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(A) 寫作前準備 (Prewriting)
當你提筆寫作時，會否感到腦中一片空白或不知從何開始？在一連幾節課中，
你將會學習到一些組織資料及意念的技巧，令你寫作時更易表達自己的思想和
論點。
1. 第一課 Brainstorming
當你看到題目時，將即時聯想到的意念寫下，首先可從一字（a word），
一短語（a phrase）開始，然後讓自己的思想隨意走，聯想到什麼便寫什麼，無
須講求邏輯，務求盡快在十數分鐘或指定時間內列出字詞表。跟著看看那些字詞
與題目相關，然後將它們組合成有用資料。
例子：
The following is an example of a brainstorm. The writer has marked with an asterisk(*) the ideas she could use to write a physical description of her mother.
cooking *fat *wrinkled *short *glasses meals iron clothes *spots on hands television *twinkle in eye market *grey hair
Topics:Travel family ICQ a memory a feara problem education vote dating
2. 第二課 Freewriting
這方法跟 Brainstorming 差不多，但 Freewriting 主要是寫句子，只須不停地寫
出心中所想，不論是好是壞，文法是否正確，有些人會喜歡用此方法，先寫出
文句來，然後才修改。在寫出意念時，不要回讀之前寫的東西，以免影響自己的
創作思路。如 Brainstorming 一樣，可在一定時間內任意寫作，待完成後，再重
讀自己的文章，找出可用的句子及材料，你可能會發現有些觀點過往從未提出
來。
例子：
The following is an example of freewriting from which the writer could develop a paragraph about a vivid memory.
“...I remember a time I got lost. I was a little boy---about 8 years old. It's a moon night festival. My family and I went to the Victoria Park. I played lantern and walked away. I don't remember where I was. I saw many people in the park. I remember I was sitting on the bench near the store. I was crying. A woman came to me and said like that---don't worry, it's ok, we'll find your mother. Then my brother came here. That's all I remember...”
Topics:
a custom in your country your jobyour school a recent tripa familiar place an attractive place in your countryyour favorite food your ICQ friend
3. 第三課 W-H Questions
當記者要寫一篇新聞稿時，都會在報道中回答以下的問題：
│ who │ what │ where │ when │ why │ how │
Who---誰在這事件中？What---這事件關於什麼？Where---這事件在那裡發生？
When---什麼時候發生？Why---為什麼會發生？最後是 How---這件事怎樣發生？
同樣地，你可以這些問題來組成作文的材料，從而讓自己由不同角度去看同
一主題，幫助自己定位。你無須安排一定次序，也不用擔心資料是否有用，只要
盡量提出多些 W-H 問題，然後逐一解答便可。當你完成後，再決定取捨那些材
料。
例子：
Here is an example of using W-H questions for invention. It is the first part of a list of questions that this writer, Shirley, developed. After completing this list of questions, she answered them. She used the information generated in her answers to write her essay.
My father (who) Lost his job (what) Department store (where) This February (when) Because the company closed (why)
Then generate more questions from the above hints.
Who is my father? What kind of a person is he? What do people think of him? What happened exactly? How did it happen? What did he say when he found out? How did he feel? Where does he work? Where is this place? What department does he work in? What does he do there?
活動教室：
Choose one of the following topics or choose your own topic. Then write as many W-H questions as you can on the topic and answer them. After 15 minutes, find out which information you want to keep or throw away.
Share your ideas with another person in the class. Do not make any marks on the paper, just try to get the main point. Write three suggestions to your partner.
Topics:
A family member your best friend A ghost camping A movie drug Rave party your favorite sights
4. 第四課 Role-playing on Paper
這種寫作策略又稱為「紙上談話」，當你使用此方式創作時，你扮演著自己和
一虛構人物，你和他分別就自己的身份來對話，藉以從另一角度來細看問題，
特別是反對意見方面，對你建立議題時有很大幫助。
例子：
The following is an example of role-playing on paper. May has a problem at her work. She has a conversation between herself and her supervisor, Julie.
May: I feel a lot of workload recently. I have forced to work until 9pm and even Saturday.
Julie: You understand that our company won't hire staffs this year. May: I know, but I still want to find a solution. For example, can somebody
help me do the daily report so that I could focus on planning our latest projects?
