2011/12

STRELKA

EDUCATIONPROGRAMME2011/12

RESEARCH REPORTHINTERLAND

RESEARCH REPORTHINTERLAND

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DIRECTOR Rem Koolhaas

SUPERVISORS Janna Bystrykh, Alexander Nikulin, Stephan Petermann

STUDENTS Elena Arkhipova, Gustavo Cabaez, Anton Kalgaev, Maria Kosareva, Katia Pavlenko, Victor Ruben, Tihana Vucic, Penghan Wu

EXTERNAL EXPERTS Aleksandr Alekseev, geographer; Vladimir Babashkin, historian; Galina Baldina, Semenov RAC; Olga Baldina, Semenov RAC; Vera Bolotova, head of municipal administration, village Andreevka; Leonid Blyakher, anthropologist; Gerard van Geest, NL v Geest; Marc Havermans, IDV Advies; Anton Ivanov, architect; Jiang Jun, Urban China; Inna Kopoteva, geographer; Boris Kopylov, artist; Sergey Kulikov, historian; Ivan Kuryachiy, architect; Tamara Kuznecova, economist Tatyana Nefedova, geographer; Lubov Ovchintseva, economist; Nikita Pokrovsky, sociologist; Olesya Prisyazhnaya, sociologist; Boris Preobrazhenskiy, ecologist; Dmitrij Rogozin, sociologist; Mikhail Rozhanskiy, philosopher; Maria Savoskul, geographer; Timur Shabaev, architect; Teodor Shanin, sociologist; Pavel Shugurov, artist; Ilya Shteinberg, sociologist; Irina Starodubrovskay, economist; Irina Trocuk, sociologist; Oane Visser, anthropologist; Alexander Vorbruk, geographer; Renata Yanbyh, economist; Yulia Taranova, journalist; James Westcott, editor.

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HINTERLAND

Despite covering 17 million square kilometers, 98 percent of Russia, and 10 percent of the worlds land surface, the Russian hinterland is largely terra incognita in both the Russian and the global consciousness. As well as containing one of the worlds largest forests, the worlds largest reserves of natural gas and a wide variety of other resources, the hinterland is also home to 192 minorities, with over 160 languages. The paradox of the Russian hinterland is that this enormous, diverse and naturally and culturally rich territory is currently either largely abandoned or, at best, exploited in an extremely limited way. Today, the pressures of global warming, world population growth and globalized trade urge us to reconsider the global role of the Russian Hinterland as a potential global reservoir of space and economic and cultural resources.

After centuries of laborious efforts by various regimes, the more recent Soviet attempts at cultural and territorial development mono cities, fantastic projects to control the natural environment, and ethno-folklore scripting are no longer sustainable. The recent increase in forest area and wildlife, the intensity and frequency of natural disasters and the instability of agricultural production suggest that Russias relationship with its hinterland is changing dramatically.

In the age of the anthropocene, in which man has supposedly subdued nature entirely, Russia is a counterpoint. While the Soviet regime had the ambition of cultivating and controlling nature, vast areas of Russia are now reverting to nature. Where most nations at least profess a policy of protecting nature, for Russia, protection of its population is now more urgent.

Russia will be the country most intensely affected by climate change, confronting dramatic changes on five frontiers: melting ice, permafrost thaw, increasing rainfall, droughts and rising sea level. At the same time, climate change will create new opportunities of oil fields and shipping routes in the Nordic seas, a dramatic expansion of arable lands.

The question we raise is whether Russia, in its current condition, can respond to the various transformations and opportunities in its hinterland. Politically, the countrys complex legacy of legislation

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has to be reconsidered. The uniform Soviet-style approach of grand scale cultivation needs to move beyond its outdated administrative boundaries, responding instead to local conditions and needs.

In a continuation of Strelkas Thinning and Energy themes from last year, we went out to explore Russias transforming hinterland. Inan effort to conquer its enormity in a systematic way, we deployed apoint-grid method, examining over 50 cases spread out over the country. The field work combines data analysis, conversations with experts and people in the field, and intuitive observations on the ground. Based on the case studies we collectively defined a number of urgencies and tried to formulate their relevance for the future ofRussia.

This research report is a snapshot of the final product: the Hinterland compendium.

This book is designed for personal, non-commercial use. Youmust not use it in any other way, and, except as permitted under applicable law, you must not copy, translate, publish, licence or sellthe book without our consent.

ContentsFIELDWORK 2

PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS 16

UTOPIA 18 Victor Ruben

RISE OF NATURE 28 Maria Kosareva and Tihana Vucic

RUSSIAN ARIRE-GARDE 48 Anton Kalgaev

DEVELOPING HINTERLAND 58 Elena Arkhipova and Katia Pavlenko

BRICX 78 Gustavo Cabaez

GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND 88 Penghan Wu

HINTERLAND CASES 98

Fieldwork

Because most of our research is located in terra incognita, fieldwork became the backbone of the hinterland

project. The first fieldtrip, in the fall term, was to the outskirts of Moscow. In December we went further, to

the villages Semenov, Shaldezh and Ilyino-Zaborskoye in the Nizhny Novgorod region; where we met the

unique rural developers Olga and Galina Baldin, who lead the Rural Advisory Centre and together with

their extended family in a way support and keep together the entire rural community in the Semenov area.

In February the team explored the vast territories of Siberia and the Far-East. Apart from team member,

Katia, these were unknown lands for the team: with Vladivostok, Khabarovsk and Irkutsk as our base

camps, we captured glimpses of the immense diversity of Russias countryside. Exposed to the contrast

between the optimistic locals of the Uglekamesk House of Culture, the crystalizing beauty of Baikal and the

surreal and meditative experience of 56 hours of train, (only then realizing that 1/3 of the countrys length

was travelled) and the darker sides of the Far East: environmental recklessness, illegal workers and the

everyday inability to maintain much of its heritage, culture and community sense. As part of the final working

session in Rotterdam in May, the team concluded with a short exploration of the Dutch hinterland, visiting the

polder landscape, large costal protection infrastructure and two high-tech farmers.

From talking to experts, we realised that remoteness is not necessarily a matter of distance from Moscow

parts of Siberia with international products and satellite dishes felt far more familiar than the day-to-day

struggles of places closer by like Semenov.

Former sovkhoz Barkhatnoye milk farm Kazanka, Primorskiy Krai

periphery: train Khabarovsk - Irkutsk

Its difficult for me to invest in the farm because of the ever-changing policies for subsidies. I never know what next year will bring. Thats why I cant plan ahead. For now we are OK. The one thing we dont want anymore is the instability of the nineties. Anything but that.

Ivan Poluektov, owner of Barkhatnoye milk farm, Kazanka, Primorskiy Krai

periphery: Listvyanka

Crossing the Baikal lake

Siberia makes up three quarters of Russias territory, still it complies with the Western definition of borders of Europe. On the issue of Siberian separatism: it only really exists in the mind of authorities, which are far away. Here in Siberia the Sibiryak identity is only about linking to the territory where you live.

When Russia became an Empire, it had to have colonies both in the east and the west. So Siberia becomes a colony of the Russian Empire. But today the position is vice versa. It could be said that Russia is colony of Siberia.

Midnight lecture about Siberia by anthropologist Mikhail Rozhanskiy, lobby of the hotel Intourist near lake Baikal, Siberia

We are not sure if we are doing the right thing...

Elena Ladeishikova - historian, department of preservation of cultural heritage Irkutsk about the recent reconstruction of Kwartal 130. Condemned wooden traditional houses have been replaced with upgraded luxurious villas and new commercial program.

Trans-Siberian Express, Khabarovsk to Irkutsk, 56 hours. Villages, trees, more villages, more trees...

The plywood produced here is of low quality and is primarily used for construction and packaging purposes. Occasionally the quality of the plywood boards produced is higher, but we lack the equipment and the ability to distribute better quality material in this area.

Plywood factory worker in Ilyino-Zaborskoye, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast

Reginoal History Museum: Ilyinskoye

Conflict over urban expansion on the outskirts of Moscow: local inhabitants protest against new property walls blocking them from reaching the river and cutting off connections to nearby villages.

Timoshkino, Moscow Region

Project DescriptionsUTOPIA VICTOR RUBEN

One of the earliest thoughts on conquering the hinterland in Russian literature

occurs in European Letters by V.K. Khuhelbekher, in 1820. Khuhelbekher

shows Europe in ruins, serving only as an attraction for tourists from a utopian

hinterland society. It is reminiscent of Putins recent remarks about the EU in

which he projects contemporary Europe as a ruin. This project traces more than

15 literary utopias of the hinterland and their relationship with their occasionally

realized counterparts. The product of this research is the opening chapter of a

(much needed) contemporary utopia of the hinterland.

RISE OF NATURE MARIA KOSAREVA, TIHANA VUCIC

While the total forest coverage of Russia has increased through an expansion

of its definition as well as through natural growth, the public sectors capacity

to cope with increasing emergencies and the maintenance of forestland has

been significantly reduced. Kosareva looks at the intimate connection between

Russias development and nature: from its wildest dreams to the contemporary

situation of degraded infrastructure and loss of economic diversity in which

a paradigm shift seems imminent from the protection of nature towards the

protection of mankind.

