Ilusion Del Perfil Criminal

8/10/2019 Ilusion Del Perfil Criminal

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Criminal Justice and Behavior

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The Criminal Profiling Illusion: What's Behind the Smoke and Mirrors?

Brent Snook, Richard M. Cullen, Craig Bennell, Paul J. Taylor and Paul Gendreau

Criminal Justice and Behavior2008; 35; 1257

DOI: 10.1177/0093854808321528

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THE CRIMINAL PROFILING ILLUSION

What’s Behind the Smoke and Mios!

BRENT SNOOK

RICHARD M. CULLEN

Memorial University of Newfoundland

CRAIG BENNELL

Carleton University

PAUL J. TAYLOR

Lancaster University

PAUL GENDREAU

University of New Brunswick–Saint John

There is a belief ha !ri"i#al $r%filers !a# $re&i! a !ri"i#al's !hara!erisi!s fr%" !ri"e s!e#e e(i&e#!e. I# his ari!le) hea*h%rs ar+*e ha his belief "a, be a# ill*si%# a#& e-$lai# h% $e%$le "a, ha(e bee# "isle& i#% belie(i#+ ha !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ /CP0 %r1s &es$ie #% s%*#& he%rei!al +r%*#&i#+ a#& #% sr%#+ e"$iri!al s*$$%r f%r his $%ssibili,. P%e#iall,res$%#sible f%r his ill*s%r, belief is he i#f%r"ai%# ha $e%$le a!2*ire ab%* CP) hi!h is hea(il, i#fl*e#!e& b, a#e!&%es)re$eii%# %f he "essa+e ha $r%fili#+ %r1s) he e-$er $r%filer label) a#& a &is$r%$%ri%#ae e"$hasis %# !%rre! $re&i!3i%#s. Als% $%e#iall, res$%#sible are as$e!s %f i#f%r"ai%# $r%!essi#+ s*!h as reas%#i#+ err%rs) !reai#+ "ea#i#+ %* %fa"bi+*%*s i#f%r"ai%#) i"iai#+ +%%& i&eas) a#& i#ferri#+ fa! fr%" fi!i%#. The a*h%rs !%#!l*&e ha CP sh%*l& #% be*se& as a# i#(esi+ai(e %%l be!a*se i la!1s s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r.

Keywords:!ri"i#al $r%fili#+4 $%li!e i#(esi+ai%#s4 belief f%r"ai%#4 $se*&%s!ie#!e

Cri"i#al $r%fili#+ /CP0 is he $ra!i!e %f $re&i!i#+ a !ri"i#al's $ers%#ali,) beha(i%ral)

a#& &e"%+ra$hi! !hara!erisi!s base& %# !ri"e s!e#e e(i&e#!e /D%*+las) Ressler) B*r+ess) 5

Har"a#) 67894 Hi!1s 5 Sales) :;;90.6 This $ra!i!e is bei#+ *ili<e& b, $%li!e a+e#!iesar%*#& he %rl& &es$ie #% !%"$elli#+ s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e ha i is reliable) (ali&) %r *sef*l

/S#%%1) Eas%%&) Ge#&rea*) G%++i#) 5 C*lle#) :;;=0. This &is$ari, beee# he *se a#&he la!1 %f e"$iri!al s*$$%r lea&s %#e % !%#si&er he 2*esi%# >h, &% $e%$le belie(e CP%r1s &es$ie he la!1 %f e(i&e#!e? >e e-$lai# his !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ ill*si%# i# er"s %f he#a*re %f he i#f%r"ai%# ab%* CP ha is $rese#e& % he $e%$le a#& h%

he, $r%!ess ha i#f%r"ai%#.



AUTHORS’ NOTE" We thank Insector John C! "ouse for his insi#htful comments on drafts of this article!

Suort for the research reorted in this article was rovided to the first author $y the Natural Sciences and

%n#ineerin# &esearch Council of Canada! Corresondence concernin# this article should $e addressed to Brent Snook' (sycholo#y )eartment' Science Buildin#' Memorial University of Newfoundland' St! John*s'

N+ ,-B ./0' Canada1 e2mail3 $snook4lay!sych!mun!ca!

CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHA@IOR) @%l. N%. 6;) O!%ber :;;8 6:=36:=9 DOI 6;.66==;;788;8:6:8

F :;;8 I#er#ai%#al Ass%!iai%# f%r C%rre!i%#al a#& %re#si! Ps,!h%l%+,

6:=








6:8 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHA@IOR

O*r ari!le is &i(i&e& i#% fi(e se!i%#s. irs) e %*li#e !*rre# 1#%le&+e %f CP e!h3#i2*es) hefre2*e#!, ih hi!h CP is *se& i# !ri"i#al i#(esi+ai%#s) a#& he e-e# % hi!h $%li!e %ffi!ersa#& "e#al healh $r%fessi%#als $er!ei(e CP as a (al*able %%l. Se!%#&) e ar+*e ha CP has #%

basis i# s!ie#ifi! he%r, a#& has "ea+er e"$iri!al s*$$%r as a# i#(es3i+ai(e %%l. The hir& a#&

f%*rh se!i%#s are &e(%e& % a !%#si&erai%# %f h% he &is!re$3a#!, "a, ha(e arise# beee# hela!1 %f e(i&e#!e s*$$%ri#+ CP $ra!i!es a#& beliefs ab%* is effe!i(e#ess. S$e!ifi!all,) i# hehir& se!i%#) e &is!*ss s%"e %f he a,s ha i#f%r"a3i%# ab%* CP is &is%re& as i is !%#(e,e&.I# he f%*rh se!i%#) e &is!*ss s%"e !%+#ii(e e#&e#!ies ha are *sef*l f%r lear#i#+ a#&reas%#i#+ b* a$$ear % ha(e le& $%li!e %ffi!ers) $r%3filers) a#& he res %f *s % f%r" a# ill*s%r,

belief ab%* CP. ifh) e !%#!l*&e b, ar+*i#+ ha CP sh%*l& #% be *se& as a# i#(esi+ai(e %%l*#il i re!ei(es a&e2*ae s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r.

THE CRIMINAL PROFILING EN#IRONMENT

C%#sr*!i#+ a $r%file %f a# *#1#%# !ri"i#al ,$i!all, i#(%l(es hree sa+es /Hi!1s 5 Sales):;;94 H%"a# 5 Ke##e&,) 67780. P%li!e %ffi!ers !%lle! !ri"e s!e#e &aa /e.+.) $h%%+ra$hs)&ee!i(e re$%rs) a#& a*%$s, res*ls0. These &aa are he# f%rar&e& % a $r%3filer h% "a1es $re&i!i%#s ab%* he $ers%#ali,) beha(i%ral) a#& &e"%+ra$hi! !hara!er3isi!s %f he li1el,!ri"i#al. These $re&i!i%#s are he# re$%re& % he i#(esi+ai#+ %ffi!ers. I# $ri#!i$le) CP&iffers lile fr%" ha s%3!alle& $s,!hi! &ee!i(es alle+e&l, &% i# hel$3i#+ la e#f%r!e"e#a+e#!ies !a!h !ri"i#als %r fi#& "issi#+ $ers%#s /see L,%#s 5 Tr*<<i) 67764 Ni!1ell) 6774O'Keeffe 5 Alis%#) :;;;4 >ise"a#) >es) 5 Se""a#) 67790.

Alh%*+h here are #% sa#&ar&i<e& e!h#i2*es f%r "a1i#+ hese $re&i!i%#s) he &iffer3e#a$$r%a!hes % CP !a# be br%a&l, !lassifie& as ha(i#+ a !li#i!al %r saisi!al %rie#ai%#.: Cli#i!all, %rie#e& $r%filers &ra %# heir rai#i#+) 1#%le&+e) e-$erie#!e) a#&%r i#*ii%# % $re&i! %ffe#&er !hara!erisi!s /e.+.) A*l 5 Reese) 678;4 C%$s%#) Ba&!%!1) B%%#) 5 Bri%#)677=4 D%*+las 5 M*##) 677:4 H%l"es 5 H%l"es) 67794 Ke$$el 5 >aler) 67774 T*r(e,)67774 >es) :;;;0. B, !%#ras) saisi!all, %rie#e& $re&i!i%#s are &eri(e& fr%" a# a#al,sis%f %ffe#&ers h% ha(e $re(i%*sl, !%""ie& !ri"es ha are *&+e& as si"ilar % h%se bei#+i#(esi+ae& /e.+.) Ca#er 5 ri<%#) 67784 Da(ies) >iebr%%&) 5 Ja!1s%#) 677=4 arri#+%# 5La"ber) 677=4 Ja!1s%#) (a# &e# Esh%f) 5 &e Kle*(er) 677=4 Ke$$el>eis) 6774 Sa#illa) H11#e#) Ca#er) 5 Elf+re#) :;;0.

P*blishe& a!!%*#s esif, % $r%lifi! +r%h i# he *ili<ai%# %f CP e!h#i2*es. %r

e-a"$le) beee# 67=6 a#& 6786) he BI $r%(i&e& CP assisa#!e %# 67: %!!asi%#s/Pi#i<<%%) 6780. A fe ,ears laer) D%*+las a#& B*r+ess /67890 i#&i!ae& ha BI $r%3filersere bei#+ as1e& % assis i# 9;; !ri"i#al i#(esi+ai%#s $er ,ear. A "%re re!e# a!!%*#i#&i!ae& ha CP as a$$lie& b, 6: BI $r%filers i# a$$r%-i"ael, 6);;; !ases $er ,ear/>i1i#) 67790. P%li!e %ffi!ers i# he U#ie& Ki#+&%" als% a$$ear % be i#!%r$%rai#+ CP i#%heir i#(esi+ai%#s "%re fre2*e#l,. C%$s%# /6770) f%r i#sa#!e) re$%re& ha :7 $r%filersere res$%#sible f%r $r%(i&i#+ :: i#sa#!es %f CP a&(i!e beee# 6786 a#& 677) ih he

$re(ale#!e %f CP i#!reasi#+ sea&il, &*ri#+ ha $eri%&. Oher $r%fessi%#3als) s*!h as $%li!e $s,!h%l%+iss) are als% be!%"i#+ i#(%l(e& i# CP /Bar%l) 67790. Alh%*+h e &% #% ha(ee-a! esi"aes %f CP $re(ale#!e elsehere) is *se has bee# &%!3*"e#e& i# #*"er%*s!%*#ries) i#!l*&i#+ Ca#a&a) i#la#&) Ger"a#,) Se&e#) a#& he Neherla#&s /s+ar&) 67784Clar1) :;;:4 Ja!1s%#) Herbri#1) 5 (a# K%$$e#) 677=0.








S#%%1 e al. CRIMINAL PROILING ILLUSION 6:7

As he $re(ale#!e %f CP has i#!rease&) here has bee# a si"*la#e%*s i#!rease i# he (%l*"e%f $*blishe& liera*re a&&ressi#+ he $ra!i!e. %r e-a"$le) i# a re!e# 2*a#iai(e re(ie %f6; CP ari!les) i as f%*#& ha he #*"ber %f $*blishe& CP ari!les has i#!rease& fr%" ari!les beee# 67=9 a#& 678;) % 7 beee# 6786 a#& 678) 6; beee# 6789 a#& 677;) ::

beee# 6776 a#& 677) 9 beee# 6779 a#& :;;;) := beee# :;;6 a#& :;;) a#& 6 i#:;;9 /S#%%1) Eas%%&) e al.) :;;=4 see als% D%&e#) Be##ell) 5 Bl%%"fiel&) :;;=0.M%re%(er) he a*h%rs %f "a#, %f hese ari!les $r%"%e CP as a *sef*l i#(esi+ai(e %%l.

The res*ls %f S#%%1) Eas%%&) e al.'s /:;;=0 e-a"i#ai%# a!!%r&e& ell ih he (iese-$resse& b, a si+#ifi!a# #*"ber %f $%li!e %ffi!ers a#& "e#al healh $r%fessi%#als. These(ies ere i&e#ifie& fr%" s*r(e,s ab%* heher %r #% CP a&(i!e is (al*able. I# he earli3ess*r(e,) D%*+las /as !ie& i# Pi#i<<%%) 6780 f%*#& ha s%l(i#+ !ases as arib*e& % CPa&(i!e i# 9 %f he 67: i#sa#!es here BI $r%fili#+ as re2*ese&. Si"ilarl,) Ja!1s%#) (a#K%$$e#) a#& Herbri#1 /6770 f%*#& ha fi(e %* %f si- s*r(e,e& $%li!e %ffi!ers i# he

Neherla#&s re$%re& s%"e &e+ree %f *sef*l#ess f%r a&(i!e +i(e# b, a# BI rai#e& $r%filer.Li1eise) C%$s%# /6770 f%*#& ha 8:.9 %f a sa"$le %f 68 $%li!e %ffi!ers i# he U#ie&Ki#+&%" !lai"e& ha CP as %$erai%#all, *sef*l a#& 7:. re$%re& ha he, %*l& see1CP a&(i!e a+ai#. C%#sise# ih hese res*ls) Tra+er a#& Breser /:;;60 sh%e& ha a si+3#ifi!a# $%ri%# %f $%li!e %ffi!ers i# he U#ie& Saes belie(e ha CP has (al*e. i#all,)T%rres) B%!!a!!i#i) a#& Miller's /:;;90 re!e# s*r(e, %f 7: f%re#si! "e#al healh $r%fessi%#3als i#&i!ae& ha 89 belie(e ha CP is a *sef*l la e#f%r!e"e# %%l.

