modrn or traditional in
a traditional wa,98 thr ltting markt undamntalism o th hook. In
lat modrnit undamntalism is a ousin o postmodrnism, lik it rjt-
ing unirsalit and unit and apting th ssntialit o dirn, utsaing Im right and our wrong to postmodrnisms thr is no right
and wrong.99 What undamntalism ignors is that w an nr start rom
srath or an induital starting point aus w ar alwas thrown into
an alrad xisting pistmologial dialti or larning pross, ntailing
pistmologial rlatiit and th possiilit o ritiqu. It thus arris at
th opposit onlusion to that o its dialtial ountrpart,100 ndism or
95 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 64. Endism and th notion o posthistor ontrasts with thMarxian and Bhaskarian iw that histor propr will gin onl atr th spis mos on
rom its powr2-strikn stat. In udaimonian soit, ar rom historiit haing ndd, it
would mrad and shit up a gar as impliit and stmid human rati potntiali-
tis ar unlokd and unoldd in an in prinipl nr-nding opn olutionar pross,
with an mphasis on ing and ltting rathr than haing and ontrolling.
96 Fukuama 1992.
97 Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 300.
98 C. Giddns 1994, it. vandnrgh 2004, 115 n. 70.
99 Bhaskar 2002, 41, 97.
100 Dialtial ountrparts or antagonists ar in onfit or rlatil suprial mattrs
utnssar to ah othr in ing groundd in (a) ommon atgor mistak(s), hn
taitl ompliit. So thir antagonism or opposition is ultimatl phon, and is rald
as suh whn orrahd a ullr onptual ormation that maks good th atgor
mistak.
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asolutism,whih assums that w ar, or an , lt with nothing to do. All
undamntalisms so man smptoms o th alination and ragmntation
o ing101 thus turn on th proision o a als asolut or god (th
induital starting point), spurrd in th last instan, as in th as ondism, ar o hang. Toda, rnasnt rligious and othr undamn-
talisms, summond to aount in a dialti o ioln th als our-
gois god, th Moloh o powr and mon (an astrat unirsal), joins it
in supprssing ratiit, lo and rdom.102
In ourgois triumphalism and ndism, th idolog o noliralism/
noonsratism prolaims th nd o idolog, and markt undamntalism
th inalliilit o th markt as a mans o soling multipl and ompound-
ing soial and onomi prolms and riss. Th hda o triumphalism
aompanid th intns phas o gloalization, undr th dominan o
markt undamntalism, that ollowd th dmis o th Soit lo atr
1989. It ma wll , as Bhaskar has suggstd, that
this logi o th nd has itsl a larl idntial nd. For whn r-thing is ommodid, that is, rid and turnd into a thing, thn thpross o ommodiation must om to a halt; and sin thr will
nothing mor to ommodi, thr an no urthr asis or ommodi-ation, that is, th xpansion, and thus th r surial, o th rgim oommodiation, riation and alination. Th onl qustion is whthr
this rgim oms to a halt or th pross o ommodiation is aso-lut or whn it dos, or i it did, thr would no mor natur andnothing mor to ount as a human ing.103
Th disours that aompanid th phas o gloalization atr 1989 an
thought o as a rst su-phas o triumphalism/undamntalism. From th
tim o 9/11 and th war on trror a sond su-phas nsud, haratr-
izd th lash and proliration o undamntalisms:
101 Bhaskar 2002, 173.
102 Bhaskar 2002, 242; 2002a, 347. As I writ, saag uts to puli xpnditur aross
th glo ar ing justid as nssar to plaat th markt. Suh sariial ioln,
as Dussl [1993] 1995 rminds us, has n a ardinal atur o Wstrn modrnit rom
its inption.
103 Bhaskar 2002, 173. Bhaskar dos not o ours li that th pross o ommodi-
ation ould om asolut in prati, aus it prsupposs and dpnds on a non-
dual ralm that prsnts an unsurpassal ral arrir to alination (s .g. Bhaskar 2002,
18; Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 1934; . Suzuki 2005). Harmas agrs with Bhaskar
that th pross o alination and riation has limits in a unit o rationalit that lis
nath th husk o rda prati (itd in Cook 2005, 56) and proids th indis-
pnsal asis or th soial sstm as a whol, ut dos not ground this in ation as distint
rom sph-ation, nor iw it as an ontologiall ral tndn (xisting intransitil in
rlation to an partiular ation), nor sour it ultimatl to human ground-stats.
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th lash o markt undamntalism in allian with Christian and prhapsalso Jwish undamntalism, on th on hand, with Islami undamntalismon th othr, oupld with, and orlaid , th raking out o mriad loaland ptt undamntalisms, hauinisms and asolutisms.104
6. Current Trends
Toda thr ar signs that w ar ntring a nw su-phas o triumphalism/
undamntalism haratrizd a partial rturn to a multi-polar world (in
whih th mrging BRIC [Brazil, Russia, India, China] ountris proid a
partial ountr-wight to US hgmon), inrasing riss o intrnational
law and o-opration and th antuatd urgn o onomi and o-
logial hallngs, ut undr th ontinud hgmon o markt unda-
mntalism st mor than r on a ours o indnit growth that an onl
lad to ologial disastr.105 In suh a ontxt o multi-polarit and risis
oth xtrnall and within nation-stats, thr ma gratr sop or phi-
losophis o unirsal r fourishing with thir projts o udaimonia or
transmodrnit to fourish, and or a ginning to mad at implmnt-
ing thir onrt utopian isions on a plantar sal.106 A k rsour or
suh philosophis is th ida and ralit o multipl modrnitis o-prsnt
and rsurgnt within th apitalist world-sstm. This has alrad hlpd tontrain a powrul disours o post-sularit hallnging on o th ntral
tnts o th disours o modrnit: th Wrian notion that modrniza-
tion inxoral lads to th dissolution o rligious and spiritual worldiws,
issuing in a sular gloal soit. W an xpt suh trnds to ontinu or
th orsal utur.107 I, as th Bhaskarian aount has it, th onomi
riss urrntl stting gloalizd humanit ha n ratd most un-
damntall a tripl dismdding: o mon rom th ral onom; o
th ral onom rom soit; and o soit rom its spiritual inrastrutur
(or mtaRal asis)108 and th mor gnral riss a our-old alination
o popl rom natur, ah othr, thir soial rlations and thir ssntial
sls, th solution an onl a tripl r-mdding and quadrupl d-
alination that rings sstm, shorn o its htronomous lmnts, within
104 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 196.
105 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 196.
106 Conrt utopianism onsists in th xris o onstruting modls o altrnati
was o liing on th asis o som assumd st o rsours, ountralaning atualism
and inorming hop (Bhaskar [1993] 2008, 395). C. th urgoning ld o uturs
studis, or a ritial ralist tak on whih s Patomki 2006.
107 Hartwig and Morgan, ds, 2011.
108 Bhaskar with Hartwig 2010, 196.
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th horizon o th rda li o popl in touh with thir ral sls an
rda li in whih ralism aout transndn nals us to transnd
sujtojt dualit.109 This is th prinipl o sujt-rrntialit or sl-
rfxiit in soial hang, whih prioritizs sl-hang and sl-ralization(th duation o th duators) as indispnsal to soial transormation.110
Popl do not indd mak histor in irumstans o thir own hoosing,
ut th do mak it.
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