Complementary to this research, Vucic looks at both the negative and positive

impact that climate change will have in the hinterland: from unpredictable and

extreme weather to the methane that will be released as the permafrost melts,

but also to opportunities of new oil fields becoming reachable and new shipping

routes in Nordic seas, the dramatic expansion of arable land and the use of

contaminated areas for the production of biofuels. Considering the Soviet

ambition to influence the climate and control nature, is there enough ideological

ambition to deal with the imminent changes?

RUSSIAN ARRIRE-GARDE ANTON KALGAEV

Folk art remains despite the industrialization of its production and the

vagueness of its origins one of the most original interpretations of culture and

one of the most effective tools for the cultural development of the hinterland. As

such, folk art relates to contemporary art, which is confronted with similar issues

of authenticity and value. This project looks at the possibility of mutual exchange

between folk art and contemporary art and looks for ways in which both can

learn from each other.

16

DEVELOPING HINTERLAND ELENA ARKHIPOVA, KATIA PAVLENKO

An important observation from our fieldtrips is the simultaneous need for strong

leadership in the hinterland and increased integration of local development

efforts. This project works in two directions: top-down and bottom-up. Pavlenko

explores the top-down efforts, from mundane dictates like the legal obligations

of milk farms to increase production to regional development on the federal

level to policies that favor large industrial complexes over smaller initiatives.

Arkipova looks bottom-up, researching local initiatives and NGOs. She

addresses the fragmentation of these individual efforts by trying to understand

their specfic qualities, improving knowledge-sharing and collaboration. Together

they propose a reconsideration of the current uniform approach in favour of

the introduction of a new hybrid which puts local needs at the forefront of

development.

BRICX GUSTAVO CABAEZ

Russias potential strength seems to be inversely proportionate to its ability to

act upon the global stage. Russia has significant renewable energy potential,

forest mass, and agricultural land, a highly skilled population, bordering 14

lands and 41 seas, yet it fails to engage most of its neightbors. This project

looks at various elements of Russias representation in the world, including its

participation in BRIC and other international cooperative efforts, assessing how

these relationships effect the hinterland.

GRAND BORDER(LESS) HINTERLAND PENGHAN WU

Despite limited official recognition of the increasing foreign influences in the Far

East, for many inhabitants, this is now a given. The potential for collaboration

seems vast and mutual: an open exchange of economic, cultural and territorial

values and content would benefit every country in the region. This theme builds

a case for more collaboration and further integration based on differences rather

than similarities. As such, cooperation could be a new bridge between the Pacific

and other partners like the EU.

17INTRODUCTION

Utopia

18

Map of connections between utopian ideas and development Connections shown on this timeline diagram are mostly implicit. They are based on similarities of the ideas and approaches to develop-ment of the hinterland. The fact that some of them are forceful and a number of them serves as evidence that the influence of utopian discourse on the hinterland development exists, and is very strong, but not constant.

The Soviet time developments were largely dependent on utopian ideas. Modern-day developments lack influence from modern utopias and leaders of these projects are trying to create utopian models on which they can rely. This proves that the dependency still exists, but that it is not able to sustain itself on the same scale it once did, and that it had to shrink down to the level of local initiatives.

Correlation of utopian and social activity reveals a number of tendencies and points of interest which are the core of this project. For example we can see that utopias peak a few years after the peak in the development of a society. And the feeling of upcoming reces-sion gives the most fertile grounds for utopias.

UTOPIA 19

5. Peasants as political powerBig project: Stolypin reforms (1906-1910) Utopia: Journey of my Brother Alexii to the Land of Peasant Utopia A.V. Chayanov (1920)Stolypin perceived peasants as a political power and his reforms were focused on the creation of wealthy, conservative peasants. The very same peasant who inhabit the world of Chayanovs utopia, where governance is power of peasant soviets.

So the peasants are the main source of political power. The connection here is in the importance of the role of the peasant in society in general. Stolypin was the first to recognize this potential and tried to develop hinterland accordingly. While Chayanov pushed this potential to extreme making the peasantry the most important part of the society.

6. Industry to agricultureUtopias:In a 1000 years, V.D. Nikolskii (1923), Letaushii proletarii, V.Mayakovskii (1926) Neznai-ka in Sun city N. Nosov (1958)

Big project: Mechanization/industrialization of agriculture (1928-...) Agricultural production used to require a lot of space and manpower. If space is not an issue for some utopian authors, the necessity to hard work always is. In a perfect society one should not have to work, but should have a natural desire to work but no actual need. Mechanization or industrialization of agro-production is a strong idea appearing in all utopias concerned with this topic.

These two quotes show two stages of utopian industrialization of agriculture: first is more idealistic (no space for food production, so it has to be not only auto-mated but industrialized as well), the second is more down-to-earth approach (agriculture is robotized, so no human effort is required to maintain it).

Stolypin re-forms (1906-1910)

connection 5: peasants as political power

Journey of my brother Alexii to the land of peasant utopiaA.V. Chayanov (1920)

Agroholdings (2000-...)

Neznaika in Sun city N. Nosov (1958)

9

connection 6+9: industry to agriculture/ agriculture con-trolled from the city

And our travellers saw some kind of strange machine, looking like some kind of mechani-cal snow cleaning machine, or some kind of tractor... ...But the most surprising was that where was nobody operating this machine. (Nosov,1958)

And now, food fabrics had pushed away fields and gardens, where are now continuous fabric of garden-cities. (Nikolskii, 1923)

5

Connections

Automation of agriculture has another unexpected effect on the image of hinter-land, with agriculture as the main purpose; hinterland becomes uninhabited, or at least this is the goal for some utopias.

9. Agriculture controlled from the cityUtopia: Neznaika in the Sun city N. Nosov (1958)Big project: Agroholdings (2000-...)Agroholdings are companies that unite numerous large-scale agricultural enter-prises and are controlled form the centre. They are usually also characterized by high levels of mechanization of agrarian production. In Nosovs utopia Neznayka in the Sun City (1958) agriculture has exactly these same characteristics: large-scale, controlled from the city trough means of mechanization and automation.

20

Agroholdings are not perceived as something utopic in modern Russia, but as something purely practical. And this seems reasonable because they take on most of the production of grain and animal products. At the same time they re-ceive the most governmental support, so in the case of agriculture it is clear that Russian government today has a strong vision of perfect agriculture. We cannot be certain if it is actually the best, but we can clearly see the manifestation of old utopian model in the real development of Russian hinterland.

21. Food tradition.Utopia: Journey to the Sun CIty, Y. Muhin (2000) Case: LavkaLavka. 2009.Regional development based on traditional agricultural production, differentiating different parts of Russia and therefore making food from these regions economi-cally attractive to tempted customer, is one of the long-turn goals of the contem-porary LavkaLavka project.

Almost identical concept of value of the local, and healthy but most importantly traditional food can be found in utopia written by Muhin Journey to the Sun City:

It is not clear if this utopia had influence the LavkaLavka project, but the fact that this idea manifests so strongly in real life proves that the trend of local, traditional food is very active and relevant today.

Space race (1957-1975)

Andromeda nebula, I.A. Efremov (1956)

Gas mono city Nadim (1972)

12

12

connection 12: space hinter-land

People eat locally and seasonally. ;On house-hold plots people usually grow their own vegeta-bles in sufficient amount. (Muhin, 2000)

On machine like this you can cultivate the earth and at the same time stay in the city. (Nosov. 1958)

We manage to harvest two, tree or even four harvest in one summer. (Nosov. 1958)

12. Space HinterlandUtopia: Andromeda nebula, I.A. Efremov (1956) Big project: Space race (1957-1975)Case: Gas mono city Nadim (1972)The idea of space as the infinite hinterland of the earth can be traced in many utopias in the period 1950s - 1980s. But it also appears in the development of real hinterland. For example, mono-city Nadim and the small planet Zirda in Efremovs Andromeda nebula are very similar in their relationship to nature to that of the Ministry of Geology in 1960s.

Mono-city and mono-planet share a very similar place in the utopia and the real hinterland: small, distant, very hard to reach. Where life goes on under extremely harsh conditions, but most importantly they are both used for only one purpose - extraction of natural resources.

UTOPIA 21

LavkaLavka

LavkaLavka is a universal farmer cooperative, based in Moscow, which tries to create infrastructure to support small scale agrarian producers.

Ideology. LavkaLavka provides distribution and infrastructure support to small-scale farmers. But they do not necessary disregard all big enterprises, but rather search for personalized organisations which produce organic food. Initially this project began with a search for good and healthy food, which was produced lo-cally, but this is no longer the main priority.

Boris Akimov, the founder of LavkaLavka claims that, by reorganizing their budget anyone can buy food from our farmers, but looking at prices its clear that it is not affordable for large parts of the population. The food is not luxurious, but because of the quality and small scale of production prices are high.

The second idea that drives this organization is regional development through gastronomic self-iden-tification, which can distinguish regions on the global map. If everybody grows the same Dutch breed of cucumbers, even if it is perfect, why should I care where it comes form? But if I can get different cu-cumbers from different regions I can decide accord-ing to my gastronomic preferences, or just because Im bored, said Akimov. This regional differentiation can improve profitability of products, freshen up the economy and generate gastronomic tourism. Lavka-Lavka does not accept genetically modified strains of products, since they lack regional and historical identity. Not because for health or safety reasons.