THE LAC$ OF A SCIENTIFIC BASIS TO CRIMINAL PROFILING

Ha(i#+ esablishe& ha CP is i# i&es$rea& *se a#& ha $e%$le +e#erall, belie(e ha CP%r1s) e #% $rese# a !rii!al re(ie %f he CP liera*re. This re(ie re(eals he bl*#reali, ha /a0 "%s %f he ,$%l%+ies *se& % !reae !ri"i#al $r%files are i# fa! false ,$%l%3+ies) /b0 he "a%ri, %f CP a$$r%a!hes are base& %# a# %*&ae& he%r, %f $ers%#ali, hala!1s e"$iri!al s*$$%r) a#& /!0 here is #% !%"$elli#+ e(i&e#!e ha $re&i!i%#s "a&e b, $r%fessi%#al $r%filers are si+#ifi!a#l, "%re a!!*rae ha# h%se "a&e b, #%#$r%filers.

ARE COMMONL% USE& PROFILING T%POLOGIES ACTUALL% FALSE T%POLOGIES!

C*rre# $r%fili#+ $ra!i!es ,$i!all, i#(%l(e s%"e ,$e %f !lassifi!ai%# s,se") %r ,$%l3%+,) hi!h is *se& % !ae+%ri<e b%h !ri"e s!e#e beha(i%rs a#& %ffe#&er ba!1+r%*#&!har3a!erisi!s. B, far he "%s r%*i#el, *se& ,$%l%+, is he BI's %r+a#i<e& &is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%",) hi!h as &e(el%$e& fr%" i#er(ies ih %ffe#&ers /Ressler)B*r+ess) D%*+las) Har"a#) 5 D'A+%si#%) 67890. The ass*"$i%#s *#&erl,i#+ his,$%l%+, are ha /a0 %ffe#ses !a# be !ae+%ri<e& as %r+a#i<e& /e.+.) ell $la##e&0 %r&is%r+a#i<e& /e.+.) *#$la##e&0 base& %# he beha(i%rs $rese# a a !ri"e s!e#e) /b0%ffe#&ers !a# be !ae+%3ri<e& as %r+a#i<e& /e.+.) hi+h f*#!i%#i#+0 %r &is%r+a#i<e& /e.+.)l% f*#!i%#i#+0 base& %# he ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s %f he %ffe#&er) a#& /!0 here is a!%rres$%#&e#!e beee# %ffe#ses a#& %ffe#&ers /i.e.) %r+a#i<e& %ffe#&ers !%""i

%r+a#i<e& !ri"es a#& &is%r+a#i<e& %ffe#&ers !%""i &is%r+a#i<e& !ri"es0.

Alh%*+h he %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& ,$%l%+, has bee# he &ri(i#+ f%r!e behi#& CP $ra!i!es ar%*#& he %rl& f%r "a#, ,ears) i has %#l, re!e#l, bee# he s*be! %f








6:9; CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHA@IOR

e"$iri!al s!r*i#,. Preli"i#ar, e(al*ai%#s %f his ,$%l%+, s*++es ha i &%es #% "a!hhe (ariai%#s i# %ffe#&er beha(i%r. %r e-a"$le) Ca#er) Alis%#) Alis%#) a#& >e#i#1/:;;0 e-a"i#e& heher 6;; "*r&ers !%""ie& b, serial 1illers i# he U#ie& Saes!%*l& be !ae+%ri<e& as %r+a#i<e& %r &is%r+a#i<e&. Usi#+ a "*li&i"e#si%#al s!ali#+ $r%3!e&*re) he, a#al,<e& 7 !ri"e s!e#e beha(i%rs ha ha& bee# !ae+%ri<e& as %r+a#i<e& %r&is%r+a#i<e& i# he BI's Crime Classification Manual /D%*+las) B*r+ess) B*r+ess) 5Ressler) 677:0. I# !%#ras % ha %*l& be $re&i!e& fr%" he ,$%l%+,) he a#al,sis &i&#% re(eal a#, &isi#! s*bses %f %r+a#i<e& a#& &is%r+a#i<e& beha(i%rs) h*s "a1i#+ i&if3fi!*l % see h% serial h%"i!i&es "a, be !ae+%ri<e& easil, i# his a,.

Si"ilar fi#&i#+s ha(e bee# re$%re& f%r %her $%$*lar !lassifi!ai%# s,se"s /Ca#er 5>e#i#1) :;;4 Mel#,1) Bl%%"fiel&) 5 Be##ell) :;;=0. %r e-a"$le) Mel#,1 e al.'s /:;;=0e-a"i#ai%# %f Ke$$el a#& >aler's /67770 serial se-*al h%"i!i&e ,$%l%+,) hi!h as b%r3

r%e& fr%" resear!h %# ra$e a#& refi#e& %# he basis %f Ke$$el's e-$erie#!es as a h%"i!i&ei#(esi+a%r) faile& % fi#& a#, e(i&e#!e s*$$%ri#+ he h,$%hesis ha %ffe#ses %r %ffe#&ers!%*l& be !ae+%ri<e& as $%erasseri(e) $%erreass*ra#!e) a#+errealia%r,) a#& a#+ere-!iai%#. As ih he %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%",) he !re&ibili, %f Ke$$el a#&>aler's ,$%l%+, !%lla$ses *#&er e"$iri!al s!r*i#,.

Ne(erheless) here are si+#s ha $r%+ress is bei#+ "a&e. Se(eral i#&i(i&*als areae"$i#+ % &e(el%$ CP !lassifi!ai%# s,se"s a#& are +%i#+ hr%*+h he se$s re2*ire&% (ali&ae h%se s,se"s /e.+.) H11#e#) Li#&%f) 5 Sa#illa) :;;4 K%!sis) :;;94 Salfai):;;;0. Ohers are a1i#+ a b%%"3*$ a$$r%a!h % $r%fili#+ b, i&e#if,i#+ i#&i(i&*al

beha(i%r%ffe#&er ass%!iai%#s a#& he !%#&ii%# i# hi!h hese ill arise /e.+.) G%%&ill5 Alis%#) :;;=0. H%e(er) his resear!h is i# is i#fa#!, a#& he ,$%l%+ies e"er+i#+ aresill #% *se& i&el, i# CP !ir!les. U#f%r*#ael,) ha r%le is !*rre#l, a1e# *$ b, !lassi3fi!ai%# s,se"s ha are #% lar+el, s*$$%re& b, $s,!h%l%+i!al s!ie#!e.

IS CP BASE& ON AN EMPIRICALL% SUPPORTE& THEOR%!

I# a si"ilar a, % he !lassi! rai he%r, ha as $%$*lar i# $ers%#ali, $s,!h%l%+, *$*#il he lae 679;s /Mis!hel) 67980) he "a%ri, %f CP a$$r%a!hes /e.+.) he %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%",0 ass*"e ha !ri"i#al beha(i%r is &eer"i#e& b, *#&erl,i#+

&is$%3sii%#s ihi# %ffe#&ers ha "a1e he" beha(e i# a $ari!*lar a, /e.+.) s+ar&)67784 Ba&!%!1) 677=4 B%%#) 677=4 Ca#er) 6774 D%*+las e al.) 677:0. The ass*"$i%#sha e"er+e fr%" his he%r, are f*#&a"e#al % CP /Alis%#) Be##ell) M%1r%s) 5Or"er%&) :;;:4 >%%&ha"s 5 T%,e) :;;=0. %r e-a"$le) he he%r, lea&s % heass*"$i%# ha %ffe#&ers ill e-hibi si"ilar beha(i%rs a!r%ss heir %ffe#ses as rais)(ers*s si*ai%#al fa!3%rs) are he &eer"i#a#s %f beha(i%r. Perha$s "%re i"$%ra# f%rhe $ra!i!e %f CP) he he%r, als% s*++ess ha %ffe#&ers ill &is$la, si"ilar beha(i%rs i#heir !ri"es a#& i# %her as$e!s %f heir li(es /e.+.) i#er$ers%#al relai%#shi$s0.

H% &% hese ass*"$i%#s "a#ifes he"sel(es i# $ra!i!e? Ta1e) f%r e-a"$le) he BI's

$%$*lar %r+a#i<e&&is%r+a#i<e& &i!h%%", ha as &es!ribe& ab%(e. This "%&el %f CPass*"es ha %ffe#&ers are &ri(e# % beha(e eiher i# a# %r+a#i<e& %r &is%r+a#i<e& fashi%#a!r%ss all as$e!s %f heir li(es. This s*$$%se&l, all%s he !ri"es !%""ie& b, a# i#&i3(i&*al % be !%rre!l, li#1e& /i.e.) a !ri"i#al !%""ii#+ a# %r+a#i<e& !ri"e ill !%#i#*e% !%""i %r+a#i<e& !ri"es0 a#& he ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s %f he %ffe#&er % bea!!*3rael, $r%file& /i.e.) !ri"e s!e#es !%#sisi#+ %f %r+a#i<e& beha(i%rs refle! he fa!ha he %ffe#ses ere !%""ie& b, a# %r+a#i<e& i#&i(i&*al4 Ressler e al.) 67890.











H% (ali& are hese ass*"$i%#s? I is %*r !%#e#i%# ha rai3base& "%&els %f $r%fil3i#+are f*#&a"e#all, flae&. Cri"i#al $r%filers &% #% see" % ha(e re!%+#i<e& ha a !%#3se#s*s be+a# % e"er+e i# he $s,!h%l%+i!al liera*re s%"e ; ,ears a+% ha % rel, %#rais %r $ers%#ali, &is$%sii%#s as he $ri"ar, e-$la#ai%# f%r beha(i%r as a seri%*s

"is3a1e. Si*ai%#al fa!%rs !%#rib*e as "*!h as $ers%#ali, &is$%sii%#s % he $re&i!i%# %f beha(i%r /B%ers) 67=4 Mis!hel) 67980. This is e2*all, r*e he# $re&i!i#+ !ri"i#al beha(i%r /Alis%# e al.) :;;:4 A#&res 5 B%#a) :;;94 Be##ell 5Ca#er) :;;:4 Ge#&rea*) S"ih) 5 re#!h) :;;94 >%%&ha"s 5 T%,e) :;;=0.

This i"$%ra#!e %f si*ai%#al fa!%rs is a$$are# he# %#e a!*all, !%#si&ers he e"$ir3i!alresear!h i# he $r%fili#+ &%"ai#. %r e-a"$le) s%"e s*&ies re$%r ha %ffe#&ers e-hibi areas%#able &e+ree %f !%#sise#!, a!r%ss heir !ri"es) b* ,$i!all, his is %#l, f%*#& f%r as$e!ifi! s*bse %f beha(i%r. I# Be##ell a#& Ca#er's /:;;:0 s*&, %f serial !%"3"er!ial b*r+lar,) (er, l% le(els %f !%#sise#!, ere %bser(e& f%r beha(i%rs relae& % ie"s s%le#

a#& e#r, "eh%&s /% &%"ai#s ha are hea(il, &e$e#&e# %# si*ai%#al fa!3%rs0. H%e(er)a hi+h le(el %f !%#sise#!, as f%*#& f%r !ri"e sie sele!i%# !h%i!es. Si"ilar res*ls /i.e.)relai(el, hi+h le(els %f !%#sise#!, f%r s%"e beha(i%rs b* l% le(els f%r "a#, %hers0 ha(e bee# re$%re& f%r resi&e#ial b*r+lar, /Be##ell 5 J%#es) :;;0) !%"3"er!ial r%bber,/>%%&ha"s 5 T%,e) :;;=0) a#& se-*al %ffe#ses /Sse&) L#+sr") S*ri&ss%#) 5 Gra##):;;0. I# %her !ases) #% e(i&e#!e %f a!r%ss3!ri"e !%#sise#!, is f%*#&. %r e-a"$le) e(e#he# *si#+ liberal &efi#ii%#s %f !%#sise#!, a#& "*li$le "eh3%&s f%r !lassif,i#+ a#&a#al,<i#+ beha(i%rs) Bae"a# a#& Salfai /:;;=0 f%*#& #% e(i&e#!e %f !%#sise#!, a!r%ss he!ri"es !%""ie& b, serial 1illers. This fi#&i#+ is $ari!*larl, alar"i#+ !%#si&eri#+ hefre2*e#!, ih hi!h $r%fili#+ is *se& i# s*!h !ases /S#%%1) Hai#es) Ta,l%r) 5 Be##ell) :;;=4

Tra+er 5 Breser) :;;60.