Julie: So, which one you think can do your report? I am afraid the other colleagues can't do it well as what you did before...
Topics:
Hacker Jump mail TV commercials X games (e.g. roller skating, roller blading)Raising a pet Workaholic ( a person who can't stop working)Fast food Smoking
5. 第五課 Clustering ( 串聯 )
這是串聯你的意念，由一小組變成一幅圖像。先將題目寫在紙的中間，用線圈
起，然後把聯想到的字詞寫出來，直至你想不到為止，完成後再看看那些資料
有用。
例子：
Here is an example of clustering. From this prewriting, the writer could develop an essay about the Lunar New Year Parade in Hong Kong.
crowded - line the streets
policemen
↑ ↑Applauding,
clappingblock some
streetsMagic – clowns
↑ ↑ ↑Onlookers &
touristsLast an hour Dance – native
costume→ Music – band
e.g. Mexico, Chinese
Lunar New Year Parade in
Hong Kong
Lion Dance Holiday Matches → throw flowers
↓ ↓Dragon Dance Moving one
by one← floats → different
countries↓ ↓
moving by people or engines
national symbols
Topics:
suicide computer games keep fitenvironmental protection Beauty contest
(B) 撰寫段落的要點 (Paragraph)
段落是文章的基礎，由一些句子組成，發展而成一個中心思想，換句話說，
段落是作者陳述一個主題“topic”，所以文章的布局結構往往可從段落中反映出
來。
1. 第一課： TOPIC
當你看到一個主題時，要先縮窄 (narrow down) 所寫的題目內容，例如：
Drugs Effects of Smoking Drugs
Effects on Health Effects on Memory
這段落是討論吸毒的影響,引申題目至「記憶力衰退」，這樣你便可專注此項來
寫這段落了。現在，試就此題目收窄所寫的內容：
Drugs
Reasons People Smoke It ---------------------
------------------
The Topic Sentence 主題句 :
撰寫段落時，首先須要決定你的寫作目的，而當你擬定了主意（idea）後，
便可以開始寫這段落的主題句。
寫主題句的要點包括：
1) 主題句共分兩部份：Topic + Controlling Idea
例如：
Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. Topic Controlling Idea
2) 主題句不能太含糊，範圍太大，令人不明白你的重點；若主題句太細緻，
則很難再去闡述或討論下去，所以要在限定範圍內展開你的話題。
例如：
Exercise is good for you. (too general)
Aerobic exercise is good for your health. (suitable)
Driving a car can be hazardous. (too general)
Drunk driving is hazardous. (suitable)
3) 主題句可放在段落之首，中間或是最後，也可隱藏於句中，視乎你想怎樣
表達。不過，很多時候，在開首寫出主題句的方式，較容易引起讀者的注意，同
時，便於環繞中心主題鋪陳開展下文，引導讀者了解段落大意。
4) 主題句必須表達你對該題目的獨特見解，所持態度，或是理據所在，才能
吸引讀者繼續看下去。
Exercise:
An interesting custom A memorable teacher Video games Gambling Typhoon Communication
2. 第二課： Supporting Details
當你決定了主題句 (Topic sentence)後，下一步便是提出論點，支持或說明
你的主題句，包括：
Examples, information, evidence, facts etc.
例如：
A final examination in a course will give a student the initiative to do his or her best work throughout the course. Students who are only taking notes and attending classes in order to pass a few short tests will not put forth their best effort. For instance, some of my friends in drama, in which there is no final examination, take poor notes, which they throw away after each short test. Skipping classes also becomes popular. Imagine the incredible change a final examination would produce. Students would have to take good notes and attend all classes in order to be prepared for the final examination.