Organization. LavkaLavka is based on interaction of seven players: farmers, consumers, stores, supplier of machinery, supplier of feed, fertilizers, logistics and energy, res-taurants and funds supporting farmers initiatives. The farmer is the central figure of this cooperative.

The central aim of the project is to create favouravle conditions for the farmer suitable for his work. Lavka-Lavka is also a foundation which stimuateds and supports development of farms.

Any restaurant or consumer can join the cooperative, consumer members receive lower prices for farmers products.

Jointly the cooperative can buy animal-feed, fertiliz-ers, machinery etc. on wholesale bases making it cheaper for the producer and for the farmers.

Competition.The success of this organization has set a new trend of farmers food in Russia. More and more new LavkaLavka-like businesses appear on the market. A few examples: marble beef from Lipetsk, Vse Svoe (All local) on-line shop, Eda iz derevni (Food from village), Okraina (Hinterland), Rossiiskii krolik (Russian rabbit), and many more. All networks offer organic food, which is delivered at your doorstep. But they do not share the LavkaLavkas ideology, the diversity of farmers and produce, or the suc-cess. These examples all have a very rigid farmers network with whom they work, and they do not want to change it in any way.

LavkaLavka children

22

Not all Utopias have a place for the hinterland as a subject. Some only mention it briefly, but some focus on the future of hinterland so to see how the portrait of the hinterland changes throughout time it is relevant to understand how it was influ-enced/influences the development of actual hinterland.

The portrait of hinterland changes from being a space for development of a city (Odoevskii, 1835) to hinterland being a lifeless desert (Brusov, 1904) or a land for agriculture and peasants (Chayanov, 1920) to one giant city (Okunev, 1923, Nikol-skii, 1927) and back to agricultural land (Nosov, 1958). In Muhins utopia (2000) the hinterland is portrayed as a perfect place to live, in a way very close to life in the hinterland is now. The main difference is that small communities and villages from which make up the hinterland govern themselves.

This change in portrait of the hinterland reveals the nature of relations between authors and the hinterland: as something that can be changed according to changes in the centre. But also this change shows that modern utopias dont see the hinterland as a place worth working with. Such lack of directive into the future, imagination, even utopism is evidence of the decline of the role of hinterland on ideological scale in the development of modern Russia. Yet does this makes hin-terland utopia irrelevant? Not necessarily. Because this change as seen in the portrait of the hinterland after the fall of Soviet Union can also be explained by the growing influence of Western utopias on the development of Russian hinterland, and we see this influence on a local scale. This doesnt mean that there is no place for new Russian Hinterland utopia, this means that the need for it is not fulfilled.

City vs. Wilderness

Industry vs. Desert

Peasant country

Industrial country

Garden city

Agro town

Sustainable Community

Portrait of Hinterland

18351904

19201923

19271958

2000

100% RURAL

100% CULTIVATED

100% URBAN

100% CULTIVATED

100% CULTIVATED

City Country Continent Planet

Only dull deserts. White during winter and covered with poor grass in short summer months. Wild animals were long extinct and wan had no businesses were. (Brusov, 1904)

The whole country is now just one big agricultural settlement divided into squares of commu-nal forests, stripes of coopera-tive fields and giant climatic parks. (Chayanov, 1920)

And now, food factories had pushed away fields and gar-dens, where are now continu-ous fabric of garden-cities.

Need of big centres with high density of population... ...is long gone. Since the time of travel reduced so much that in few minutes you could get tens of kilometres form the centre flow form the centre became something natural... Green suburban areas become irre-sistible because of their clean air and vast areas. (Nikolskii, 1927)

Commune in Russia is prefer-ably small community living at the same place and therefore having same interests. (Muhin, 2000)

Focusing on the utopian image of different topics (hinterland, climate, nature, state, global hinterland, food) as they emerge in literature, these portraits serve the goal to understand how these utopian images change over time. Three examples shown here prove that the utopian impulse de-creased after the collapse of the Soviet union in some of them (Hinterland, Global Hinterland), but is still active in others (nature).

UTOPIA 23

Changing portrait of nature. The essence of the portrait of nature in utopian litera-ture remains constant during the past 170 years.

Nature cannot be separated from hinterland, especially given that 96% of Russia is nature. The portrait of nature in utopias transforms form something completely wild and hostile to something anthropogenic. So to find the storyline of nature to be very active in utopias is not surprising. Yet, if relation to hinterland changes a lot during the history of utopias, the relation to nature develops in a different way. In the selection of utopias up to the XXI century nature is opposed to human kind and needs to be conquered or even destroyed. The portrait of nature even if changing from something hostile and dangerous to something useful, until the end of Soviet Era was constant as something to be modified, conquered, or cre-ated from scratch.

It seems that only in the Journey to the Sun City (Muhin, 2000) nature is formu-lated to be something valuable in the state it is now and needs to be protected. But this is not entirely true. The nature of this planet is protected because anoth-er type of nature appears, namely space with new possibilities for expansion and modification. So unlike the attitude towards the hinterland the attitude to nature is still strong in its utopian sense.

19261927

1960

2000

PART OF URBANENVIRONMENT

GREEN ROOF

SKY IS NATURE

AMUSEMENT

CLOUD

FLIGHT

GAMES

FOODINDUSTRY

INTELLIGENT NATURE

ARTIFICIAL

GENETICAL ENGINEERING

TAME

PLANT

PETRECOGNIZE

HOBBY

INDUSTRIALIZATION

ENERGY SOURCE

ARTIFICIALSEMI-CONDUCTOR

SUNSTIES

WIRELESSSOLAR POWER

NEEDS TO BE PROTECTED

MAN IS A PART OF NATURE

IMPORTANCE

PRIVATE PLOTRELIGION

CENTRE

MAN OWNS

NATURE

HARMONYCLOSE TO

NATURE

AFTERLIFE

INSPIRATION

PART OF URBANENVIRONMENTGARDEN CITY

CONTROL PROTECT

1835

1904

1923MAN IS A

PART OF NATURE

CHEMISTRY

GENETICAL ENGINEERING

CONQUER

THEME PARK

MINIATURE WORLD

DANGER

STRUGGLE

INSTINCT

DOG-SIZE HORSES

DESIREFOODMIX

ESSENCE

ELITE

CHEAPFREE

CONTROLOPPOSITION

LUXURYTASTE

SCIENCEGARDEN

SEPARATED

HOSTILE

LIFELESSDESERT

METAL DOME

ARTIFICIALHEATED

ICE COLD HARSH

WATER

TRANSPORTATIONCONNECTION

ENERGY SOURCEARTIFICIAL

CONCENTRATEDPOWER

PLANT

ATOMIZED

AS GOOD AS REAL

VASTUSELESS

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NO HUMAN

HYDRO

DANGER

Portrait of Nature

24

Transition of Russias position and role on global map from largest power, to a neighbour of a number of growing countries.

Portrait of Global Hinterland

The prerequisite for most utopias is the global scale on which they operate. It is rare that Russia stays in its current boundaries. Yet even in utopia Russia usu-ally does not occupy the whole world. It has some neighbouring countries show-ing the advancement or the degradation of the Russian hinterland. In most of the cases its China, whose comparable place slowly increase in its importance.

China as a neighbour of the Russian hemisphere in utopia first appears in the utopia 4338 by V.F. Odoevskii (1835). China here is seen as a county which has surprisingly fallen behind Russia. But this concept changes drastically in next 150 years. In the Journey to Sun City (Muhin, 2000) Russia and China emerge as equals. And in Day of Oprichnik (Sorokin, 2006) Russia falls behind China is the same way as China wasnt able to compete with Russia 150 years earlier.

In the end Russia serves only as an area of transportation from one centre of development to another, and as a reserve of natural resources. So even if physi-cally Russia is separated from the outside world by a huge concrete wall (like in Day of Oprichnik 2006), it is actually absolutely open for transportation, and the transit fee is a major source of income for Russia.

Absolutely opposite image of the global hinterland is presented in the Chay-anovs utopia (1920). Here Russia seems to be transparent and open, but at the same time completely self sufficient and enclosed. However the most common portrait of Global Hinterland in Utopias is global unity. Planetary unity is the preferred scale. This leads to the appearance of once unified hinterland with no political or physical borders.

Chinese people, now try our best to mimic foreign habits. Everything is Russian-like: clothes, customs, literature, but one thing we leak Russian smarts. (Odoevskii, 1835)

On September 7 three armies of German Vsebuch, escorted by clouds of aeroplanes, invaded Russian Peasant Re-public and in one day facing no resistance or any human being for that matter progressed by 50-100 kilometres.

...meteophors on the border started working on maximum power creating cyclone of small radius and in half and hour half a million armies and tens of thousands of aeroplanes were literally wiped away....

(Chayanov, 1920)

Streets, squares, streets again infinite world city... By the 1st quarter of XX century all cities of the world joined into one. Across the oceans by artificial islands continents reached out to each other with their streets. (Okunev, 1923)

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Okunev1823

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UTOPIA 25

Project Highlights

Analysis of utopias provides us with an understanding of the general thinking specific to a particular period. During the Soviet era the universal cornerstone model for social, economic and political structure for almost all utopias was com-munism. And the existence of marginal utopias opposing the general line, such as The Rose of the World (Andreev, 1958), only proves that utopian writers at that time actually believed in ideas of communism.