A si"ilar $i!*re e"er+es he# e(al*ai#+ he &e+ree % hi!h %ffe#&ers e-hibi !%#sis3e#!,a!r%ss heir !ri"es a#& %her as$e!s %f heir li(es. A bes) s"all $%!1es %f $s,!h%l%+3i!all,"ea#i#+f*l !%#sise#!, ha(e bee# i&e#ifie&) hereb, a s$e!ifi! !ri"e s!e#e beha(i%r isf%*#& % relae % a s$e!ifi! ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!. %r e-a"$le) Da(ies e al. /677=0 f%*#&ha ra$iss h% f%r!e& e#r, i#% $re"ises ere f%*r i"es "%re li1el, % ha(e $ri%r!%#(i!i%#s f%r $r%$er, %ffe#ses ha# h%se h% &i& #% e#+a+e i# ha beha(i%r. Si"ilarl,)sri1i#+ he (i!i" i!e %r "%re &*ri#+ a ra$e i#&i!ae& ha he %ffe#&er as hree i"es"%re li1el, % ha(e a $ri%r !%#(i!i%# f%r a (i%le# %ffe#se ha# h%se h% &i& #% &is$la, his

&e+ree %f a++ressi%#. Oher resear!h) h%e(er) has #% f%*#& hese relai%#shi$s. H%*se/677=0) f%r i#sa#!e) ese& he h,$%hesis ha ra$iss h% e-hibi a hi+h &e+ree %f !ri"i#al3i,i# heir ra$es /e.+.) %(er !ri"i#al a!s i#&i!ai(e %f ae"$s % !%#!eal i&e#i, a#& a(%i&a$$rehe#si%#0 %*l& be "%re li1el,) ha# %her ,$es %f ra$iss /e.+.) sa&isi!) a++ressi(e) %r $se*&%i#i"ae0) % e-hibi ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s relae& % !ri"i#ali, /e.+.) $re(i%*si#!ar!erai%#0. This as f%*#& #% % be he !ase. E(e# he# i+#%ri#+ he re2*ire"e# f%r a#*#&erl,i#+ he%rei!al a!!%*# f%r a beha(i%r3!hara!erisi! relai%#shi$) M%1r%s a#& Alis%#/:;;:0 a#& >%%&ha"s a#& T%,e /:;;=0 ere sill *#able % fi#& !%"$elli#+ e(i&e#!e %f !%#3sise#!,. I# +e#eral) $r%filers see" *#aare %f his e"$iri!al resear!h a#& is i"$li!ai%#s.

Pr%filers als% a$$ear % #e+le! resear!h i# !l%sel, relae& fiel&s. %r e-a"$le) &es$ie a"assi(e eff%r % i&e#if, $re&i!%rs %f !%#sise#!, i# %ffe#&er sa"$les) ihi# !%""*#i, a#& $ris%# sei#+s) resear!h has faile& % *r# *$ a#,hi#+ %f (al*e % !ri"i#al $r%filers. Alh%*+hi is $%ssible % "a1e reas%#abl, a!!*rae $re&i!i%#s %f !ri"i#al beha(i%r /ih res$e! %re!i&i(is"0 a!r%ss a ra#+e %f !%#e-s /e.+.) A#&res 5 B%#a) :;;94 A#&res) B%#a) 5>%r"ih) :;;94 Ge#&rea*) Lile) 5 G%++i#) 67794 Ha#s%# 5 M%r%#3B%*r+%#)








6:9: CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHA@IOR

:;;0) hese $re&i!i%#s &% #% i#f%r" $r%fili#+ $ra!i!es. I#&ee&) ell3esablishe& $re&i!3%rs %f !ri"i#al beha(i%r /e.+.) a#is%!ial ai*&es a#& !%+#ii%#0 are 2*ie *#relae& % hes%rs %f (ariables ,$i!all, f%!*se& %# b, $r%filers /e.+.) !ri"e s!e#e beha(i%rs a#&%ffe#&er &e"%+ra$hi!s0. U#f%r*#ael,) i#sea& %f hee&i#+ his resear!h) $r%filers!%#i#*e % "a1e $re&i!i%#s ha ha(e #% basis i# e"$iri!al resear!h.

CAN PROFESSIONAL PROFILERS MA$E ACCURATE PRE&ICTIONS!

D%*+las e al. /67890 sae& ha The $r%!ess *se& b, a# i#(esi+ai(e $r%filer i# &e(el3%$i#+ a !ri"i#al $r%file is 2*ie si"ilar % ha *se& b, !li#i!ia#s % "a1e a &ia+#%sis a#&rea"e# $la# . . . I#(esi+a%rs ra&ii%#all, ha(e lear#e& $r%fili#+ hr%*+h brai#s%r"i#+) i#*ii%#) a#& e&*!ae& +*ess%r1 /$. ;0. This !li#i!all, base& $r%!essis re"i#is!e# %f $s,!h%a#al,i! a$$r%a!hes % hera$, here "e#al healh $r%fessi%#als

&ia+#%se heir !lie#s hr%*+h s*be!i(e i#er$reai%#s a#& *#s*$$%re& "eh%&s/Daes) 677=0. E"$iri!al resear!h has sh%# ha !li#i!al e-$erie#!e has a li"ie& effe!%# he a!!*ra!, %f $s,!h%l%+iss' a#& $s,!hiariss' *&+"e#s a!r%ss a ra#+e %f as1s/e.+.) Garb) 67784 Garb 5 B%,le) :;;4 Meehl) 677=0. I# a&&ii%#) a*s a#& Qis1i#/67880 f%*#& l% i#ra3a#& i#er!li#i!ia# !%#sise#!, i# *&+"e#s %f "e#al healh sa*sa#& ar+*e& ha he# !li#i!ia#s' $re&i!i%#s are !%"$are& a+ai#s %be!i(el,&eer"i#able har& &aa heir err%r rae %fe# e-!ee&s heir a!!*ra!, rae.

A si"ilar re#& e-iss ihi# he CP &%"ai#) here #e+li+ible 2*a#iai(e &iffere#!es ha(e bee# f%*#& beee# he $re&i!i(e abili, %f $r%fessi%#al $r%filers a#& #%#$r%filers. The a!!*3

ra!, %f $r%filer $re&i!i%#s has bee# ese& b, !%"$ari#+ he $erf%r"a#!e %f he s%3!alle& $r%fessi%#al $r%filers ih ha %f he #%#$r%filer +r%*$s i# "%!1 $r%fili#+ s!e#ari%s /K%!sis):;;b4 K%!sis) Ha,es) 5 Iri#) :;;:4 K%!sis) Iri#) Ha,es) 5 N*##) :;;;4 Pi#i<<%% 5i#1el) 677;0. I# a ,$i!al e-$eri"e#) $r%filers a#& #%#$r%filer +r%*$s are as1e& % re(ie&eails %f a s%l(e& !ri"e /%r !ri"e series0 a#& he# "a1e $re&i!i%#s ab%* he li1el, %ffe#&er(ia a "*li$le !h%i!e 2*esi%##aire. Pre&i!i%#s are ,$i!all, &i(i&e& i#% f%*r !ae+%ries!%+#ii(e $r%!esses) $h,si!al arib*es) %ffe#se beha(i%rs) a#& s%!ial his%r,habis /heres*ls fr%" hese f%*r !ae+%ries are als% !%"bi#e& % f%r" a# %(erall $r%file $erf%r"a#!e"eas*re0. The a!!*ra!, %f he $re&i!i%#s is !he!1e& a+ai#s he a!*al $er$era%r's !hara!3erisi!s. Be!a*se %f a la!1 %f !lear a+ree"e# %# h% sh%*l& be !%#si&ere& a $r%filer) S#%%1)

Eas%%&) e al. /:;;=0 !%#&*!e& % "ea3a#al,ses %f hese s*&ies.

The firs a#al,sis !%"$are& he $re&i!i(e a!!*ra!, %f a +r%*$ %f self3labele& $r%filers a#&e-$erie#!e& i#(esi+a%rs a+ai#s #%#$r%filers /e.+.) !%lle+e s*&e#s a#& $s,!h%l%+iss0. The $r%filersi#(esi+a%rs ere "%re a!!*rae ha# #%#$%li!e $ers%##el %# a# %(erall "eas*re %f $r%file a!!*ra!, /r = .:0 a#& %# he $h,si!al arib*e !ae+%r, /r = .6;0. I# !%#ras) he $re3&i!i(e a!!*ra!, %f he $r%filersi#(esi+a%rs as "ar+i#all, %rse %r #% beer ha# he #%#3 $r%filers he# i !a"e % $re&i!i%#s %f !%+#ii(e $r%!esses /r = .;90) %ffe#se beha(i%rs /r =

.;;0) a#& s%!ial his%r,habis /r = .;70. >ih res$e! % all !%"$aris%#s) as he 7 !%#fi3

&e#!e i#er(als /CI0 ab%* he $%i# esi"aes ere i&e /e.+.) % % fi(e i"es he li"i %f .6;0) a#& %fe# i#!l*&e& ;) he esi"aes %f he effe! si<es ere &ee"e& i"$re!ise.

I# he se!%#& a#al,sis) he e-$erie#!e& i#(esi+a%rs ere i#!l*&e& i# he #%#$r%filer +r%*$.I# his a#al,sis) he res*ls fa(%re& he $r%filers a!r%ss all he f%*r $re&i!%r !ae+%ries) b*a+ai# he 7 CI ere *#a!!e$abl, i&e. The bes res*l !a"e he# he %(erall $r%file as!%#si&ere& /r = .:) 7 CI = .6; % .0. E(e# if %#e ass*"es ha his %$i"isi! res*l !%*l&



be re$li!ae&) i arra#s !%#si&erai%# ha "a#, (ariables i#!l*&e&









i# his a#al,sis are ell 1#%# i# he !ri"i#%l%+i!al liera*re /e.+.) he li1elih%%& ha a ser3ial %ffe#&er ill be %f a $ari!*lar a+e) ha(e $ari!*lar !%#(i!i%#s) s*ffer s*bsa#!e ab*se $r%ble"s) e!.0. This "ea#s) i# %*r (ie) ha a#, $%li!e $r%fessi%#al ih a +%%& 1#%le&+e%f he !ri"i#%l%+i!al liera*re sh%*l& be able % a!hie(e his le(el %f s*!!ess si"$l, b, rel,3

i#+ %# base rae i#f%r"ai%#. I# %her %r&s) s*!!ess i# CP "a, #% be base& %# s$e!iali<e&1#%le&+e %f he $e!*liariies a#& i&i%s,#!rasies f%*#& a a +i(e# !ri"e s!e#e.

I# s*") here is #% !%"$elli#+ s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e % s*$$%r he $%sii(e (ie %f CP ha&%"i#aes $%$*lar %$i#i%#. ar fr%" !*i#+ e&+e s!ie#!e) CP a$$r%a!hes are base& %#,$%l%+ies ha la!1 e"$iri!al s*$$%r a#& are %fe# base& %# a# %*&ae& *#&ersa#&i#+ %fh*"a# beha(i%r. I# a&&ii%#) $r%fessi%#al $r%filers %fe# $r%&*!e $re&i!i%#s ha are #%si+#ifi!a#l, "%re a!!*rae ha# #%#$r%filers. Gi(e# his sae %f affairs) %#e "i+h %#&erh, $%li!e %ffi!ers !%#i#*e % re2*es he assisa#!e %f $r%filers. >hereas s%"e $%li!e%ffi!ers re$%r *si#+ CP be!a*se he, belie(e ha i %r1s /e.+.) C%$s%#) 6774 Ja!1s%# e al.)

6774 Pi#i<<%%) 6780) here are li1el, %her %ffi!ers h% *se CP b* &% #% belie(e ha i%r1s. >e s*s$e! ha s%"e %f hese %ffi!ers "i+h *se CP be!a*se he, belie(e /%r arei#sr*!e&0 ha i is heir &*, % *se all a(ailable i#(esi+ai(e e!h#i2*es. Ohers "a, belie(eha he, ha(e #%hi#+ % l%se i# seei#+ ha a $r%filer !a# %ffer % a# i#(esi+ai%#. I is #%1#%#) h%e(er) heher CP is hel$f*l %r har"f*l % $%li!e i#(esi+ai%#s.

As $%sii(e beliefs ab%* he (ali&i, a#& reliabili, %f CP are #% s*$$%re& b, e"$iri3!ale(i&e#!e) he res %f his ari!le is &e(%e& % e-$lai#i#+ h, $e%$le "i+h belie(e ha CP%r1s. >e a&&ress ei+h reas%#s ha !a# e-$lai# h, !ri"i#al $r%filers) he $%li!e) a#&he $*bli! "i+h belie(e CP %r1s i# he abse#!e %f s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r. These reas%#s are

&i(i&e& i#% % !ae+%ries The firs f%*r are ele"e#s %f he "essa+e ha $e%$le re!ei(eab%* CP a#& he se!%#& f%*r relae % h*"a# !%+#ii%#. These reas%#s are #eiher e-ha*s3i(e #%r "**all, e-!l*si(e.

THE MESSAGE

Resear!h sh%s ha se!%#& ha#& 1#%le&+e) s*!h as ha a!2*ire& fr%" he "e&ia) %fe# &%es#% refle! he a!*al sae %f affairs /S$r%) 67790. Th*s) *#less $e%$le a&%$ a !rii!ala$$r%a!h % i#f%r"ai%# !%#s*"$i%#) heir *&+"e#s ab%* he (iabili, %f $ra!i!es li1e CP

!a# be !%#a"i#ae& b, he i#a!!*rae %r biase& i#f%r"ai%# ha is bei#+ !%#(e,e&/Sa#%(i!h) 677:0. The f%ll%i#+ are he f%*r as$e!s %f i#f%r"ai%# fr%" he CP e#(ir%#3"e# /i.e.) "essa+es ab%* CP0 ha ha(e he $%e#ial % !%#(i#!e $e%$le ha CP %r1s.