--- Suzanne Gremillion
這段落的中心思想說明：“ The advantages of the final examination”。首句先點
明主旨，並以戲劇班為例，加強主題的說服力，每句的意思都環繞著這個中心
開展，作出比較，最後一句撮要本段意思。
現以表列出此段之結構，令大家更容易明白。
Topic: The advantages of a final examinationTopic Sentence: A final examination in a course will give a student the
initiative to do his or her best work throughout the course.Supporting Details: (Reasons:)
If there is no final examination, some students: 1) will not try their best. 2) take poor notes
3) throw away the notes after each short test 4) skip class
Conclusion: (what kind of conclusion: hope for change, summary or advice?)Students would have to take good notes and attend all classes in order to be prepared for the final examination.(summary)
Exercise:
1. Divide the following paragraph into three parts: introduction, supporting details and conclusion.
2. Which sentence has the main idea of the paragraph? 3. The writer must support his main idea. How many reasons or examples does the
writer give? 4. Does the writer give details to explain each reason or example? 5. Does the writer use any special words in the discussion to help you understand
how many reasons or examples he has? 6. What does the conclusion do? Does it give a summary, hope for a change or give
advice?
Times Squares is unquestionably the center of entertainment in New York City. There are nearly a hundred Broadway theaters and Off-Broadway stages. People can choose many kinds of musicals from international well-known classical to lively and unusual productions. For example, I have seen several Broadway shows like “Cats” and “Miss Saigon.” I enjoyed the emotional songs and experienced their joys and sadness. Besides Broadway theaters, there are a lot of movie theaters in which most recent Hollywood first-run films are shown. People can see different popular films and spend a whole day in these theaters. Moreover, during lunchtime, there are some street performances such as Jazz and Hard Rock. People crowd the street and listen to ethnic and experimental music with special sound effects. As a result, no one feels bored in Times Squares as it brings her or him a rich variety of entertainment like Broadway musicals, movies and street shows.
Topic sentence: First reason:Support:
Second reason:Support:
Third reason:Support:
Conclusion: What kind of conclusion: hope for change, summary or advice?
3. 第三課： Unity & Coherence
Unity 統一性
段落中每一句均須與此段的主題相關，並提供資料來支援主題，句子間必須
先後有序，合乎邏輯，否則便會欠缺統一性。當你寫下一段落時，必須檢查每句
的內容是否依據主旨，如果不是的話，便要修改或移到另一段。
例如：
Learning a foreign language has changed. Not long ago, students would sit with pen in hand, writing the basic forms of a language, learning structures they would never be able to speak. In that same classroom today, pens and notebooks have been put away. The spoken sounds of foreign tongue fill the room. Today the last skill learned --- writing a foreign language --- comes as a natural and possible part of the total language-learning process. Yet, just a few years ago, the last skill learned was the first skill mastered today --- speaking a foreign tongue. To visit some foreign countries, travelers have to apply for visas.
Topic sentence: Learning a foreign language has changed.
*不統一句子：To visit some foreign countries, travelers have to apply for visas.
由以上段落可見每句均圍繞主旨而發展，主題句：「學習外國語言已經改變
了」，但當中有一句：「To visit some foreign countries, travelers have to apply for visas.」則是說申請護照的，明顯地不合此段主題 learning a foreign language，所
以必須移走此句，才使本段意思歸一。
Coherence 連貫性
段落除了須要統一性及文字流暢外，還要句與句，字與字之間有連貫性，要
達到此點，便須作出適當排序，如果一段落內句子不統一，則即使有連貫性也
沒用，反之，若沒有連繫的句子亂成一團，就算全部與主旨有關，也是令讀者
看不懂，所以，要做好構段，unity 及 coherence 二者缺一不可。
要令一段落有連貫性，可使用 transitional words，現以第二課的練習題說明
之：
Times Squares is unquestionably the center of entertainment in New York City. There are nearly a hundred Broadway theaters and Off-Broadway stages. People can choose many kinds of musicals from international well-known classical to lively and unusual productions. For example, I have seen several Broadway shows like “Cats” and “Miss Saigon.” I enjoyed the emotional songs and experienced their joys and sadness. Besides Broadway theaters, there are a lot of movie theaters in which most recent Hollywood first-run films are shown. People can see different popular films and spend a whole day in these theaters. Moreover, during lunchtime, there are some street performances such as Jazz and Hard Rock. People crowd the street and listen to ethnic and experimental music with special sound effects. As a result, no one feels bored in Times Squares as it brings her or him a rich variety of entertainment like Broadway musicals, movies and street shows.