After the Soviet Union fell, this powerful uniting ideology also collapsed, and nothing has replaced it. Contemporary authors enjoy greater freedom, but unlike their predecessors they have to construct the whole model from scratch. This makes the utopian discourse potentially weaker. The evidence of this is seen in the Portraits section of the current research: the way in which Russia is imagined by modern utopists coincides with the real state of things in the country. Modern utopias prove to lack imagination and strong utopian impulse. At the same time, they are more diverse and subjected to the influence of Western ideas.

Similar situation occurs with the development of hinterland, especially on a local level. The lack of clear ideological base made it possible for such projects like LavkaLavka to appear. It is clearly influenced by western ideology that pro-motes organic farming, but adopted to the Russian context. Another example of influence is the eco-village Tiberkul, whose leader managed to create a unique ideological/ethical base. Both projects are trying to create personal mini-ideolo-gies. These examples show that the need for new utopian impulses is natural and it clearly exists. New developments of hinterland are more successful if they man-age to achieve certain level of utopia. For example, LavkaLavka has numerous competitors, but none of them are able to match the robust network of customers and farmers. Even if some of the other initiatives would become more success-ful, LavkaLavka will always be responsible for the increased interest to farmers and to the hinterland, for the development of farms and for healthy eating habits. They were the first to promote these ideas on a broad scale.

Another interesting aspect is the connections between Soviet utopias and modern development. They show that the influence of utopian models is strong even on a large scale of hinterland development, but has been inherited from the previous era. One of the strongest developments of past 12 years is the develop-ment of agroholdings, which almost literally follows the ideas on agriculture as explained in Nosovs Neznayka in the Sun City (1958). These notions included centralization, mechanization, and remote control of agricultural production from the city.

The absence of a universal ideological base destroyed the close relationship between utopias and the grand ideas of hinterland development in Russia. It also diminished the opposition to the ideology of the Western world. Modern develop-ment is therefor no longer influenced by utopian discourse in the same way as it once was. The influence and connection still exists, as it is difficult to disregard that the ideological component prevails over pragmatic, but this influence today is much broader, because it is globalized, but is implemented more locally.

26

References

Andreev, D. Rose of the World. Moscow: Moscovskiy Rabochiy, 1991 (written 1958).

Bogdanov, A. Red Star. St. Petersburg: Souz Hudognikov Pechati, 1908.

Brusov, V. Republic of South Cross. Moscow: Scorpion, 1904.

Carol, Leonard. Agrarian Reform in Russia. USA, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Chayanov, A. Journey of my brother Alexii to the Land of Peasant Utopia. Moscow: GOSIZDAT, 1920.

Efremov, I. Andromeda Nebula. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia, 1956.

Khuhelbekher, V. European letters. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia, 1977 (Written 1820).

Mayakovskii, V. Flying Proletarian. Moscow: AVIOHIM, 1926.

Muhin, Y. Journey to the Sun City. Duel. Last modified 2000, http://www.duel.ru/200025/?25_4_1

Nosov, N. Neznayka in the Sun City. Moscow: DETGIZ, 1956.

Odoevskii, V. 4348. Moscow: GIHL, 1959 (written 1835).

Okunev, Y. World to Come. Moscow: Tretya Straga, 1923.

Nikolskii, V. In a Thousand Years. St. Petersburg, P.P. Soikin, 1927.

Platonov, A. Trench. Moscow: SAMIZDAT, 1987 (written 1930).

Platonov, A. Chevengur. Moscow: Drugba Narodov, 1987 (Written 1929).

Savchenko, V. Fifth Journey of the Gulliver. Kiev: Radyanskii Pismennik, 1979.

Sorokin, V. Day of Oprichnik. Moscow: Zaharov, 2006.

Strugatskii, A. and Strugatskii, B. Return (Noon XXII century). Moscow: Childrens Literature, 1967 (Written 1959)

Svetov, A. Vetochkins Travel to the Future. Moscow: Childrens Literature, 1960.

Uzun, Vasilii. Agricultural holdings in Russia: identification, classification, the role and concentration of land. Publisher unkonwn, 2011.

Voinovich, V. Moscow 2042. Moscow: Ardis Publishing, 1986.

Akimov, Boris. interview by Ruben, Victor, April 26, 2012.

Vitkov, Gleb. interview by Ruben, Victor, May 4, 2012.

UTOPIA 27

Rise of Nature

Renaissance of Soviet projectsAn interesting trend is emerging: a number of Soviet projects are being revived. In the last 3-5 years new attention has been given to the Soviet nature project. Driven by different methods and reasons (dealing with consequences, renovation of infrastructure) the projects have became relevant again.The invasion and transformation of nature, which happened in majority of cases, is a phenomenon which is irreversible, and is becoming an endemic trend for the country. After the era of disasters in the 1980s and stagnation of the 1990s, the conse-quences of Soviet projects are evident. The differ-ent urgencies and models of dealing with the Soviet natural legacy which can be defined as: - maintenance (means both care and refurbish-

ment and dealing with consequences) - continuing the construction of unfinished projects - an unrealized project, to be realized today.

Rebuilding SwampsDraining swamp fields was a big project for a long period in the 1920s, in which turf was used as an energy source. It was active until the 1970s when oil and gas fields were developed in Siberia. The conse-quences of fast abandonment and lack of ecological foresight became evident in the form of wildfires all across European part of Russia. In July 2011, the document Restoration of peat bogs in Russia in or-der to prevent fires and mitigation of climate change was signed by Dmitry Medvedev and Angela Merkel. Nowadays in order to deal with the consequences of massive nature transformation, Russia requires inter-national cooperation. The process of turning Russia into swamps again may now begin.

Renaissance of Soviet projects - transformations become irreversible. Soviet natural legacy becomes relevant today.

Government

Business

Bottom-up

Project canceletion

Cathastrophe 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Turf extraction(GOELRO plan)1930s

Dealing withconsequensesof turf extraction20..?

Belomorcanal construction1933

Belomorcanal re-construction2018

Stalinsnature transfor-mation plan1948

Forest beltsmaintance(repaire)2011

Hydro PowerPlantson Angara1963

River reverseproject1970s

River reverseproject revivalin Luzhkovs book2008

Aral seadisaster1989

Aral searevitalisation2005

Hydro PowerPlantson Angara2010

Renaissance of Soviet projects scheme.

Forest RevisitedIn 2006, the forest belts were taken off the federal budget and became a municipal responsibility. Most of the belts are in poor shape, due to the decline of agriculture and shortages for regional budgets. As a result, many sections of the forest belts in the south are not maintained today. Stopping winds and erosion is becoming more and more urgent, and initiatives to restore the belts are emerging at all levels. From 2010 onwards, confer-ences and bottom up maintenance projects are be-coming active. The Belgorod region has established its own program.

Luzhkovs DreamFormer mayor Luzhkov in his 2008 book Water and World, proposed the revival of a never realised river reversal project, which is strongly supported by Kazakhstan as a solution to saving Aral Sea but did not find a lot of support. Still, it shows a readiness to return to Soviet ideas, even if they have been discredited by even the Soviet regime.

Boguchanskaya caseA great example of this trend is the Boguchans-kaya hydro electro plant on Angara. This part of the cascade was planned and started in 1970 but then gradually abandoned by the middle of 1990s. But un-der new political conditions, the construction site was revived in an initiative led by business (oligarchs) with government support in 2007. This positive trend of business participation needs to be enhanced by coherent interaction between different structures (uklads).

28

The great project of natural climate transformation by Soviet authorities covered the whole country for 3 years (1949-1953) and was instantly abandoned. Today the project is being revived in different parts of Russia through bottom-up initiatives and federal support.

HistoryWe decided to do everything possible to secure the future of the country from drought - Stalin, 1924

After the 1947 famine that killed about 1 million peo-ple, Stalin decided to conquer the climate in south-ern USSR. Stalins plan to transform nature in 1948 was developed for this purpose. Transformations covered not only the south but much of the country. The basis of the idea was to conquer nature and to design nature to meet the needs of the country.The basis of this plan was the work of geologist Vasily Dokuchaev. Dokuchaevs idea was to create a new consciously man-made landscape structure, which would improve the overall fertility of the ter-ritory and ensure sustainable agricultural crops. In 1892, Dokuchaev published a book Our steppe before and now on this topic.

Stalins plan to transform nature

1. Book published by Dokuchaev Our steppe before and now, 1892 // 2. Representation of nature control - Conquer the drought! 1949

Implementation of the plan took on a truly megalo-manic scale: from 1948 to 1953, 2,3 millions ha of forest were planted across the country. This is equal to almost half of the territory of the European Un-ion and 5% of all the Russian forests. The program started to work, and schoolchildren and kolkhozniks participated in the planting.The 15-year plan intended to change the climate on the territory of 120 ha and, as a result, enrich the flora and fauna of the region, increase yields and increase Soviet Union self-sufficiency in grain. According to the official statistics, yields had dou-bled during the first 3 years of the plan. But following Stalins death (April 1953), a resolution was issued to stop all work on forestation.