THE POWER OF N = '

Pers%#al s%ries ab%* e-!e$i%#al i#!i&e#s a#& e-$erie#!es !a# be (er, se&*!i(e be!a*se he, are !%#!ree) (i(i&) a#& "e"%rable /B%r+i&a 5 Nisbe) 67==4 Sa#%(i!h)677:0. H%e(er) heir se&*!i(e#ess has #% relai%# % heir !re&ibili,. A !%r#ers%#e %fhe s!ie#ifi! "eh%& is ha !%#!l*si%#s sh%*l& #% be &ra# fr%" a#e!&%es ha ha(e #%a, %f bei#+ re$li!ae& %r *#&ers%%& i# a a, ha $er"is +e#erali<ai%# /ear%#) :;;4>alls%#) 6780. Ye be!a*se a#e!&%es h%l& a$$eal i# heir !%#!ree e-a"$le a#& be!a*se"%s $e%$le are #% rai#e& % see1 %be!i(e fa!s a#& reliable e(i&e#!e /Carr%ll) :;;4Gil%(i!h) 67764 Sa+a#) 67794 Sher"er) :;;0) $e%$le "a, a*%"ai!all, all%i#f%r"ai%# %bai#e& fr%" a#e!&%es % f%r" he f%*#&ai%# %f heir beliefs.









U#f%r*#ael,) "a#, $*blishe& a!!%*#s %f CP rel, %# a#e!&%al e(i&e#!e % ill*srae h% hee!h#i2*e is *sef*l i# !a!hi#+ !ri"i#als /e.+.) Ca#er) 6774 C%%1 5 Hi#"a#) 67770. S#%%1)Eas%%&) e al. /:;;=0) f%r e-a"$le) f%*#& ha 9; %f he 6; CP ari!les he, re(iee&*se& a leas %#e a#e!&%e as a s%*r!e %f 1#%le&+e. The "%s (i(i& a#& i&el, !ie& a#e!&%e

is *#&%*be&l, ha %f Ne Y%r1's Ma& B%"ber) Ge%r+e Mees1, /Br*ssel) 67980. I# heirae"$s % !a!h he b%"ber) i#(esi+a%rs re2*ese& he assisa#!e %f $s,!hiaris Ja"es A.Br*ssel % $r%file he !ri"i#al. A"%#+ %her hi#+s) Br*ssel /67980 re$%re&l, $re&i!e& hahe b%"ber as a re+*lar "a#) %f %r&i#ar, fashi%#s) h% as f%r3ei+# b%r# a#& ae#&e&!h*r!h re+*larl,) a#& ha he %*l& be eari#+ a b*%#e& &%*ble3brease& s*i he#a$$rehe#&e& b, a*h%riies. I is %fe# re$%re& ha Br*ssel !%rre!l, $re&i!e& a #*"ber %ffa!%rs s*!h as Mees1,'s &e"ea#%r) s%!ial a!i(iies) healh !%#&i3i%#) a#& e(e# he &%*ble3 brease& s*i. H%e(er) !erai# &eails %f his !ase are ,$i!all, %(erl%%1e& he# i is&is!*sse& i# CP a!!%*#s. %r e-a"$le) rarel, is i "e#i%#e& ha Br*ssel's $r%file as $*blishe& i# 5he New 6ork 5imes &*ri#+ he i#(esi+ai%# /693,ear) 6790 a#& ha Mees1,

as a!1#%le&+e& as f%ll%i#+ he "e&ia re$%rs /Ber+er) 67=b0) h*s %$e#i#+ *$ he $%ssibili, ha Mees1, !%#s!i%*sl, %r *#!%#s!i%*sl, alere& his beha(i%r base& %# ha heha& rea&. I# a&&ii%#) he $r%file &i& #% a!*all, s%l(e he !ase as is !%""%#l, i"$lie&/K%!sis) :;;a0. I#f%r"ai%# f%*#& %# &is+r*#le& e"$l%,ees i# $ers%##el files le&i#(esi+a%rs % i#2*ire ab%* Mees1, /Ber+er) 67=a0.

Of !%*rse) i is #% he *se %f !ase s*&ies $er se ha #e!essaril, biases $e%$le's (ies %f CP.Raher) i is he a, !ase s*&ies are *se& b, a&(%!aes %f CP ha !a# res*l i# $r%ble"s. %re-a"$le) #earl, e(er, $*blishe& !ase s*&, e ha(e !%"e a!r%ss re$%rs a s*!!ess s%r,)here a $r%filer $r%(i&e& a# a!!*rae $r%file ha hel$e& res%l(e a &iffi!*l !ri"i#al i#(esi+a3

i%#. Ma#, %f hese !ase s*&ies ha(e e-re"el, se&*!i(e 2*aliies) s*!h as h%se hi+hli+he& b, he Ma& B%"ber &es!ri$i%# $r%(i&e& ab%(e /e.+.) e-re"el, s$e!ifi! a#& see"i#+l, a!!*3rae $re&i!i%#s) hi!h are "a&e ih a!!ess % (er, li"ie& i#f%r"ai%#0. I# sh%r) here is #%ele"e# %f bala#!e i# he $rese#ai%# %f !ase s*&ies) &es$ie he fa! ha "*!h !%*l& belear#e& fr%" !ases here CP as e"$l%,e& *#s*!!essf*ll,. U#&er s*!h biase& !%#&ii%#s i is#% &iffi!*l % see h, "a#, $e%$le %*l& belie(e ha CP %r1s. The, si"$l, +e#erali<efr%" he "a#, s*!!ess s%ries he, rea& % he fiel& %f CP "%re +e#erall,.

REPETITION OF THE MESSAGE THAT PROFILING WOR$S

E"$iri!al resear!h sh%s ha he li1elih%%& %f a# i#&i(i&*al's a+reei#+ ih a "essa+e+e#erall, i#!reases as he "essa+e is re$eae& /Ca!i%$$% 5 Pe,) 67=70. Th*s) re$eai#+he "essa+e ha CP is a# effe!i(e i#(esi+ai(e %%l "a, !%#rib*e % he CP ill*si%#. I#a&&ii%# % re$eae& "essa+es ha CP %r1s) $e%$le are %fe# %l& ha "%re a#& "%re $e%$le are be!%"i#+ rai#e& i# CP. %r e-a"$le) %#e $r%$%#e# %f $r%fili#+ sae& haAs "%re a#& "%re $ers%##el be!%"e rai#e& a#& e-$erie#!e& i# he a$$li!ai%# %f hei#(es3i+ai(e e!h#i2*e %f CP) "%re a+e#!ies ill belie(e i# is *se /Da(is) 6777) $.:70. Re$eae& s*++esi%#s ha $%li!e %ffi!ers see1 CP i#$* f%r i#(esi+ai%#s be!a*sehe, fi#& i hel$f*l !a# als% $ers*a&e $e%$le ha CP is (iable /K%!sis) :;;a0.

I is #% *#!%""%# % rea& sae"e#s esif,i#+ % he (al*e %f CP) s*!h as !ri"i#al $ers%#ali, $r%fili#+ has bee# *se& b, la e#f%r!e"e# a+e#!ies ih s*!!ess i# "a#, areas/D%*+las 5 B*r+ess) 6789) $. 70) "%re a#& "%re !ases are bei#+ s*!!essf*ll, a#a3l,<e&) a#&!ri"i#al $r%files are bei#+ !%#sr*!e& ih re"ar1able a!!*ra!, /De$*e) 6789) $. 0) a#&$r%fili#+ has $r%(e# i"e a#& i"e a+ai# % be a (al*able i#(esi+ai(e %%l









i# he arse#al %f %&a,'s "%&er# la e#f%r!e"e# !a&re /Da(is) 6777) $. :70. Alh%*+hs*!h esi"%#ials "a, $r%(i&e a# *#!rii!al rea&er ih he i"$ressi%# ha CP %r1s) he*#f%r*#ae reali, is ha he (ali&i, %f s*!h esi"%#ials has ,e % be e"$iri!all, s*$3 $%re&) a#& he, are a# i#a&e2*ae basis f%r a belief. M%re i"$%ra#l,) as hi+hli+he&

ab%(e) s*!h sae"e#s fail % !%rres$%#& % resear!h ha has e-a"i#e& he $re&i!i(eabil3i, %f $r%filers /S#%%1) Eas%%&) e al.) :;;=0.

INAPPROPRIATE RELIANCE ON CORRECT PRE&ICTIONS

Pr%filers !a# !reae he i"$ressi%# ha heir ra&e is (iable b, %(ere"$hasi<i#+ heir !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /e.+.) Ca#er) 6774 D%*+las 5 Olsha1er) 6774 M!Crar, 5 Ra"sla#&) :;;0 a#& b, !%#&*!i#+ s*&ies ha %#l, "eas*re a!!*ra!, as he #*"ber %f !%rre! $re3&i!i%#s raherha# he $r%$%ri%# %f !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /K%!sis) :;;b4 K%!sis e al.) :;;:4 K%!sis e al.):;;;4 Pi#i<<%% 5 i#1el) 677;0. >he# all he #e!essar, a#& $eri#e# i#f%r"ai%# is #%

re$%re&) rea&ers "a, f%r" beliefs base& s%lel, %# he i#f%r"ai%# ha is $rese#e& % he"/Gil%(i!h) 67764 Pa*l%s) 67884 Pl%*s) 6770. Pre(i%*s resear!h i# he *&+"e# a#& &e!isi%#3"a1i#+ &%"ai# /Cha$"a# 5 Cha$"a#) 679=4 Cr%!1er) 6786) 678:4 >hie) :;;0 s*++ese&ha he e-!l*si(e $rese#ai%# %f !%rre! $re&i!i%#s !a# lea& $e%$le % %(eresi"ae hea!!*ra!, a#& $%e#ial *ili, %f $r%files.

A# ari!le b, D%*+las e al. /67890 ill*sraes #i!el, h% !%rre! $re&i!i%#s are a!!e#3*ae& % $r%"%e he belief ha CP is be#efi!ial. D%*+las a#& his !%llea+*es $rese#e& a $r%file ha $re&i!e& :7 !ri"i#al !hara!erisi!s) b* he# &is!*ssi#+ he a!!*ra!, %f he $r%file) he a*h%rs e"$hasi<e& *s he 66 !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /6; his a#& 6 !%rre! ree!3

i%#0. >ih s%"e eff%r) %#e !a# !%lle! all he e(i&e#!e ha is #e!essar, /a#& sh%*l& ha(e bee# $rese#e&0 f%r a rea&er % s*ffi!ie#l, assess he (ali&i, %f ha $r%file. If here ere66 !%rre! $re&i!i%#s /his a#& !%rre! ree!i%#s0) he# here ere 68 i#!%rre! $re&i!i%#s /false alar"s a#& "isses0. The $r%file as %#l, 8 a!!*rae Be!a*se $r%filers f%!*s heir ae#i%# %# heir s*!!esses) he, /a#& $%e#iall, he !%#s*"ers %fheir $r%files0 a$$ear % %(erarib*e he !a*sali, %f s%l(e& !ases % heir CP $re&i!i%#s/Lassier) Geers) M*#hall) Pl%*<3S#,&er) 5 Breie#be!her) :;;:0. I sh%*l& #% be%(erl%%1e& ha i#!%rre! $re&i!3i%#s ha(e he $%e#ial % "islea& a# i#(esi+ai%#.

THE M%TH OF PROFILING E(PERTS

E-$ers are $e%$le h% ha(e $r%fessi%#al !%"$ee#!e i# a s$e!iali<e& area) *s*all, a!2*ire&i# he !%*rse %f e-e#si(e he%rei!al a#& $ra!i!al rai#i#+ /K*r<3Mil!1e 5 Gi+ere#<er) :;;0.Be!a*se %f his) $e%$le %fe# a!!e$ i#f%r"ai%# ha is !%""*#i!ae& % he" b, a$$are#a*h%ri, fi+*res %r e-$ers as bei#+ !%rre! /B%!h#er 5 I#s1%) 67994 Mil+ra") 6790. Thishas bee# referre& % i# he liera*re as he *se %f a# e-$erise he*risi! /i.e.) ha e-$ers'sae"e#s !a# be r*se&4 Rei"er) Maa) 5 S%e!1li#) :;;0. E(i&e#!e f%r *sa+e %f hee-$erise he*risi! is alrea&, a(ailable i# he CP &%"ai#. %r e-a"$le) $%li!e %ffi!ers (iei#+a $r%file rae i as "%re a!!*rae he# he $r%&*!i%# %f he $r%file is arib3*e& % a# e-$erraher ha# a #%#e-$er /K%!sis 5 Ha,es) :;;4 K%!sis 5 Heller) :;;0.

E-$ers i# a !ri"i#al i#(esi+ai(e !%#e- %*+h % $r%(i&e he $%li!e ih s$e!iali<e&s1ills %r 1#%le&+e be,%#& ha %f he %r&i#ar, $%li!e %ffi!er /G*&%#ss%# 5 C%$s%#)677=0. S%"e $r%filers !lai" ha he, $%ssess a!!*"*lae& is&%") i#(esi+ai(e a#& beha(i%ral s!ie#!e e-$erie#!e) a#& rai#i#+ a#&%r 1#%le&+e %f ab#%r"al beha(i%r ha









$r%(i&es he" ih he #e!essar, s1ills % $re&i! %ffe#&er !hara!erisi!s fr%" !ri"es!e#e &aa) hi!h is $res*"abl, be,%#& he abili, %f he a(era+e $%li!e %ffi!er a#&la,$ers%# /e.+.) A*l 5 Reese) 678;4 Bla*) 6774 C%%1 5 Hi#"a#) 67774 D%*+las 5B*r+ess) 67894 Ha<el%%&) Ressler) De$*e) 5 D%*+las) 6770. Oher $r%filers !lai" haheir s1ills a#& 1#%le&+e ha(e !%"e fr%" a l%#+) f%r"al s!ie#ifi! e&*!ai%# ha rai#e&he" % i&e#if, he saisi!al relai%#shi$s beee# !ri"e &eails a#& !ri"i#al $ers%#ali,a#& ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s /e.+.) Ca#er) 6774 G%&i#) 67774 K%!sis) C%%1se,) 5Iri#) :;;:a) :;;:b4 Salfai 5 Ca#er) 67770. T% &ae) h%e(er) $r%filers ha(e faile& %sh% ha heir rai#i#+ i"$r%(es heir abili, % &e(el%$ a!!*rae $r%files /S#%%1)Eas%%& e al.) :;;=0.