從以上段落中，可以找到一些 transitional words，即「For example, Besides, Moreover, As a result,」用以增加句子之間的連貫性，令段落安排更有次序，而透
過這些轉折詞及字，令讀者亦易於明白和找到支持主旨的理據 Supporting Details。
Exercise:
Choose one of the following topic sentences, and write a plan for a paragraph. First, copy the topic sentence, and then list three to four points to support it. Finally, make your conclusion.
Topic Sentences1) New York City is the best city in the world because it has a lot of opportunities to
study. 2) Some promises are easy to make and hard to keep. 3) Standing in a subway station, I began to appreciate the place. 4) Although many young people use suicide as a threat, it should be seen as a call
for help. 5) Knowing another language will bring you greater respect when negotiating or
dealing abroad.
4. 第四課： Transitions & Conjunctions
句子中的連接詞或字可以幫助段落的連貫性，所以在這一課中特別介紹一些
常見的 Transitions & Conjunctions 供大家參考之用。
1) Transitions:
Purpose Transitional Expressions 表示時間 next, then, after, before, later, soon, during, while, meanwhile, following,
shortly, thereafter, the next day, finally. 表示地方 above, over, inside, to the left/right, behind, beyond, in the center, straight
ahead, next to, on the side, at the top, opposite, below, under, at the front, around, near.
表示順序 first, second, next, then, last, finally, above all, first of all. 表示補充 in addition, moreover, similarly, likewise, and, again, also, besides,
further, furthermore, 表示轉折 but, however, conversely, in spite of, nevertheless, even though, on the
other hand, after all, still, on the contrary, yet, whereas. 表示比較 by comparison, likewise, similarly, in the same way. 表示結果 as a result, thus, hence, accordingly, therefore, consequently, then, so. 表示原因 because, for, as, since, owing to. 表示例證 for example, for instance, to illustrate. 表示總結 in short, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up, therefore, in brief, to
conclude, all in all, in other words. 加強語氣 certainly, undoubtedly, indeed, truly, in fact, surely.
2) Coordinate Conjunctions
記住這兩個英文字：FAN BOYS，便會受用無窮，它們是七個 Coordinate Conjunctions 的字首，即：
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Coordinate ConjunctionsPurpose Example
for reason John couldn't use the pay phone, for he didn't have any coins with him.
and parallel or equal side Florida has a sunny weather, and its coastline offers excellent white sand beaches.
nor two equal negative sides Anne has never been dishonest, nor does she intend to start being so now.
but contrasting idea The bread was not fresh, but Jenny ate it anyway. or alternative side Edward can't be ill, or he wouldn't have come. yet unexpected idea Maria is a funny girl, yet you can't help liking
her. so result of the first clause It is very dark, so I can't find my way home.
5. 第五課：寫段落的方法 ( 一 )
(1) 按時間順序（ Time ）：
這是一個最常用的構段方法，以事件發生先後而順序描述。以下是記敘新年
花車遊行的過程，大家留意一些連接詞在這段落中有效加強其可讀性。
Lunar New Year Parade in Hong Kong
Starting in 1996, the Hong Kong Tourist Association organizes a Lunar New Year Parade every year to promote tourism and celebrate this traditional festival. By one o'clock, on third day of January in the lunar calendar, many tourists coming from different countries, together with local people, line the streets of Tsim Sha Tsui, which is the heart of the city, for the parade. When they hear the beat of the drums and the traditional New Year songs approaching, they shout loudly and applaud as the parade begins. At about two o'clock, the main activities – the Lion Dance and the Dragon Dance – lead nearly a hundred floats which represent various associations, large corporations and countries. Moving one by one, some of them wear native costume and dance to their national music. Sometimes, they get off their floats and walk into the crowd. Then they shake hands with people warmly. After a half hour, the parade reaches its climax. Some movie stars with cheerful smiles show up and throw flowers and souvenirs to the crowd. People in the front row go to get them quickly and wave to the float happily. Some tourists take pictures of the various kinds of floats and ask the movie stars to sign their tee shirts. Next, come the clowns and magicians who wear colorful costumes and heavy make-up. They give balloons to the children and practice magic. Around an hour later, the last float passes by and most of the people begin to leave the streets. After the parade, the city becomes calm and well ordered.