This project was canceled along with the Salekhard-Igarka and the Baikal-Amur railways, the Yenisey-Krasnoyarsk tunnel, Main Turkmen Canal and the Volga-Baltic waterway projects.In all cases, the plan turned out to be unprofitable to the state and led to economic collapse. However, the project was not totally abandoned, after foresta-tion ended, the focus of the plan was shifted toward canal construction.

NatureThe project represents a unique case of conscious human influence on nature on such scale. The totally artificial nature also included the relocation of birds in order to design a whole new ecosystem in the region. The forest belts are a very important agricultural element, planted to protect the fields from the hot winds of the south. Since the project was quickly abandoned, belts were partially cut and partially neglected, which meant loss and unpredictability of agriculture output in the southeastern regions.

Ambitions meets reflectionsForest belts in many areas will change the climate regime ... 1949, Stalin plan of nature transformation, V. GnilovskyThe forest belts have not changed the climate, at most they affected the ecosystems.Of course, the climate cant be changed with forest belts construction. No one believed in it!2008, 60th Anniversary of forest belts, Novaya Gazeta

2012: an example of revivalLast fall, local workers from the Horizon farm (Mikhailovsky region, Altai kray) began to restore the forest belt, clearing and planting almost two thou-sand seedlings of larch and pine trees.

After this initiative, the team received regional support and a special program Fertility was established.

RUB48 million from the federal and RUB10 million from the regional budget were allocated for the implementation of the

programs Fertility.Other examples of restoration of the forest belts include: Vol-gograd and Belgorod regions, where local programs to recon-struct the forest belts were es-tablished. Or the project Green Corridors of Future which was started in the early 2000s (The focus of this last project was primarily to restore forest belts as corridors for animals).

RISE OF NATURE 29

Ideology: effects on the ground

We cannot wait for the mercy of nature, take them is our task! I. Michurin 1934

1951. Lenin and Stalin designing nature to meet the countrys needs.

We can not wait for the mercy of nature, after all we have done. - popular anecdote of the 1980s

Ideology Finds GroundThe Soviet regime was in need of a tool for development of its territory, and took on a pro-active position of nature conquerors. The idea of conquering nature did not originate in Soviet Union, but it found fertile ground during this period: great plans for nature transformation, ambitions aimed at climate change, space explo-ration, these large scale attempts to control and manage nature took place.

1920-1940: Although the early Soviet Lenin policy for nature management and develop-ment proposed reasonable use of natural resources, defined by different codes and standards for the treatment of nature.At the same time, the massive establishment started developing natural re-serves, which were completely different from their contemporaries in Europe or America. These were used for observation and research activities, but closed to visitors. Nature was kept closed to external influences and used for strictly scien-tific purposes of research.

Big ideas - big projectsNature gained the status of enemy and almost military operations were de-ployed. Construction of the Belomorcannal in 1933 that stretched 227 miles in less than two years was a quick victory over nature.Quick victory over the enemy-nature, the perfect friendly pressure of thousands of heterogeneous units of different races is amazing, but even more amaz-ing was the victory over a people themselves wrote Maxim Gorky in the book Belomorcannal in 1934. Nature here was also a tool to transform criminals into regular Soviet ManFollowing World War II, the country faced drought and famine in 1946-47. The fear of famine was strong enough to start the reformation of nature: soon Stalins nature transformation plan started. The scientific basis for plan was the work of Vasily Dokuchaev from 1892. This was the theory of physical change of land while the Soviet regime provided for the ideology of conquest. Soviet authori-ties were insisting on military symbols: Stalin in uniform on the battle plan and promises of triumph to defeat drought!The relation to nature was reflected not only in plans to change and adapt it to suit humankinds needs, but also in the development of conservation. In 1951, Stalin abolished 51 natural reserves, leaving more than 30,000 hectares of land open to mans influence.

Flight into space in 1961 not only expanded the notion of human capabilities, but also the understanding of nature, from 1960 the official definition of nature was expanded with new categories - air, atmosphere. In the 1960s and the following decade, the era of superhuman and the conquest of space continued. It is hard to say whether these projects followed a direct idea of conquest and whether they were unfounded in science. Ideology previously created by the bureaucratic machine continued to move on, even if the idea was not clear or if it was not clear whether the project was needed. But change came quickly: the catastrophe at Chernobyl and the disappearance of the Aral Sea provoked a shift in focus to nature preservation. From 1990 to 2000, 29 nature reserves were established. In the 2000s, ideology seems to be back and emerge in new grand projects. In addition, the abandoned Soviet natu-ral legacy becomes relevant today.

The development and construction of huge Hydroelectric Pants in Siberia or River diversity projects were forced by the bureaucratic power of institutions created by Stalin. Khrushev was against such projects. Mikhail Rozhanskiy (Siberian sociologist)

The logic of grand projects still aims at controlling the forces of nature. 2011,Vladimir Putin in Tomsk. Source: vesti.ru

30

Expanding the definition of nature

The way people define nature has changed multiple times, reflecting ongoing ideologies and projects involving nature explora-tion. Officially documented, the rules of engagement have been exponentially expanding the definition of nature, subjecting more and more components for human usage. Logically, from a strong human-centric viewpoint, each step of expansion brought more to develop, and at the same time - more to protect.

Evolution of definition of nature can be described in three stages:

2002Contemporary NatureIn the current federal law on the environment (2002), nature is defined as a natural environ-ment, or a set of components of the environment, natural and anthropogenic natural objects. It shows the division of cultivated nature, interfered by man, and wild nature.New elements were also added to the term: minerals, surface, ozone layer and even near-Earth space. The definition of nature has thus been radically expanded.

1960The Growing Needs Law on the Nature protection RSFSR expands the definition of nature to natural wealth, both already involved in the economy, and unexploited. Forest protec-tive belts and greening of urban areas were added as a separate part of the forests category. The space race triggered imagination and in 1960 air was added as a component of nature.As if the Soviet regime needed to claim it prior to managing it in the future. These developments can be treated as a reflection of Stalins plan of nature trans-formation and a prerequisite for anthropogenic natural objects that would soon emerge.

1920sThe Beginning of NatureClassification of nature for the first time was introduced in Russia in the 1920s, following the establish-ment of the Soviet regime. Vari-ous codes regulated approaches to land, forests, subsoil, animals, plants, rocks, water.This disintegrated view of nature reflects the lack of a complex approach, but demonstrates the main fields of economic interests and activity of that time.

RISE OF NATURE 31

Inventory of nature

1.1% of anthropogenic nature is created and changed during implemeation of the biggest Soviet natural projects. Source: google earth

Agricultural lands cover 23.5% of territory. Source: http://www.grafamania.net/uploads/posts/2009-06/1244568541_1.jpg

Nature is still a natural condition of most of the Russian hinterland - 95.9%

23.5% is agricultural lands. Cultivated by man, this is type of nature is defined as being natural-anthropogenic.

The second group that is related to natural anthropogenic is nature changed natural landscapes as a result of big Soviet projects for drained swamps (0.3%), forest belts (0.08%), water reservoirs (0.4%), drained area of Aral sea (0.3%), irrigation canals (0.02%) - this area totals18,4 mln ha (1.1% of Russia)

4.1% vs. 95.9% 23.5% + 1.1%

State of nature. According to the current definition and structure of federal territory - 95.9% of land is occupied by nature. The remaining 4.1% is urbanised and industrialised territory. Source: Rosreestr. www.rosreestr.ru

Amount of urbanised territory versus nature Amount of anthropogenic nature: agricultural + transformed

Under the current legal regulation, Federal law on the Nature protection (2002), there is a distinct defi-nition of natural Russia that is split into two catego-ries. The natural environment, or nature, is called in Russian prirodnaya sreda (priroda). The term is used to describe both natural objects (nature 1), as well as natural anthropogenic objects (nature 2).

Calculating nature: Nature 1Natural objects are flora and fauna, soil, minerals, the surface, water (including groundwater), air and near-Earth space environment. The documented structure of federal lands helps to calculate the amount of nature in Russia. The following parts were excluded from the count: settlements (1.1%), industrial zones, special protected zones and facili-ties (courtesy of the Defence Ministry, 2%). Based on this framework, 95.9% of the country falls into category of nature.

Calculating nature: Nature 2 (Antropogenic)As for the second part of the definition - natural anthropogenic objects - these are the natural ob-jects modified by the economic or other activities of people. These might be objects created by man for protective or recreational functions. 23% of agricul-tural land is also a natural antropogenic object, as it was changed as a consequence of economic activ-ity. Other examples are canals, reservoirs, forest belts and drained swamps. Thus, the great Soviet ambition to transform nature had its impact on 18.4 mln hectares. This equals the territory of Luxemburg, for example, making up only 1.1% of the total area of Russia.

32

Management: shrinking inefficiency

The Russian word economy (khozyaistvo) - is translated into English in a number of ways depending on the context. It can mean economy, farm or household. The Russian term thus appears to be more capacious, combining different meanings. Etymologically it derives from the word khozyain, or master, which adds extra value of care and maintenance to the word.