Oher ha# he $%ssessi%# %f s$e!iali<e& s1ills %r 1#%le&+e) $r%filers "i+h als% be(iee& as e-$ers be!a*se he, ha(e esifie& as e-$er i#esses i# !%*r /M!Ca##)

677:0. Le+al s!h%lars) h%e(er) ha(e bee# 2*i!1 % !halle#+e his #%i%# be!a*se CP is#% a +e#3erall, a!!e$e& s!ie#ifi! e!h#i2*e) is #% reliable) !a##% $r%(e he +*il %f he&efe#&a#) a#& &%es #% $r%(i&e e-$la#ai%#s ha are %*si&e he #%r"al *#&ersa#&i#+ %f he *r, /Or"er%&) 6779a) 6779b4 Risi#+er 5 L%%$) :;;:0. M%re%(er) $r%file3base&e(i&e#!e has) %# %!!asi%#) bee# f%*#& *#a!!e$able b, he !%*rs be!a*se i is has bee#!%#si&ere& *#1 s!ie#!e /e.+.) State v. +ortin) 67770. Als% !halle#+i#+ he e-$er $r%filerlabel is he la!1 %f !%#se#s*s ab%* h% !a# be a $r%filer a#& a +e#erall, a!!e$e&

re+*la%r, b%&, ha $r%3(i&es $r%fessi%#al $r%fili#+ &esi+#ai%#s.

THE MIN&

Pe%$le belie(e all 1i#&s %f sra#+e hi#+s ha are *#!%rr%b%rae& b, s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e.Pres!ie# e-a"$les i#!l*&e he %!!*rre#!e %f alie# ab&*!i%#s) he h% ha#& $he#%"e#%#i# bas1eball) rei#!ar#ai%#) re"%e (iei#+) a#& he ",si!al $%er %f he E+,$ia# $,ra3"i&s /Gil%(i!h) 67764 Hi#es) 67884 @,se) 677=0. Resear!hers ha(e s$e# a +rea &eal %fi"e i#(esi+ai#+ h% a#& h, $e%$le "i+h belie(e i# *#$r%(e# hi#+s. A!!%r&i#+ %Sher"er /:;;:0) a !%#se#s*s a"%#+ "a#, %f hese s!ie#iss is ha he h*"a# "i#&e(%l(e& % i&e#if, $aer#s a"%#+ e#(ir%#"e#al %!!*rre#!es) a $r%!ess ha is belie(e&

% ha(e bee# a&a$i(e f%r he s$e!ies) b* hi!h !a# lea& % he i&e#ifi!ai%# %f"ea#i#+less $aer#s. The i&e#ifi!ai%# %f "ea#i#+less $aer#s !a# e-$lai# % a !erai#&e+ree h, $e%$le "i+h belie(e ha hi#+s s*!h as $s,!hi! $re&i!i%#s) $as3lifere+ressi%#s) a#& CP $re&i!i%#s are (ali&. N%e ha i is #% %*r !%#e#i%# i# his ari!le% !lai" ha hese beliefs are irrai%#al. Beliefs are "erel, a $r%&*! %f $r%!essi#+i#f%r"ai%# fr%" he e#(i3r%#"e#. >he# he i#f%r"ai%# is b%+*s) s% ill be he belief.%*r as$e!s %f h*"a# !%+3#ii%# ha !%#rib*e % he CP ill*si%# are &is!*sse& bel%.

REASONING ERRORS

Pe%$le "a, belie(e i# CP be!a*se %f "is+*i&a#!e b, #a*ral h*"a# reas%#i#+ $r%!esses.Pe%$le ae"$ % fi#& %r&er a#& "ea#i#+ i# a# *#!erai# %rl& a#& he# f%r" beliefs ha !a#+*i&e f**re beha(i%rs /Gi+ere#<er) :;;:4 Sher"er) :;;0. r%" a# e(%l*i%#ar, $er3s$e!i(e)s*!h !%+#ii(e $r%!esses all%e& $e%$le % a&a$ % a#& !%#r%l !ha#+i#+ e#(ir%#3"e#s.H%e(er) i# ae"$i#+ % fi#& *sef*l $aer#s) $e%$le s%"ei"es %bser(e "ea#i#+less $aer#s. %r e-a"$le) a baseball $la,er h% &%es #% sha(e bef%re a +a"e i#








S#%%1 e al. CRIMINAL PROILING ILLUSION 6:9=

hi!h he his % h%"e3r*#s "a, i#fer ha #% sha(i#+ i#!reases his $erf%r"a#!e a#& !%#3se2*e#l, #e(er sha(e a+ai# bef%re a +a"e. This ,$e %f #a*ral reas%#i#+ is %fe# labele&s*$ersii%# /@,se) 677=0. I# he $s,!h%l%+i!al liera*re) a (arie, %f a,s i# hi!h #a*ral!%+#ii(e $r%!essi#+ !a# lea& % err%#e%*s i#fere#!es ha(e bee# &%!*"e#e& /see M,ers)

:;;:) f%r a# %(er(ie %f !%+#ii(e &is%ri%#s0. A !%#si&erai%# %f hese !%+#ii(e e#&e#3!ies!a# hel$ e-$lai# h, $r%filers) $%li!e %ffi!ers) a#& he $*bli! "i+h belie(e CP %r1s.

J*&+"e# a#& &e!isi%#3"a1i#+ resear!h /e.+.) Gil%(i!h) 67764 M,ers) :;;:0 s*++ess ha $r%filers "i+h assi+# "%re $ers%#al res$%#sibili, % i#(esi+ai(e s*!!ess ha# %i#(esi+ai(e fail*re /i.e.) self3ser(i#+ bias0 a#& be "%re !%#fi&e# i# heir abili, % "a1ea!!*rae $re&i!i%#s ha# he, sh%*l& be /i.e.) %(er!%#fi&e#!e0. I# a&&ii%#) $r%filers a#& he $*bli! "a, arib*e $er!ei(e& s*!!esses % he $r%filer's abiliies a#& &is!%*# he i"$%r3a#!e%f he $%li!e %ffi!ers' !%#rib*i%# /i.e.) f*#&a"e#al arib*i%# err%r0. *rher"%re) $r%filers) $%li!e %ffi!ers) a#& he $*bli! "i+h be s*s!e$ible % "is$er!ei(i#+ a $r%filer's !%"$ee#!e if

he, e(al*ae he a!!*ra!, %f a $r%file afer he a$$rehe#si%# %f he !ri"i#al /i.e.) hi#&si+h bias0) %r $er!ei(e a relai%#shi$ beee# a $r%filer's $re&i!i%#s a#& he res3%l*i%# %f a !asehere %#e &%es #% e-is /i.e.) ill*s%r, !%rrelai%#0.

Afer3he3fa! reas%#i#+ is %#e $ari!*larl, +%%& e-a"$le %f h% #a*ral reas%#i#+ !a# lea& %he &ee!i%# %f "ea#i#+less $aer#s /Carr%ll) :;;4 Gil%(i!h) 67764 P%$e 5 @as2*e<) :;;4Sa+a#) 67794 Sher"er) :;;:0. Ma#, e(e#s f%ll% se2*e#ial $aer#s ih%* bei#+ !a*sall,relae&4 after this &%es #% #e!essaril, "ea# $ecause of this. I# s%"e !ases) !ri"i#al $r%filesa$$ear % be he $ri"ar, !a*se %f he s*!!essf*l res%l*i%# %f a# i#(esi+ai%# si"$l, be!a*sea $r%file as %bai#e& bef%re he !ase as s%l(e& /e.+.) C%$s%#) 6774 Te#e#) 67874 >ils%#)

Li#!%l#) 5 K%!sis) 677=0. I "i+h be he !ase ha $e%$le belie(e i# CP &*e % he i#abili, %&isi#+*ish beee# "ea#i#+f*l a#& "ea#i#+less $aer#s.

A *bi2*i%*s !%+#ii(e e#&e#!, ha "a, als% e-$lai# h, $r%filers) la e#f%r!e"e#%ffi!ers) a#& he res %f *s belie(e i# he (era!i, a#& $re&i!i(e (ali&i, %f CP is !%#fir"a3i%# bias. C%#fir"ai%# bias i#(%l(es l%%1i#+ f%r) %fe# *#!%#s!i%*sl,) e(i&e#!e ha !%#3fir"s a#e-isi#+ belief a#& i+#%ri#+ %r fileri#+ %* e(i&e#!e ha &is!%#fir"s ha belief /Ni!1ers%#)67784 Sher"er) :;;0. This ,$e %f !%+#ii(e e#&e#!, has bee# sh%# % affe! +e#eral $*bli!a#& s!ie#iss ali1e a#&) a!!%r&i#+ % Sher"er) is he "%s $%erf*l %f all !%+3#ii(e biasesha %$eraes % !%#fir" a#& *sif, "a#, eir& beliefs. He has ar+*e& ha $s,3!hi!s)

f%r*#eellers) $al" rea&ers) a#& asr%l%+ers all &e$e#& %# !%#fir"ai%# bias % !%#(i#!e $e%$le %f heir abiliies. S$e!ifi!all,) he belie(es ha elli#+ he !lie# ha % e-$e! i# hef**re /a %#e3si&e& e(e# i#sea& %f a %3si&e& e(e#0 !a*ses he !lie# % #%i!e he%!!*rre#!e %f a $re&i!e& e(e# b* i+#%re %r filer %* he #%#%!!*rre#!e %f a $re3&i!e&e(e#. B, e-e#si%#) i %*l& #% be s*r$risi#+ % &is!%(er ha !%#fir"ai%# bias $la,s a r%lei# he f%r"ai%#) a#& &efe#se) %f $%sii(e beliefs re+ar&i#+ CP. >e s*s$e! ha here "a, be ae#&e#!, f%r h%se h% ha(e f%r"e& a $%sii(e belief ab%* $r%fili#+ % l%%1 f%r %r re"e"ber!%#fir"a%r, e(i&e#!e /e.+.) !%rre! $re&i!i%#s %r s*!!essf*l a#e!&%es) hi!h are %fe#e(i&e# i# he liera*re a#& $%$*lar "e&ia0 ha s*$$%rs heir belief ha $r%3fili#+ %r1s a#&% i+#%re a#&%r f%r+e !%#ra&i!%r, e(i&e#!e /e.+.) i#!%rre! $re&i!i%#s %r *#s*!!essf*la#e!&%es) hi!h are rarel, $rese#e& i# he liera*re %r $%$*lar "e&ia0.

FIN&ING MEANING IN AMBIGUOUS INFORMATION

Cli#i!al a#& $ers%#ali, resear!h has !%#sise#l, &e"%#srae& ha $e%$le are i#!li#e& %a!!e$ a"bi+*%*s) (a+*e) a#& +e#eral sae"e#s as a!!*rae &es!ri$i%#s %f heir %#









$ers%#aliies /e.+.) Di!1s%# 5 Kell,) 6784 J%h#s%#) Cai#) al1e) Ha,"a#) 5 Perill%) 6784S*#&ber+) 670. This $he#%"e#%# has bee# !%i#e& he Bar#*" effe!) a#& ihi# he $s,3!h%l%+i!al fiel& i is belie(e& % be es$e!iall, $r%ble"ai! f%r he a!!e$a#!e %f !li#i!al &ia+3#%ses/S#,&er) She#1el) 5 L%er,) 67==0. S%"e resear!hers arib*e he !%#si&erable a!!e$a#!e rae %f

hi+h base3rae fee&ba!1 % h*"a# +*llibili,) hereas %hers #%e he i"$%r3a#!e %f fa!%rs s*!h ass%!ial &esirabili,) si*ai%#al i#se!*ri,) a#& i#er$reer $resi+e /Pi$er3Terr, 5 D%#e,) 67780.*rher"%re) S#,&er) Larse#) a#& Bl%%"'s /67=90 res*ls s*++ese& ha $e%$le are "%re i#!li#e&% a!!e$ a b%+*s $ers%#ali, &es!ri$i%# he# i is belie(e& % be base& %# a $s,!h%l%+i!alassess"e# $r%!e&*re raher ha# a# aler#ae e!h#i2*e s*!h as asr%l%+,) alh%*+h i# ha s*&,)&iffere#!es i# he &e+rees %f a!!e$a#!e ere "ar+i#al.

I# he CP !%#e-) a si"ilar effe! !a# %!!*r he# i#&i(i&*als e(al*ae heher %r #% a#a"bi+*%*s $r%file &es!ribes a s*s$e! a!!*rael,. Ma#, $r%files are s% a"bi+*%*s ha he,!a# a$$ear % &es!ribe a#, s*s$e! /Alis%#) S"ih) Eas"a#) 5 Rai#b%) :;;0. %r e-a"$le)

Alis%#) S"ih) Eas"a#) e al. /:;;0 a#al,<e& :6 !ri"i#al $r%files ha ere *se& i# "a%r!ri"i#al i#(esi+ai%#s a#& f%*#& a %al %f );7; sae"e#s. Of he 88; sae3"e#s ha!%#ai#e& $re&i!i%#s ab%* he !hara!erisi!s %f he *#1#%# !ri"i#al) 8: ere*#s*bsa#iae&) ere *#(erifiable) :8 ere falsifiable) a#& : ere a"bi+*3%*s. I# arelae& s*&,) Alis%#) S"ih) a#& M%r+a# /:;;0 e-a"i#e& $%li!e %ffi!ers' $r%$e#3si, %esi"ae he a!!*ra!, %f a# a"bi+*%*s $r%file. T% +r%*$s %f %ffi!ers ere +i(e# he sa"ea"bi+*%*s $r%file b* s*bsa#iall, &iffere# &es!ri$i%#s %f he !ri"i#al ha he $r%files*$$%se&l, &es!ribe& /%#l, %#e bei#+ ha %f he +e#*i#e %ffe#&er0. A!!*ra!, *&+3"e#s f%r b%h +r%*$s a(era+e& . %* %f =) s*++esi#+ ha he# a !ri"i#al is a$$re3he#&e&) a#, $r%file "i+h rer%s$e!i(el, a$$ear % &es!ribe hi" %r her a!!*rael,.

A $he#%"e#%# relae& % he Bar#*" effe!) 1#%# as he $ers%#al (ali&ai%# effe! /e.+.)C%lli#s) D"ir*1) 5 Ra##e,) 67==0) is !%#!er#e& ih !ha#+es i# $ari!i$a#s' ai3*&es he#a1i#+ $ar i# Bar#*" e-$eri"e#s. Pers%#ali, resear!h s*++ess ha faih i# $s,!h%l%+i!alassess"e# "eh%&s a#& $er!e$i%#s %f &ia+#%si!ia#s' s1ills "a, i#!rease as a res*l %fe-$%s*re % a"bi+*%*s $ers%#ali, &es!ri$i%#s. %r i#sa#!e) S#,&er e al. /67=90 $rese#e& $ari!i$a#s ih a b%+*s $ers%#ali, i#er$reai%# a#& as1e& he" % rae he a!!e$a#!e %fhis i#er$reai%# as bei#+ $ers%#all, rele(a#. As i# $re(i%*s s*&ies) S#,&er e al. f%*#&e(i&e#!e f%r he Bar#*" effe!. The "%re i#eresi#+ !%#rib*i%# fr%" his s*&,) h%e(er)as ha b%h faih i# he assess"e# $r%!e&*re a#& &ia+#%si!ia#'s $er!ei(e& s1ill ere f%*#&% i#!rease si+#ifi!a#l, afer he $ari!i$a#s e(al*ae& he i#er$reai%#) re+ar&less %fheher he assess"e# $r%!e&*re as base& %# asr%l%+,) +ra$h%l%+,) %r $s,!h%l%+,. Theirfi#&i#+s s*++es ha beliefs ab%* CP "eh%&s a#& $r%3filer s1ills "a, be!%"e "%refa(%rable afer $e%$le are e-$%se& % a"bi+*%*s $r%file "ae3rial) e(e# he# he CP "eh%&is #% a!*all, (ali& a#& he $r%filer is #% a!*all, s1ille&.

IMITATION AN& SOCIAL CONTAGION

Pe%$le %fe# belie(e hi#+s) %r &% hi#+s a !erai# a,) be!a*se he, ere belie(e& %r &%#eha a, b, %hers /Da1i#s) :;;0. Da1i#s /:;;0 !%#e#&s ha $e%$le f%r" s%"e beliefsih%* e(er !%##e!i#+ he" % e(i&e#!e %f heir (era!i,. Si"%# /677;0 has si"i3larl,

ar+*e& ha a lar+e a"%*# %f ha e 1#% is #a*rall, a!2*ire& fr%" %her $e%$le's beha(i%r a#& i#sr*!i%#s) a#& he e#&e#!, % a!!e$ he beliefs %f %hers all%s $e%$le %%bai# 1#%le&+e a#& s1ills ha "a, be *sef*l i# "a#, %f life's a!i(iies. I"iai#+ %h3ers isa&a$i(e be!a*se $e%$le &% #% #ee& % e-$e#& "*!h i"e %r !%+#ii(e res%*r!es %









!aref*ll, e(al*ae he !%#se2*e#!es %f e(er,hi#+ he, ha(e %bser(e& /Si"%#) 677;0.Belie(i#+ hi#+s hr%*+h i"iai%# is he %*!%"e %f b%*#&e& h*"a# rai%#ali, i# a !%"3 $le- %rl& /Si"%#) 677;0) b* he !%#se2*e#!e %f *#!rii!al a!!e$a#!e %f i&eas is ha $e%$le s%"ei"es a!!e$ *#hel$f*l i#f%r"ai%#.

P%li!e %ffi!ers "a, belie(e CP is a (ali& i#(esi+ai(e e!h#i2*e be!a*se he, %bser(e %her $%li!e %ffi!ers *si#+ i a#& a!!e$ "essa+es $r%"%i#+ is effe!i(e#ess. S*$$%r f%r his ar+*3"e# !%"es fr%" he res*ls %f a s*r(e, b, Ja!1s%# e al. /6770. The, f%*#& ha $%li!e %ffi3!ers h% *se& CP lear#e& ab%* i hr%*+h i#f%r"al $%li!i#+ #e%r1s ihi# heir $%li!e f%r!ea#& !%#a! ih !%llea+*es h% $%ssesse& 1#%le&+e ab%* CP. Oher a,s b, hi!h%ffi!ers lear# ab%* CP are hr%*+h le!*res) ari!les i# $%li!e $*bli!ai%#s) a#& e!h#i!alrai#i#+ a $%li!e a!a&e"ies a#& !%lle+es /Ja!1s%# 5 Be1eria#) 677=0. As e ha(e alrea&,&es!ribe&) "%s %f hese i#f%r"ai%# s%*r!es $rese# CP as a (iable i#(esi+ai(e %%l.

Relae& % i"iai%# is he $he#%"e#%# %f s%!ial !%#a+i%#. S%!ial !%#a+i%# resear!hs*++ess ha $e%$le ill a&%$ %hers' beliefs afer %bser(i#+ beha(i%r ha a$$eare& % %r1.%r e-a"$le) s*i!i&e %fe# %!!*rs i# !l*sers a#& is heref%re h%*+h % be !%#a3+i%*s /Sa!1):;;;0. A!!%r&i#+ % G%*l&) Ja"ies%#) a#& R%"er /:;;0) fi!i%#al a#& #%#3fi!i%#al $%rra,als %f s*i!i&e "a, "a1e a1i#+ %#e's %# life a$$ear as a# effe!i(e %%l f%r a!hie(i#+ $ers%#al +ai#. S%!ial !%#a+i%# has als% bee# &%!*"e#e& f%r s*!h $he#%"3e#a as b*r#%*a"%#+ ea!hers /Ba11er 5 S!ha*feli) :;;;0) (i%le#!e a#& a++ressi%# /Ber1%i< 5 Ma!a*la,)67=64 G%l&sei#) Ar#%l&) 5 R%se#ber+) :;;60) "iliar, !%*$s /Li 5 Th%"$s%#) 67=0) "%%&/Ne*"a## 5 Sra!1) :;;;0) a#& s!ra!hi#+ i# Ja$a#ese "%#31e,s /Na1a,a"a) :;;0. Usi#+CP a#& belie(i#+ i %r1s is li1el, !%#a+i%*s as ell.

The i"$%ra#!e %f !%#a+i%# % a# a!!%*# %f h, CP is belie(e& % be a +%%& i&ea is e(i3&e#!e& b, #*"er%*s i#sa#!es %f $*bli! $%$*lari,. %r e-a"$le) a!!%r&i#+ % E++er /67770)he Ma& B%"ber !ase i+#ie& he #%i%# ha CP is a (iable %%l) b* i as &e(el%$"e#s "a&e b, he BI /e.+.) rai#i#+ $r%+ra"s) e-e#si(e $*bli!ai%#s) ele(isi%# a$$eara#!es0 ha le& %he ra$i& +r%h i# CP a!i(iies i# he U#ie& Saes. I# he U#ie& Ki#+&%") i a$$ears hahe a$$are# s*!!ess %f Da(i& Ca#er's $r%file i# he Raila, Ra$is !ase le& % a# *$s*r+e i# b%h he i#eres a#& *sa+e %f CP. %r i#sa#!e) C%$s%# /6770 f%*#& a ri$li#+ %f he #*"ber%f $r%file re2*ess i# he ,ear f%ll%i#+ ha !ase. Alh%*+h i "a, be &iffi!*l % assessheher CP !%#a+i%# e-iss) i is i#&is$*able ha here has bee# a sea&, rise) ih i#er"i3

e# &ra"ai! i#!reases) i# CP *se /e.+.) see C%$s%#) 677) f%r &aa fr%" he U#ie& Ki#+&%"0.This s*++ess ha b%h i"iai%# a#& s%!ial !%#a+i%# "a, be !%#rib*i#+ % he CP ill*si%#.

MISTA$ING FICTION FOR FACT

Pe%$le are $ari!*larl, ara!e& % $he#%"e#a ha a$$eal % fa#as, b, f%!*si#+ %# he $%ers ha %r&i#ar, $e%$le la!1 b* &esire /Sa+a#) 67790. Gree#) Br%!1) a#& Ka*f"a#/:;;0 assere& ha i#&i(i&*als +e#erall, a# % be e#erai#e& a#& e#& % see1 %* fi!3i%# raher ha# #%#fi!i%# % a!hie(e his e#erai#"e#. The, s*++es ha he "ai#reas%# $e%$le a$$ear % be ara!e& % he "e&ia is he &esire % es!a$e fr%" he real

%rl&. The, als% "ai#ai# ha $e%$le are s*s!e$ible % a&%$i#+ beliefs ab%* real %rl&e(e#s ha are e#irel, base& %# fi!i%#al a!!%*#s.

Be!a*se $e%$le are %fe# i#ri+*e& b, he !ri"i#al "i#&) CP a!i(iies e#& % +e#erae !%#3si&erable $*bli! fas!i#ai%#. This %bser(ai%# is e(i&e#!e& b, he #*"ber %f b%%1s) fil"s) a#&ele(isi%# $r%+ra"s ha &eal ih CP as ell as he re!e# +r%h i# !%lle+e a#& *#i(ersi,!%*rses ha a&&ress CP iss*es. Gr*bi# /6770 has als% s*++ese& ha CP a$$eals % fa#as,










6:=; CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHA@IOR

be!a*se i !%#*res *$ he i"a+e %f he !erebral sle*h rel,i#+ s%lel, %# his a!*e $%ers %f%bser(ai%# a#& &e&*!i(e reas%#i#+ % i&e#if, a# el*si(e a#& "*!h feare& serial ra$is /$.:9:0. I#&ee&) s%"e resear!hers ha(e a!*all, arib*e&) %r a leas ass%!iae&) he %ri+i#s %fCP % fi!i%#al &ee!i(es s*!h as E&+ar Alla# P%e's C. A*+*se D*$i#) A+aha Chrisies's

Her!*le P%ir%) a#& Sir Arh*r C%#a# D%,le's Sherl%!1 H%l"es /Bla*) 6774 Ca"$bell) 67=94Ca#er) :;;;4 M!Ca##) 677:4 M*ller) :;;;0. The $r%fili#+ fa#as, is als% he res*l %f %*r#al3iss h% rie ab%* $r%filers ih ",si!al $%ers %f &e&*!i%#) hereb, i#!reasi#+ he $*bli!'s belief i# he (ali&i, %f a# *#$r%(e# i#(esi+ai(e "eh%& /Alis%# 5 Ca#er) 67770.

CONCLUSION

There is a +r%i#+ belief ha $r%filers !a# a!!*rael, a#& !%#sise#l, $re&i! a !ri"i3#al's !hara!erisi!s base& %# !ri"e s!e#e e(i&e#!e. This i#!rease& belief is e(i&e# fr%"he fa! ha CP is be!%"i#+ $re(ale# as a# i#(esi+ai(e e!h#i2*e) ha $%sii(e %$i#i%#s%f CP are bei#+ !%""*#i!ae& i# $*blishe& liera*re) a#& ha $%li!e %ffi!ers a#& "e#alhealh $r%fessi%#als s*$$%r he *se %f CP. >e !%#e#& ha his belief is ill*s%r, be!a*se a!rii!al a#al,sis %f resear!h %# CP sh%e& ha he fiel& la!1s he%rei!al +r%*#&i#+ a#&e"$iri!al s*$$%r. >e $r%$%se& ha belief i# s*!h a $se*&%s!ie#ifi! $ra!i!e is &*e % a#i#era!i%# beee# he "essa+e a#& he "i#&ha is) he i#era!i%# beee# he i#f%r3"ai%# ha $e%$le re!ei(e ab%* CP a#& he a, he, $r%!ess ha i#f%r"ai%#.