Most of the ministries in the Soviet Union operating with control of nature were called ministries of household. Although after a series of reforms the term disappeared and was replaced by the resources-focused approach.

Today, it is urgent that nature is not defined and treated as a resource, but rather a household. Agriculture, or rural areas, on the contrary should be perceived as an additional resource of public wealth.

USSR, 1980 RF, 2010

After the Soviet Union collapsed and a total restructuring of administrative structure, the horizontal structure was replaced by a vertical but more complicated structure. The Soviet territorial-branch (khozyaistvenno-otraslevoy) was abandoned. And a tendency to enlarge institutions emerged, leading to a smaller but over-complicated internal structure with weak connections between ministries. Source: http://guides.rusarchives.ru/browse/guidebook.html?bid=202&sid=686568

OFAGRICULTURE

OFGEOLOGY

OFMELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMYINDUSTRY

FORESTECONOMY*

OFFOREST

RESERVES

OF HUNTING AND NATURE

USSR (1980)

RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2010)

NATIONALLEVEL

REPUBLICLEVEL

REGIONALLEVEL

MINISTRYOF

AGRICULTURE

-MINISTRY

OFGEOLOGY

MINISTRYOF

MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMYINDUSTRY

MINISTRYOF

FORESTECONOMY*

MINISTRYOF

FORESTRESERVES

GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF HUNTING

AND NATURE

MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES

AND ECOLOGY

MINISTRYOF

AGRICULTURE

-MINISTRY

OFGEOLOGY

MINISTRYOF

MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMYINDUSTRY

MINISTRYOF

FORESTECONOMY*

MINISTRYOF

FORESTRESERVES

GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF HUNTING

AND NATURE

COMMITEE COMMITEECOMMITEECOMMITEE

OFCOMMITEE COMMITEE

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

MINISTRYOF

INDUSTRY AND TRADE*

*former ministry of forest industry

Department ofAdministrativeand External

RelationsDepartment ofAdministration

and staff

Department ofFinance and

Budget Policy

Department ofwater resources

management

Department ofof regulation

of hunting andwildlife

Department ofInternationalCooperation

Department ofGeology andSubsoil Use

Departmentof

Hydrometeorologyof regulation

and environmentmonitoring

Department ofState policy andenvironment and

ecological securityregulation

Departmentof Economicsand Analysis

Department ofFinance and

Budget Policy

Department ofLand Policy

Departmentof Rural

Developmentand

Social Policy

Departmentof Rural DevelopmentandSocial Policy

Departmentof Rural DevelopmentandSocial Policy

Department ofAdministration

Department ofPlant, chemicals

and plantprotection

Department ofAnimal

Husbandryand

Breeding

Department ofMelioration

Departmentof veterinary

Medicine

Department ofof Forestry

OFAGRICULTURE

OFGEOLOGY

OFMELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMYINDUSTRY

FORESTECONOMY*

OFFOREST

RESERVES

OF HUNTING AND NATURE

USSR (1980)

RUSSIAN FEDERATION (2010)

NATIONALLEVEL

REPUBLICLEVEL

REGIONALLEVEL

MINISTRYOF

AGRICULTURE

-MINISTRY

OFGEOLOGY

MINISTRYOF

MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMYINDUSTRY

MINISTRYOF

FORESTECONOMY*

MINISTRYOF

FORESTRESERVES

GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF HUNTING

AND NATURE

MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURCES

AND ECOLOGY

MINISTRYOF

AGRICULTURE

-MINISTRY

OFGEOLOGY

MINISTRYOF

MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMYINDUSTRY

MINISTRYOF

FORESTECONOMY*

MINISTRYOF

FORESTRESERVES

GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF HUNTING

AND NATURE

COMMITEE COMMITEECOMMITEECOMMITEE

OFCOMMITEE COMMITEE

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

MINISTRYOF

INDUSTRY AND TRADE*

*former ministry of forest industry

Department ofAdministrativeand External

RelationsDepartment ofAdministration

and staff

Department ofFinance and

Budget Policy

Department ofwater resources

management

Department ofof regulation

of hunting andwildlife

Department ofInternationalCooperation

Department ofGeology andSubsoil Use

Departmentof

Hydrometeorologyof regulation

and environmentmonitoring

Department ofState policy andenvironment and

ecological securityregulation

Departmentof Economicsand Analysis

Department ofFinance and

Budget Policy

Department ofLand Policy

Departmentof Rural

Developmentand

Social Policy

Departmentof Rural DevelopmentandSocial Policy

Departmentof Rural DevelopmentandSocial Policy

Department ofAdministration

Department ofPlant, chemicals

and plantprotection

Department ofAnimal

Husbandryand

Breeding

Department ofMelioration

Departmentof veterinary

Medicine

Department ofof Forestry

Between Ideology and PracticeThe management structure might be the strongest reflection of state ideology, position and rhetorics with regards to nature. Different entities exist in order to guide practical activities. Thorough the examination of institutes mandated to manage natural resources, the government line can be examined.

Territorial branchThe Soviet Union was based on the territorial branch (territorialno-otraslevaya) system of government: every ministry existing on the Soviet Union level was duplicated on republican and regional levels. This system provided both control and flexibility. The modern Russian system has lost the advantages of the ter-ritorial branch structure as it follows another administrative model: consolida-tion. 47 ministries of the USSR were transformed into 17 federal ministries of the Russian Federation, each one of them with an extended mandate. Management of nature today is mainly concentrated in two ministries: Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Natural Resources. This is two instead of the six existing in the USSR.Compared to the Soviet system, the new management system has lost flexibility and, partly its authority. This eventually led to disconnection from the realities on the ground. Certain responsibilities, shared by different federal government enti-ties, are addressed less effectively.

Ministry of Natural Resources

Ministry of Natural Household Economy

Ministry of Rural Household Economy

Ministry of Rural Resources

MINISTRY OF FORESTRYECONOMY

MINISTRY OF FORESTRY ECONOMY

(2) GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRYAND FORESTATION BECOMES A PARTOF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURETO REALISE FOREST BELTS PROJECT.

MINISTRY OF FOREST INDUSTRYMINISTRYOF INDUSTRYAND TRADE

PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIATOF FOREST INDUSTRY

MAYOR FOREST SECURITY OF USSR

RSFSR PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT OF AGRICULTURE 1917-1946MINISTRY OF AGRI-CULTURE RSFSR (1)

MINISTRY OF AGRI-CULTURE RSFSR (2)

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RSFSR

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE RF

(1) ASSOCIATION OF THEMINISTRIES OF BLANKS,AGRICULTURE AND ANIMALHUSBANDRY

PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT OF GRAINAND LIVESTOCK FARMS RSFSR

GENERAL DEPARTMENTOF GEOLOGYAND MINERAL PROTECTION

MINISTRY OF GEOLOGY

RSFSR MINISTRYOF STATE FARMS

GENERAL DEPARTMENTFOR RESERVESZOO-PARKS

COMMITTEEON RESERVES

GENERAL DEPARTMENTFOR RESERVES GENERAL DEPARTMENT OF HUNTING AND NATURE RESERVES

STATE COMMITTEEFOR NATURE PROTECTION

MINISTRY OFENVIRONMENTAND NATURALRESOURCES

MINISTRY OF NATURALRESOURCES AND ECOLOGY

MINISTRY OF MELIORATION AND WATER ECONOMY OF THE RSFSR

Lenin Stalin Khruschev Brezhnev Andropov / Chernenko Yeltsyn Putin Medvedev

RISE OF NATURE 33

Management: Growing forest freedom

The last decade was marked by a radical changes in the system of forestry. This sector was also affected by a countrywide trend to increase the number of responsible organisations and complications in interdepartmental relations. The result was a number of reforms that have left the forest without a single organiza-tion responsible for its protection and a dramatic reduction of forest rangers.

Changes in the system of forest management.Under the Forest Code (1997 until 2004), almost all forests in Russia were man-aged centrally through a federal organisation with executive power. The Forest Code was amended at the end of 2004, initiating a process of decentralization of forest management. The authority to manage the forests, which were previously administered by the Ministry of Agriculture (as in Soviet times, at the disposal of state and collective farms), were now given to regional governments.Although the forests were owned at the federal level, maintenance was assigned to the regions without justification.Another step toward decentralisation was taken in 2006 when the forest belts were taken off the list of forests and placed on the municipal level list. This change resulted in no one actually caring for these important agricultural ele-ments, and they began to decline due to lack of local budget resources.Following the reform of the forest in 2007 (the New Forest code), financial posi-tion of the state forestry authorities worsened, and there was a loss of a signifi-cant proportion of skilled workers up to 40-60%. Today the forest is managed by three ministries (Agriculture, Regional Development and Natural Resouces and Ecology).

FOREST

FEDERALFORESTRY AGENCY

Department of State policy and environment and eco-logical security regulation

MINISTRYOF AGRICULTURE

MINISTRY OF NATURAL RESOURSES AND

ECOLOGYMINISTRY OF REGIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

Three main ministries taking care of forest today, but no one ministry protects the forest.