As CP has he $%e#ial % "islea& !ri"i#al i#(esi+a%rs) a#& hereb, eiher hi#&er he

a$$rehe#si%# %f +*il, !ri"i#als %r lea& % r%#+f*l !%#(i!i%#s) i is a $ra!i!e ha "*s be a$$r%a!he& !rii!all,. @ari%*s i#f%r"ai%# s%*r!es $rese# fi!i%#al %r #%#fi!i%#ala#e!3&%es i#(%l(i#+ he i#(al*able hel$ %f e-$er $r%filers i# s%l(i#+ seri%*s !ases. Thee-$er $r%filers *se $%s h%! a#al,sis %f a"bi+*%*s $re&i!i%#s % !reae he i"$ressi%#ha he, re&*!e& a &ee!i(e's *#!erai#, ab%* h% % $r%!ee& ih a# i#(esi+ai%# b, $r%(i&i#+ a si"$le s%l*i%# % a !%"$le- !ase. This has he $%e#ial %f +e#erai#+ arelia#!e %# a $r%!ess ha &%es #% a&(a#!e a# i#(esi+ai%#.

The belief ha CP %r1s is r%*bli#+ be!a*se %f he "ea+er s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e % s*$3 $%r he $ra!i!e. Ne(erheless) e a+ree ih Lilie#fel& /:;;0 ha here are a leas hree

reas%#s f%r resear!hers % !%#&*! $r%$er s!ie#ifi! e(al*ai%#s %f $ra!i!es ha !*rre#l,la!1 s!ie#ifi! s*$$%r. irs) CP "a, a!*all, %r1. As Lilie#fel& has ar+*e&) e-ra%r&i3#ar, !lai"s "a, be sh%# % !%#ai# a !%re %f r*h ha sh%*l& #% be a*%"ai!all, &is3"isse&. I# %*r %$i#i%#) he b*r&e# is %# $r%filers) h% "a1e e-ra%r&i#ar, !lai"s ab%*heir abiliies) % $r%(e heir %rh b, a!*all, $ari!i$ai#+ i# !%#r%lle& e-$eri"e#als*&3ies. Se!%#&) $e%$le &eser(e % ha(e a# a!!*rae (ie %f CP. C%#&*!i#+ a#&&isse"i#ai#+ s!ie#ifi! resear!h is he bes "eh%& % e#s*re ha his %!!*rs. Thir&) heeffe! %f CP %# $%li!e i#(esi+ai%#s is *#1#%#. Resear!h ill be able % &eer"i#e heseeffe!s) heher $%sii(e %r #e+ai(e. >e a#i!i$ae ha $%li!e %ffi!ers "i+h ar+*e hahe, &% #% ha(e i"e % ai f%r s!ie#ifi! e(i&e#!e fr%" CP resear!h be!a*se he, ha(e% *se s%"ehi#+ % assis he" i# heir i#(esi+ai%#s. S*!h a res$%#se is *sifie&) b*)a!!%r&i#+ % Lilie#fel&) i is li1el, % !a*se e#si%# beee# h%se h% are s1e$i!al ab%*CP a#& h%se h% belie(e ha CP !a# !%#rib*e % a# i#(esi+ai%#.

M%re ha# ; ,ears %f CP $ra!i!e ha(e $asse& ih%* "*!h ri+%r%*s s!ie#ifi! e(al*3ai%#.>e !%#e#& ha i is #% i"e % re"%(e he shr%*& %f se!re!, i# he CP fiel&) e(al3*ae i)

a#& $* he b*r&e# ba!1 %# $r%filers % $r%(e heir %rh. >e e-$l%re& he CP










S#%%1 e al. CRIMINAL PROILING ILLUSION 6:=6

ill*si%# ih he i#e#i%# %f $r%(i&i#+ a #a*ral e-$la#ai%# f%r a belief ha la!1s s!ie#3ifi! s*$$%r. The #e- l%+i!al se$ is % es he (ari%*s !lai"s ha e ha(e "a&e i# hisari!le. All !*rre#l, *#!%rr%b%rae& sae"e#s e ha(e "a&e are esable a#& falsifiable b, s!ie#ifi! resear!h. U#il his %!!*rs) e a&(%!ae ha rea&ers a$$r%a!h CP) a#& e(e#

%*r ari!le) ih a !rii!al "i#&.

NOTES

Alh%*+h he s!%$e %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ /CP0 $ra!i!e #% +%es be,%#& his %ri+i#al &efi#ii%# % i#!l*&e a&(i!e %#i#er(ie srae+ies) "e&ia srae+ies) $ri%rii<i#+ res%*r!es) sae"e# a#al,sis) a#& s% %#) e belie(e ha $re&i!i#+%ffe#&er !hara!erisi!s re"ai#s he $ri"ar, +%al %f CP. All %f his a&&ii%#al a&(i!e is &e$e#&e# %# he ,$e %f $ers%# hahe $r%3filer belie(es !%""ie& he !ri"e. S%"e CP a&(%!aes ill #% &%*b ar+*e ha here are #eer a$$r%a!hes % $r%fili#+ ha are base& %# e"$iri!al s!ie#!e /%r ha he fiel& has "%(e& %#0. H%e(er) resear!h &e"%#srai#+ h% hese#e a$$r%a!hes are s*$eri%r % e-isi#+ $r%fili#+ "eh%&s) %r &aa ill*srai#+ heir i"$r%(e& $re&i!i(e (ali&i,) is#%#e-ise# /see Hi!1s 5 Sales) :;;9) f%r a si"ilar (ie0. Alh%*+h s%"e "a, !%#si&er +e%+ra$hi! $r%fili#+ as a# i#e+ral $ar %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+) i is be,%#& he s!%$e %f he !*rre# ari!le.

These % ,$es are #% #e!essaril, "**all, e-!l*si(e.

Alh%*+h !re&i "*s be +i(e# % Ri!har& K%!sis f%r !%lle!i#+ &aa ha are s*iable f%r a "ea3a#al,sis) ha resear!h /e.+.)K%!sis) :;;b) :;;b4 K%!sis) Ha,es) 5 Iri#) :;;:4 K%!sis) Iri#) Ha,es) 5 N*##) :;;;0 has bee# !rii!i<e& f%r a ra#+e%f "eh%&%l%+i!al a#& !%#!e$*al li"iai%#s s*!h as he *se %f "*li$le !h%i!e 2*esi%##aires) (ariai%# i# he le#+h %fi"e +i(e# % $ari!i$a#s % !%"$lee he e-$eri"e#) a#& a++re+ai#+ &aa % fa(%r he e-$eri"e#al +r%*$ /see Be##ell)J%#es) Ta,l%r) 5 S#%%1) :;;90.

There is a# e-isi#+ re+*la%r, b%&,) he I#er#ai%#al Cri"i#al I#(esi+ai(e A#al,sis ell%shi$ /ICIA0) hi!h rai#s a#&a!!re&is $r%filers. H%e(er) his %r+a#i<ai%# has ,e % +ai# i&es$rea& a!!e$a#!e ihi# he $r%fili#+ a#& resear!h!%""*#iies.

>heher %r #% !ri"i#al $r%filers ill rea&il, !%"e f%rar& i# s*ffi!ie# #*"bers % ha(e heir s1ills assesse& is 2*esi%#3able.K%!sis e al. /:;;;0 re$%re& ha he, re2*ese& ; a!i(e $r%filers % a1e $ar i# heir e-$eri"e#s) b* %#l, a+ree& % $ari!i$ae.>e h%$e ha $r%filers h% rea& his ari!le ill !%#a! *s ab%* $ari!i$ai#+ i# e-$eri"e#al ess %f heir abiliies.

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K%!sis) R. N.) Ha,es) A. .) 5 Iri#) H. J. /:;;:0. I#(esi+ai(e e-$erie#!e a#& a!!*ra!, i# $s,!h%l%+i!al $r%fili#+ %f a (i%3

le# !ri"e. Journal of Interersonal Fiolence' -? ) 86638:.

K%!sis) R. N.) 5 Heller) G. Q. /:;;0. Belie(i#+ is seei#+ II Beliefs a#& $er!e$i%#s %f !ri"i#al $s,!h%l%+i!al $r%files.

International Journal of =ffender 5heray and Comarative Criminolo#y' <7) 63:7.

K%!sis) R. N.) Iri#) H. J.) Ha,es) A. .) 5 N*##) R. /:;;;0. E-$erise i# $s,!h%l%+i!al $r%fili#+. Journal of Interersonal Fiolence' -:) 6636.

K*r<3Mil!1e) E.) 5 Gi+ere#<er) G. /:;;0. %@erts in science and society. Ne Y%r1 Kl*er A!a&e"i!Ple#*".

Lassier) G. D.) Geers) A. L.) M*#hall) P. J.) Pl%*<3S#,&er) R. J.) 5 Breie#be!her) D. L. /:;;:0. Ill*s%r, !a*sai%# >h, i%!!*rs. (sycholo#ical Science' -.) :773;.

Li) R. P.) 5 Th%"$s%#) >. R. /67=0. The !%*$ !%#a+i%# h,$%hesis. Journal of Conflict &esolution' -0) 9388.Lilie#fel&) S. O. /:;;0. The 6; !%""a#&"e#s %f hel$i#+ s*&e#s &isi#+*ish s!ie#!e fr%" $se*&%s!ie#!e i# $s,!h%l%+,.

5he =$server' -7) 736.



L,%#s) A.) 5 Tr*<<i) M. /67760. 5he $lue sense3 (sychic detectives and crime. Ne Y%r1 M,seri%*s Press.

M!Ca##) J. T. /677:0. Cri"i#al $ers%#ali, $r%fili#+ i# he i#(esi+ai%# %f (i%le# !ri"e Re!e# a&(a#!es a#& f**re &ire!3i%#s. Behavioral Sciences 8 the Law' ->) =386.

M!Crar,) G. O.) 5 Ra"sla#&) K. M. /:;;0. 5he unknown darkness3 (rofilin# the redators amon# us. Ne Y%r1Har$erC%lli#s.

Meehl) P. E. /677=0. Cre&e#iale& $ers%#s) !re&e#iale& 1#%le&+e. Clinical (sycholo#y3 Science and (ractice' <) 76378.Mel#,1) T.) Bl%%"fiel&) S.) 5 Be##ell) C. /:;;=) Se$e"ber0. Classifyin# serial se@ual homicide3 Falidatin# Geel and

Walter*s -000D model . P%ser sessi%# $rese#e& a he a##*al "eei#+ %f he S%!ie, f%r P%li!e a#& Cri"i#al Ps,!h%l%+,) S$ri#+fiel&) MA.

Mil+ra") S. /6790. Iss*es i# he s*&, %f %be&ie#!e. ,merican (sycholo#ist' -0) 8838:. Mis!hel) >. /67980. (ersonality

and assessment . Ne Y%r1 J%h# >ile,.

M%1r%s) A.) 5 Alis%#) L. /:;;:0. Is %ffe#&er $r%fili#+ $%ssible? Tesi#+ he $re&i!e& h%"%l%+, %f !ri"e s!e#e a!i%#s a#& ba!1+r%*#& !hara!erisi!s i# a sa"$le %f ra$iss. Le#al and Criminolo#ical (sycholo#y' ? ) :3.

M*ller) D. A. /:;;;0. Cri"i#al $r%fili#+ Real s!ie#!e %r *s ishf*l hi#1i#+? "omicide Studies' <) :3:9. M,ers) D. G./:;;:0. Intuition3 Its owers and erils. Ne Ha(e#) CT Yale U#i(ersi, Press.

Na1a,a"a) K. /:;;0. Obser(i#+ !%#s$e!ifi!s s!ra!hi#+ i#&*!es a !%#a+i%# %f s!ra!hi#+ i# Ja$a#ese "%#1e,s / Macaca fuscata0. Journal of Comarative (sycholo#y' --7) :;3:.

Ne*"a##) R.) 5 Sra!1) . /:;;;0. M%%& !%#a+i%# The a*%"ai! ra#sfer %f "%%& beee# $ers%#s. Journal of (ersonality and Social (sycholo#y' ?0) :663::.

Ni!1ell) J. /6770. (sychic sleuths. B*ffal%) NY Pr%"ehe*s B%%1s.

Ni!1ers%#) R. S. /67780. C%#fir"ai%# bias A *bi2*i%*s $he#%"e#%# i# "a#, +*ises. &eview of Heneral (sycholo#y' .>)73;9.

O'Keeffe) C.) 5 Alis%#) L. J. /:;;;0. Rhe%ri! i# $s,!hi! &ee!i%#. Journal of the Society for (sychical &esearch' <) :938.








S#%%1 e al. CRIMINAL PROILING ILLUSION 6:=

Or"er%&) D. /6779a0. The e(i&e#ial i"$li!ai%#s %f $s,!h%l%+i!al $r%fili#+. Criminal Law &eview' ?-? ) 8938==. Or"er%&)D. /6779b0. Ps,!h%l%+i!al $r%fili#+. 5he Journal of +orensic (sychiatry' ? ) 63:.

Pa*l%s) J. A. /67880. Innumeracy3 Mathematical illiteracy and its conse9uences. Ne Y%r1 Hill a#& >a#+.

Pi#i<<%%) A. J. /6780. %re#si! $s,!h%l%+, Cri"i#al $ers%#ali, $r%fili#+. Journal of (olice Science and ,dministration' -;) :3;.

Pi#i<<%%) A. J.) 5 i#1el) N. J. /677;0. Cri"i#al $ers%#ali, $r%fili#+ A# %*!%"e a#& $r%!ess s*&,. Law and "uman Behavior' -<) :63:.

Pi$er3Terr,) M. L.) 5 D%#e,) J. L. /67780. Se-) +*llibili,) a#& he Bar#*" effe!. (sycholo#ical &eorts' 7;) =63=9.Pl%*s) S. /6770. 5he sycholo#y of ud#ment and decision2makin# . Ne Y%r1 M!Gra3Hill.

P%$e) K. S.) 5 @as2*e<) M. J. T. /:;;0. A(%i&i#+ l%+i!al falla!ies i# $s,!h%l%+,. I# K. S. P%$e /E&.0) "ow to survive and thrive as a theraist3 Information' ideas' and resources for sycholo#ists in ractice /$$. 6;636;=0. >ashi#+%#) DC A"eri!a# Ps,!h%l%+is.

Rei"er) T.) Maa) R.) 5 S%e!1li#) M. /:;;0. The *se %f he*risi!s i# $ers*asi%# Deri(i#+ !*es %# s%*r!e e-$erise fr%"ar+*"e# 2*ali,. Current &esearch in Social (sycholo#y' ->) =;38.

Ressler) R. K.) B*r+ess) A. >.) D%*+las) J. E.) Har"a#) C. R.) 5 D'A+%si#%) R. B. /67890. Se-*al 1illers a#& heir (i!i"sI&e#if,i#+ $aer#s hr%*+h !ri"e s!e#e a#al,sis. Journal of Interersonal Fiolence' -) :883;8.

Risi#+er) D. M.) 5 L%%$) J. L. /:;;:0. Three !ar& "%#e) "%#, hall) "%&*s %$era#&i a#& %ffe#&er $r%fili#+ S%"eless%#s %f "%&er# !%+#ii(e s!ie#!e f%r he la %f e(i&e#!e. Cardoo Law &eview' ;<) 673:8.

Sa+a#) C. /67790. 5he demon2haunted world3 Science as a candle in the dark . Ne Y%r1 Balla#i#e B%%1s.

Salfai) C. G. /:;;;0. The #a*re %f e-$ressi(e#ess a#& i#sr*"e#ali, i# h%"i!i&e I"$li!ai%#s f%r %ffe#&er $r%fili#+.

"omicide Studies' <) :93:7.

Salfai) C. G.) 5 Ca#er) D. @. /67770. Differe#iai#+ sra#+er "*r&ers Pr%fili#+ %ffe#&er !hara!erisi!s fr%" beha(i%rals,les. Behavioral Sciences 8 the Law' -? ) 763;9.

Sa#illa) P.) H11#e#) H.) Ca#er) D. @.) 5 Elf+re#) T. /:;;0. Classif,i#+ h%"i!i&e %ffe#&ers a#& $re&i!i#+ heir !hara!3erisi!s fr%" !ri"e s!e#e beha(i%r. Scandinavian Journal of (sycholo#y' <<) 6;=3668.

Sher"er) M. /:;;:0. Why eole $elieve weird thin#s3 (seudoscience' suerstition' and other confusions of our time. NeY%r1 He#r, H%l.

Sher"er) M. /:;;0. 5he $orderlands of science! Where sense meets nonsense. O-f%r&) UK O-f%r& U#i(ersi, Press.Si"%#) H. A. /677;) De!e"ber :60. A "e!ha#is" f%r s%!ial sele!i%# a#& s*!!essf*l alr*is". Science' ;:>) 69936998. 693,ear sear!h f%r "a&"a#. /679) De!e"ber :0. 5he New 6ork 5imes) $$. 6) 6.

Sse&) G.) L#+sr") N.) S*ri&ss%#) K.) 5 Gra##) M. /:;;0. Sabili, %f "%&*s %$era#&i i# se-*al %ffe#&i#+. Criminal Justice and Behavior' .-) 9;739:.

S#%%1) B.) Eas%%&) J.) Ge#&rea*) P.) G%++i#) C.) 5 C*lle#) R. M. /:;;=0. Ta1i#+ s%!1 %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ A #arrai(ere(ie a#& "ea3a#al,sis. Criminal Justice and Behavior' .<) =3.

S#%%1) B.) Hai#es) A.) Ta,l%r) P. J.) 5 Be##ell) C. /:;;=0. Cri"i#al $r%fili#+ belief a#& *se A s*r(e, %f Ca#a&ia# $%li!e%ffi3!er %$i#i%#. Canadian Journal of (olice and Security Services' :) 69736=7.

S#,&er) C. R.) Larse#) D. L.) 5 Bl%%") L. J. /67=90. A!!e$a#!e %f +e#eral $ers%#ali, i#er$reai%#s $ri%r % a#& afer re!ei$ %f&ia+#%si! fee&ba!1 s*$$%se&l, base& %# $s,!h%l%+i!al) +ra$h%l%+i!al) a#& asr%l%+i!al assess"e# $r%!e&*res. Journal of Clinical (sycholo#y' .;) :83:9.



S#,&er) C. R.) She#1el) R. J.) 5 L%er,) C. R. /67==0. A!!e$a#!e %f $ers%#ali, &es!ri$i%#s The Bar#*" effe! a#& be,%#&. Journal of Consultin# and Clinical (sycholo#y' <:) 6;366.

S$r%) J. B. /67790. U#&ersa#&i#+ $*bli! (ies %f ,%*h !ri"e a#& he ,%*h *si!e s,se". Canadian Journal of Criminolo#y' .7) :=63:7;.

Sa!1) S. /:;;;0. Me&ia i"$a!s %# s*i!i&e A 2*a#iai(e re(ie %f :7 fi#&i#+s. Social Science Kuarterly' 7-) 7=37=6.

Sa#%(i!h) K. E. /677:0. "ow to think strai#ht a$out sycholo#y. Ne Y%r1 Har$erC%lli#s.

Sae (. %ri#) =: A.:& 868 /N.J. S*$er. C. A$$.Di(. 67770.

S*#&ber+) N. D. /670. The a!!e$abili, %f fa1e (ers*s b%#a fi&e $ers%#ali, es i#er$reai%#s. Journal of ,$normal and Social (sycholo#y' :>) 636=.

Te#e#) H. /67870. Offe#&er $r%fili#+. I# >. Baile, /E&.0) %ncycloedia of olice science /$$. 93=90. Ne Y%r1 Garla#&. T%rres)A. N.) B%!!a!!i#i) M. T.) 5 Miller) H. A. /:;;90. Per!e$i%#s %f he (ali&i, a#& *ili, %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+ a"%#+f%re#si! $s,!h%l%+iss a#& $s,!hiariss. (rofessional (sycholo#y3 &esearch and (ractice' .? ) 638.

Tra+er) J.) 5 Breser) J. /:;;60. The effe!i(e#ess %f $s,!h%l%+i!al $r%files. Journal of (olice and Criminal (sycholo#y' - /60) :;3:8.

T*r(e,) B. /67770. Criminal rofilin#3 ,n introduction to $ehavioral evidence analysis. Sa# Die+%) CA A!a&e"i! Press.@,se) S. A. /677=0. Believin# in ma#ic3 5he sycholo#y of suerstition. L%#&%# O-f%r& U#i(ersi, Press.

>alls%#) K. A. /6780. Pr%ble"s %f +e#erali<i#+ fr%" s"all sa"$les C%""e# %# Lar&e a#& Cl%$%#. (sycholo#ical &eorts' :.) =3=.

>es) A. G. /:;;;0. Cli#i!al assess"e# %f h%"i!i&e %ffe#&ers The si+#ifi!a#!e %f !ri"e s!e#e i# %ffe#se a#& %ffe#&era#al,3sis. "omicide Studies' <) :673:.

>hie) P. A. /:;;0. Ma1i#+ !a*sal *&+"e#s fr%" he $r%$%ri%# %f !%#f%r"i#+ i#sa#!es The $Cl r*le. Journal of %@erimental (sycholo#y3 Learnin#' Memory' and Co#nition' ;0) =6;3=:=.








6:=9 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND BEHA@IOR

>ils%#) P.) Li#!%l#) R.) 5 K%!sis) R. /677=0. @ali&i,) *ili, a#& ehi!s %f $r%fili#+ f%r serial (i%le# a#& se-*al %ffe#&ers.

(sychiatry' (sycholo#y and Law' <) 636:.

>ise"a#) R.) >es) D.) 5 Se""a#) R. /67790. A# e-$eri"e#al es %f $s,!hi! &ee!i%#. Journal of the Society for (sychical &esearch' -) 3.

>i1i#) G. /6779) A$ril ::0. H% he BI $ai#s $%rrais %f he #ai%#s "%s a#e&. U!S! News 8 World &eort' -;>) :.>%%&ha"s) J.) 5 T%,e) K. /:;;=0. A# e"$iri!al es %f he ass*"$i%#s %f !ase li#1a+e a#& %ffe#&er $r%fili#+ ih serial

!%""er!ial r%bberies. (sycholo#y' (u$lic (olicy' and Law' -.) 38.

Bent Snook ) PhD) is a# assisa# $r%fess%r i# he De$ar"e# %f Ps,!h%l%+, a#& &ire!%r %f he B%*#&e& Rai%#ali, a#&

he La Lab%ra%r, a Me"%rial U#i(ersi, %f Nef%*#&la#&. His resear!h i#(%l(es he s*&, %f b%*#&e& rai%#ali, a#&he la. He als% resear!hes he *se a#& "is*se %f $s,!h%l%+i!all, base& i#(esi+ai(e $ra!i!es) +e%+ra$hi!al $r%fili#+)%ffe#&er s$aial &e!isi%# "a1i#+) a#& $se*&%s!ie#!e i# he !ri"i#al *si!e s,se".

Ri)had M* C+,,en is i# he fi#al se"eser %f his MS! a#& a "e"ber %f he B%*#&e& Rai%#ali, a#& La Lab%ra%r, a Me"%rial U#i(ersi,. I# a&&ii%# % he e(al*ai%# %f !ri"i#al $r%fili#+) his resear!h has f%!*se& lar+el, %# he rai%#ali,&ebae a#& is !%#se2*e#!es f%r le+al &e!isi%# "a1i#+. His hesis i#(%l(es a# e-a"i#ai%# %f he ass*"$i%# ha he fiel&%f s%!ial $s,!h%l%+, has $ai#e& a# *#fa(%rable $i!*re %f h*"a# rai%#ali,.

Cai- Benne,,) Ph&) is a# ass%!iae $r%fess%r i# he De$ar"e# %f Ps,!h%l%+, a Carle%# U#i(ersi,) Ca#a&a) here heals% a!s as &ire!%r %f he P%li!e Resear!h Lab. His resear!h i#eress i#!l*&e he e-a"i#ai%# %f $s,!h%l%+i!all, base&i#(esi+a3i(e e!h#i2*es) s*!h as !ri"i#al a#& +e%+ra$hi! $r%fili#+) he *ili, %f si+#al &ee!i%# "%&els f%r i"$r%(i#+ $%li!e &e!i3si%# "a1i#+) a#& he a$$li!ai%# %f !%+#ii(e l%a& he%r, % $%li!e rai#i#+.

Pa+, .* Ta/,o0 PhD) is a se#i%r le!*rer i# f%re#si! $s,!h%l%+, a La#!aser U#i(ersi,) U#ie& Ki#+&%") here he &ire!s heDe$ar"e# %f Ps,!h%l%+,'s $%s+ra&*aes i# i#(esi+ai(e e-$erise. His resear!h e-a"i#es se#se "a1i#+ a#& srae+i! !h%i!e i#!risis e#(ir%#"e#s) $ari!*larl, i# relai%# % #e+%iai%#) here he a#& his !%llab%ra%rs ha(e a&&resse& iss*es s*!h as "essa+efra"i#+ a#& effe!i(e $ers*asi%# a!r%ss !*l*res. M%re &eails a$$ear a h$.la#!s.a!.*1saffa,l%r$

Pa+, Gendea+0 OC) PhD) is a $r%fess%r e"eri*s a U#i(ersi, %f Ne Br*#si!1) Sai# J%h#) Ca#a&a) a#& a (isii#+

s!h%lar) Di(isi%# %f Cri"i#al J*si!e) U#i(ersi, %f Ci#!i##ai) Ohi%. His resear!h i#(%l(es he $re&i!i%# a#& rea"e# %f!ri"i#al beha(i%r) he effe!s %f $ris%# life) "ea3a#al,i! iss*es) a#& he assess"e# %f effe! si<es.

Criminal Justice and Behavior CJBD is $lease& % %ffer he %$$%r*#i, % ear# !%#i#*i#+ e&*!ai%# !re&is %#li#e f%r hisari!le. Please f%ll% he a!!ess i#sr*!i%#s bel%. The !%s is 7 $er *#i) a#& a !re&i !ar& #*"ber is re2*ire& f%r $a,"e#.

A!!ess f%r IACP "e"bers

G% % he IACP h%"e$a+e /.ia!f$.%r+0 a#& l%+ i# % he sie *si#+ ,%*r e"ail a&&ress

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If ,%* are #% a "e"ber %f he IACP a#& ,%*r i#si*i%# &%es #% s*bs!ribe % CJB) i#&i(i&*al ari!les /a#& !%rres$%#&i#+es li#1s ihi# he ari!les0 are a(ailable %# a $a,3$er3(ie basis b, (isii#+ h$!b.sa+e$*b.!%". H%e(er) "e"bershi$i# he IACP $r%(i&es ,%* ih *#li"ie& a!!ess % CJB a#& "a#, a&&ii%#al "e"bershi$ be#efis Lear# "%re ab%*

be!%"i#+ a "e"ber a .ia!f$.%r+.

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