Forest rangers taken off duty. Official statistics (Rosstat) do not provide clear numbers of employment in forest (care), the data was combined with agricultural workers and hunt-ers, but media reporting shows that there are 40-60% fewer forest rangers. (2010)

Source: http://www.green-peace.org/russia/ru/news/3-7/

Sometimes, published of-ficial numbers on the Inter-net show that the number of forest workers for the duration of the new Forest Code has not changed. An attempt to obtain any information on this subject in the Federal Agency of Forestry was not success-ful - just turned out that the leadership of Federal Forest Service does not track how many people and where it goes from the forest management , Alexey Yaroshenko, head of Greenpeace forest program. (2011)

Census foresters: 3 years from the number decreased by two thirds

600 ha

1950 199019701955 199519751960 200019801965 20051985

1984760 ha

680 ha

800 ha

640 ha

780 ha

720 ha

840 ha

620 ha

770 ha

700 ha

820 ha

660 ha

790 ha

740 ha

860 ha

880 ha

2004

Comparing forest areas of 1983 and 2004 with official statistics, it appears that despite crisis of 1990s (massive illegal logging due to lack of state control) forest area has increased. Source: Atlas of Russia 1983, Atlas of Russia 2004.

Growing forest

1983 200434

Rise of nature: wilderness

Nature vs man. But in fact all inhabited locality is only 4% of the territory and it decreases because of strong migration from rural areas. Left settlements and abandoned agricultural lands (18%) are welcomed by nature.

Nature vs man. But in fact all inhabited locality is only 4% of the territory and it decreases because of strong migration from rural areas. Left settlements and abandoned agricultural lands (18%) are welcomed by nature. Source: Rosreestr / Rosstat (census 1989, 2008).

Neglect area: 13 000 abandoned villages + 38 000 with population less than 10 people.

Nature is on the rise. After decades of trying to conquer nature, nature now seems to overwhelm, suggesting a reverse paradigm. The population in rural areas is decreasing. These factors leave more room for nature to expand. While the natural environment widens, Russian bureaucracy becomes less and less able to control this process. In the face of global climate change, lack of infrastructure to prevent and regulate natural disasters proves to be urgent. This is a harsh reality of Russian hinterland.

-18%

3-4 years of abandonment is needed for agricultural land to be covered with the first trees. Source: http://www.vryazan.ru/

Current wilderness of Russia, faces lack of attention and maintenance, has a lot of potential to increase especially due to climate change.

Abandonment and wilderness results in significant losses of infrastructure that is critical to Russia as a whole. Source: http://railworks2.ru/

Nature takes over the places left by humans. (Village in the Kirovsk region, Source: www.metallizer.ru/?m=travels&n=10051 )

k

Rate of growing wilderness reflects not only an increase in forest but also a strong increase in the numbers of wild animals and mosquitos that threaten the population with disease, attacks, and affect the economy. Source: Rosstat

2000

1

10

2005 2009

Wolfves 1,1 times

Foxes 1,3 times

Squirrel 1,5 times

Bears 10 times

2012

Amount of unused agricultural land and abandoned settlements, comes back to wilderness

Increasing of aggressive wilderness

The expansion of civilization has resulted in human civilizations covering nearly 40% of Russias total area. But the population in rural areas is rapidly decreas-ing. Nearly 20,000 villages have been abandoned, and around 38,000 villages are populated with less than 10 people. Nature takes over the places left by humans, which also results in abandonment and loss of infrastructure as well as loss of cultural, social and economic diversity. Agricultural lands are slowly being overtaken by nature as well: about 77% of the agricultural territory is not cultivated, which means that in 3-4 years time it will be-come forested. This is also the result of the governments agricultural policy that has ceded importance to industries based on extraction of raw materials.

RISE OF NATURE 35

1950 2000 205019561948

+0.51 C

0

1991

Transformation of nature Budkyo makes climatology quantitive science

Environmental Expert Empact Study Law

0395

World Climate Change Conference in Moscow

04

Russia raties Kyoto

An increase of two or three degrees wouldn't be so bad for a northern country like Russia. We could spend less on fur coats, and the grain harvest would go up.

Europe has found itself confronted with fresh challenges - challenges of a global character, the nature of which is directly connected with changes in the interna-tional climate and the difculties of seeking new models for co-operation.

I believe in one thing only, the power of human will

09

Climate Change Doctrine

All of us are responsible for the state of things on our planet, as well as for the climate

tempe

rature

rise

+2 C

business as usual

if current policies were obeyed

to put climate back to mid 20 century levels

rule of law

Tear down this wall and save the planet

The Presidential Decree # 867 dated May 17, 2000Dissolution of Enviroment Protection Agency State Committee on Ecology

Climate Change Doctrin awaits impelmantation

50% of permafrost meltsdesertication of the south

Medvedev

PutinYetslinStalin

Gorbachov

wheat

Warming RussiaThere is no bigger change of Russia than the one brought by climate change.Russia contains 11.5 % of the worlds total land mass, and country will determine the speed of future climate change globally. There are millions of tons of methane gas, 2 to 3 times stronger than CO2 that is stored in the frozen land, the permafrost layer. The release of this gas in the coming years will signifi-cantly influence the acceleration and the process of warming. Along with the coming warming, in Russias hinter-land one notices that a never-fulfilled fantasy for climate change existed before. This time around, global warming is a welcomed consequence. Which makes Russia the frontline of climate change. But the time to follow through on political promises about warming is running out.

Past WishesRussias long withstanding relationship with nature is rooted in the existing natural conditions. Uninhabita-ble areas take up 60% of the country, which is home to 7% of the total population of Russia. The reason for the confrontation with nature emerges primar-ily due to Russias current political and economical strategy which is very focused on natural resources.

Warming Russia

People and warmingChanges following and induced by global warming vary from losing permafrost in the north to experienc-ing drought in the south. In total 34 million people will experience the severe consequences of this warm-ing. Change on this scale is unprecedented and it is starting to shows signs of urgency in Russia espe-cially.

36

1950 2000 205019561948

+0.51 C

0

1991

Transformation of nature Budkyo makes climatology quantitive science

Environmental Expert Empact Study Law

0395

World Climate Change Conference in Moscow

04

Russia raties Kyoto

An increase of two or three degrees wouldn't be so bad for a northern country like Russia. We could spend less on fur coats, and the grain harvest would go up.

Europe has found itself confronted with fresh challenges - challenges of a global character, the nature of which is directly connected with changes in the interna-tional climate and the difculties of seeking new models for co-operation.

I believe in one thing only, the power of human will

09

Climate Change Doctrine

All of us are responsible for the state of things on our planet, as well as for the climate

tempe

rature

rise

+2 C

business as usual

if current policies were obeyed

to put climate back to mid 20 century levels

rule of law

Tear down this wall and save the planet

The Presidential Decree # 867 dated May 17, 2000Dissolution of Enviroment Protection Agency State Committee on Ecology

Climate Change Doctrin awaits impelmantation

50% of permafrost meltsdesertication of the south

Medvedev

PutinYetslinStalin

Gorbachov

wheat

Enemies of the StateThe Transformation of Nature was proclaimed by Stalins regime in 1948 and implemented by a re-gime which wanted to triumph over nature. The am-bition was there and the science was used to support it. The ability of the Soviet regime to adapt through science proved immense. For example, agronomist Trofim Lysenko advocated that the acquired charac-

Broken linkThe connection of science and policy-making is a vital question for climate change today, and Russia is no exception to this. The difference is that science no longer has the direct link to politics it once did and it remains almost unheard. But ideas do exist: Budykos geoengineering idea of sulphur injections into the stratosphere to stabilize the climate from the mid-1970s is still being developed and pursued academically.

Nature of ErrorIn Soviet times droughts, frozen land and small river flows were seen as O (errors of nature) that needed to be fixed. Whether it was 5.7 million hectares of forest in the Russian south or to make the Volga basin 25% bigger, one thing was central, namely change. Disobedience by nature was not to be tolerated.

teristics of plants can be inherited - and that if you grew the plants incrementally further and further North each year, the plants would gradually adapt to the climate to the point where you can grow anything in the Arctic. Ideology-based science pushed the thinking about the environment in strictly physical terms to the extremes.

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA 37

Hinterland in the Making

The New Hinterland. Estimation of possible changes on Russia territory through the lens of climate change. Expansion to the north, increase of arable land, droughts in the south.

The Scale of ChangeIt is hard to measure the change in the hinterland of Russia caused by warming in such big proportions. The scale of natural disasters and opportunity attain a more realistic dimension when compared to European countries.The productive south of Russia is the size of Spain, while areas that might be-come arable are the size of Sweden. Russia needs to understand it cannot afford to take no action.

3.3 germany

~spain

505 000 km2

sweden 449 964km2

357 021 km2

~sweden

~germany

-3.4 % (58 million ha)

+2.7 % (44 million ha)

+5.7 % (98 million ha)

total~expansion of Russia

+5 % (84 million ha)

North Pole Addition

Melting

Southern Woes

38

Development of Arctic oil fields started with the Prirazlomnoye oil rig. There were several fields discovered in the late 1980s in the Arctic can now finally be exploited. Source: http://en.rian.ru/images/16737/14/167371473.jpg; http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/marine-news/featured/akademik-lomon-osov-the-worlds-first-floating-nuclear-plant/

LNG terminal in 2012

Dudinka

rst oating nuclear power station

Prirazlomnoye 2012Sevemash Shipbuilding

Ludloskoye (1990) Ledovoye (1992) Stokmanovskoye (1988)Severo-Kildinskoye (1985)

Murmanskoye (1983) Leningradskoye (1990) Rusanovskoye (1989)

Severo-Gulyaevskoye (1986) Pomorskoye (1985)

North Pole

The Prirazlomnoye RigThe assembly of the New Hinterland has begun. With frozen waters melting away in the far north, the governments interest in oil there becomes ever more real. This case follows the strongest trace of optimism for warming in the north of Russia.

Hinterlands Priority The first ice-free oil rig Prirazlomnoye has finally be-come a reality in the beginning of March 2012. The news was flashed to prove Russias resilience and to reaffirm the dedication to the states main source of income, but this project tells us more. Global warm-ing is being welcomed and actively incorporated in strategies when it comes to resources.The Prirazlomnoye oil rig was developed locally, and is a Russian product that merges military technology and corporate interests, while pragmatically embrac-ing the change ahead. The rig was designed by the Sevemash shipbuilding company which built around 80% of submarines in Soviet times and is based in the White Sea. In the late 1990s when climate change had not yet manifested itself in a convincing way as it has in the past few years, even the boldest thoughts about drill-ing in the Arctic included one main premise: it could not have happened without foreign technology. Now, the development and building of the Prirazlomnoye oil rig marks a new beginning for Russias mono-cen-tric economic development strategy.

Hauling the New Hinterland - From a shipbuilding yard in the White Sea. The Prirazlomnoye rig on the way to the oil field. Source: http:/sdelanounas.ru/images/img/www.sevmash.ru/rus_images_stories_7372.jpg; (2012)

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA 39

0 250 500 1000 km

population 5000town on permafrost

stabile permafrostmelting by 2050melting by 2025

line of permafrost today

Palana

Anadir

OssoraKorf

BeringovskyyMarkovo

ProvidenyaMys Schmidta

PevekKomsomolskiy

MagadanPalatka

Ust UmchogSusuman

Omskuchan

Yakutsk

Neryungy

Mirny

Lensk

Tiksi

Udachny

VilyuskPokrovsk

Amursk

BirobidjanBlagoveshchensk

Svobodnyy Belogorsk

Zeya

ChitaBorzyaUlan Ude

Kyakhta

Severobaikalsk

Irkutsk

Ust Lumsk

Bratsk

Angarsk

Dudinka

Tura

KrasnoyarskKansk

Kodinsk

AbakanGorno Altaisk

BarnaulKemerovo

Tomsk

Khanty Mansisk

Salekhard Novy Urengoy

Naryan Mar

Murmansk

Norilsk

Igarka

Vorkuta

Bringing Down the HousePermafrost, the permanently frozen land that covers 60% of Russia, is endan-gered by global warming. The depth of ice has increased to the north but in the last decades the line of permafrost in the south has moved around 40 to 80 kilo-metres to the north-east. As a result numerous cities and infrastructure, namely pipelines, have already been damaged and are in need of a strategy to maintain operational conditions.

The Speed of ChangeThe softening of solid ground is not the only problem that is emerging with global warming. The release of methane gas with the melting of the ice will not only contribute to accelerating climate change, but will potentially be hazardous, due to the high flammability of the gas. The changing landscape that comes with release of methane is unprecedented: the creation of methane lakes, coastal erosion, ground collapsing... The surface of the earth has never changed so fast, on such a large scale. Satellite images show that the total area of methane lakes expanded by some 12 percent from 1973 to 1998 in Siberia. By 2100, an estimated 300 billion tonnes of carbon from carbon dioxide and methane are ex-pected to be emitted into the atmosphere. Stopping the melting of the permafrost is only possible by stopping the rise of average global temperatures.

AdaptabilityThe places of interest in this frozen land are in most cases linked to rich subsoil resources. The key interest and voice is generally formulated by corporations such as Gazprom and other companies of a similar magnitude. For Russia, the biggest threat as a result of the melting permafrost is to oil and gas infrastruc-ture, said Vladimir Chuprov, who heads Greenpeaces energy program in Rus-sia. At this point, corporations are the first to respond to the distress call, while people wait for action.

State of permafrost on planet Russia. The fall of cities seems imminent, but no strategy exists. Sources: Anisimov, Oleg and Reneva, Svetlana; Permafrost and Changing Climate, The Russian Perspective, June 2006 ,Ambio Vol. 35, No. 4; http://en.rian.ru/infographics/20120205/171095224.html via http://02varvara.wordpress.com/tag/permafrost/, (2011)

Russian Deputy Minister for Emergencies Ruslan Tsalikov said in a statement in June 2008

By 2030, the damage from global warming may become catastrophic. Up to a fourth of the dwellings in the North of the country is at risk of destruction

The State of Permafrost: How to Deal with the Loss of Solid Ground?

Source: Journal Nature, Sept. 6, 2006 via http://thewe.cc/weplanet/news/arctic/perma-frost_melting.htm

Methane, greenhouse gas 23 times more powerful than carbon dioxide trapped in a special type of permafrost is bubbling up at a rate five times faster than originally measured

Methane gas trapped in a lake in Autumn, Siberia. Waiting for spring to break free. Source: http://thewe.cc/we-planet/news/arctic/permafrost_melting.htm (2006)

Burning planes of methane: The speed of warming will be determined by areas of Russia that are not managed. Source: http://www.re-alclimate.org/index.php/archives/2012/01/much-ado-about-methane/(2012)

40

Warming Permafrost

Countys interest goes down the drain: Pipelines lose founda-tions. Source: http://assets.knowledge.allianz.com/img/russia_pipeline_permafrost__1_12416.jpg (2010)

The first phase in permafrost change is already noticeable in the countries situated within the Arctic Circle. Energy giants such as Gazprom are addressing the issue of warming by investing in equipment, while the rest of Russia has no strategy and the predominant trend is abandonment.

Beginning of ChangeGreenpeace estimated in 2000 that 15 million tons of crude oil leak out of Russias pipeline system every year. It is hard to determine how much more leakage will happen due to the permafrost and how much is occurring to bad maintenance. Looking at the exam-ple of oil companies one tendency emerges - their readiness to respond to warming.There are other ideas as well on how to deal with permafrost. The United States is looking into local-ised freezing of the ground near pipelines, to support the existing foundations. In the near future, plans on how to deal with perma-frost are most likely to come from the most invested party, the fossil fuel giants.

Refreezing permafrost. An idea developed for Alaska pipeline shows selective artificial maintenance of permafrost. Source: http:/yellowairplane.com/Global_Warming/4-Trans_Alas-ka_Oil_Pipeline_Problems.html; (2006)

Permafrost demonstrates power on a building in Vorkuta. Splitting structures in half. Source: http:/permafrost.su/results_R-E_project; (2006)

Sinking railway on permafrost. Destruction of communication in hinterland. Source: http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/count-ing-the-cost-of-russias-melting-permafrost/444890.html (2010)

Cities want permafrostThe permafrost is home to about 10 million people, but they currently do not receive the urgency and at-tention allocated to the pipeline system. According to the climatologist Vladimir Klimenko, 80% of buildings in Vorkuta are in dangeros condi-tion. There are no quick fixes when in comes to stopping the melting of the permafrost. It demands a strategy, investments and readiness to deal with dangers that exist now and those that methane will bring - far more than destruction of oil and gas infra-structure.

THE WARMING OF RUSSIA 41

Not everybody is ment to walk to the end of the nation

Increasing the effectiveness of state border defence, particularly in the Arctic zone of Russian Federation.

During next century, climatic changes due to human activity will become not only possible but also inevitable it should be considered that study of the possibilites of climate modications is one of the urgent tasks of contempo-rary science of atmophere

North Pole is extension of Russian continental shelf

Budyko

Budyko, 1971made climatology modern science

new Arctic military force to defend the countrys interests in the disputed polar region

North Pole research in 1937

High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) near Nizhny Novgorod: playing with Earths ionosphere

Budykos blanket: sulphur injections in the stratosphere

My mother was a polar bear!

Geological Society of Russia, 2007

Movie Krai

Wired, 2010

National Defence Strategy 2009

Intelligent Venture project 2010

Brown Bear Annual Assmebly, 2020

Russia

25

0

Index of exposure to climate change

Russia

Index of adaptive capacity to climate change

25

0

Fay M., Block R.I. and Ebinger. 2009 Adapting to climate change ,World Bank

Exposure to Climate ChangeRussia is first on the list of post-communist countries exposed to climate change on such a scale, but overall is low on the level of adaptability. Potential benefits may exist, but Russias vast territory and sluggish governing response make its score on adaptability very low. Russia needs to be persuaded adopt a sense of ur-gency in addressing climate change, both for its own national territories and beyond.

Source of VulnerabilityToday in Russia there is an optimism about global warming, but the rest of the world might not share the same positive outlook. From the top ten importers into Russia, four (Japan, Germany, France and China) have advanced domestic strategies for dealing with climate change, while three are lingering in a post-Kyoto lack of definition (Poland, Ukraine and Belarus) and three have no strategies (South Korea, United States and Italy). This diversity makes it urgent for Russia to develop its future potential reducing d