以上一段時間順序清晰可見：
By one o'clock → At about two o'clock → After a half hour → Around an hour later
其中還有一些連接詞幫助句子間的聯繫：
When, Then, Next, After.
各位可以參考上一課有關表示時間的連接詞。
(2) 按空間發展（ Space ） :
描寫空間環境，有人喜歡由遠到近，或恰恰相反，以空間為序，隨步移而轉
景，將所見到的都寫下來。你可以集中陳述一些物件的所在地，由一項移到另一
項，排列有序，才能顯示作者在空間上的移轉。
My Green Room
My room on the second floor of an American couple’s semi-detached house is large and “green.” It is the largest room in the house with bright green walls and a white square-patterned ceiling. When you step into my room, you will feel fresh and comfortable. Under your feet is a grass carpet that covers the whole room. As you walk straight ahead, a white wooden cabinet with a small magazine tray is on your left. Then you can rest on a round green armchair in front of the cabinet. Opposite the armchair is my nice green sofa covered in a piece of white flower-patterned cloth. My bed, which is covered in a grassy bedspread, is adjacent to the sofa. Behind the head of the bed is a big mirror with two tall wooden cabinets, filled with my favorite books, at both sides. The white wooden desk and a pretty floor lamp sit against the cabinets. There is a small graceful white table lamp and a clock radio at the corner of my desk. I put some family pictures and posters of still-life paintings on this wall, so they can help me relax and generate more new ideas. A colorful, cute and square wall clock above the posters completely matches the green wall. It looks like a beautiful butterfly on a tree. On the right-hand side of the room is a great closet with all my clothes, shoes and some extra space for future winter coats. Next to the closet are two windows with white silk curtains. They face a sunny park. Every morning, you can see some little birds on the windowsill and smell the fresh grass and lovely flowers. I feel that I live in a “green” room – a part of the cheerful park.
以上一段，作者先描述自己房間的位置，跟著是牆壁和天花板，當進入房間
後，首先接觸到的是地毯，繼續走前幾步，會看見各項家具，令讀者的眼睛不
斷游視，從一物件轉移到另一物件上，句子間排列有序，尤其運用了很多表示
空間的連接詞（有橫線字），同時，作者運用很多形容詞如顏色，形狀，物料
等，大大加強物件的具體形象，令人易看易明。
為了表現事物的具體化形象，我們可以使用一些形容詞，以下是一些使用次
序情況：
Pronoun Noun
Article GeneralAdjective
Size Shape Age Color Origin Nouns as Adjectives
Noun Pronoun Noun
Material Non Material
Most of the beautiful little metal toysAn elegant antique Chinese flower vase
Some round black chairs
例如：單是玩具一名詞，可以有很多形容詞來表達，但前後次序是有規定的。
Most of the beautiful little metal toys
An elegant antique Chinese flower vase
Some round black chairs
即如上一段 "My Green Room" 中：
a white wooden cabinet
a round green armchair
A colorful, cute and square wall clock
Exercises:Choose one of the following topics and write a paragraph:
Development of Time:A Halloween nightA celebration of my friend's birthdayA wedding banquet
Development by Space:My roomMy classroomMy working place
6. 第六課：寫段落的方法 ( 二 )
(3) 舉例法（ Examples ）：
在中文寫作時，我們很多時會看見題目中要求作答者"舉例說明之"，而英
文寫作也一樣。例證可以幫助闡述或澄清主題，使陳述句 Statement 有說服力，
試看以下例子：
The English word for many things is not the same as the American one. For example, curtains are "drapes", a holiday is a "vacation", a cinema is "the movies", a cookery book is a "cook-book", a label is a "tag" and a life is an "elevator." The pavement is the "sidewalk", petrol is "gasoline." Biscuits, if sweet, are "cookies", if plain, are "crackers." Sweets are "candy", a tin is a "can", the underground (railway) is the "subway", and the Englishman's trousers and waistcoat are the American's "pants" and "vest."
上述段落主題是首句，跟著有 supporting details 表示例證，說明了英式英語
和美式英語用字上的差異。如果覺得用 for example, for instance, to illustrate 等連
接詞用得太多，不妨參考上述段落，改用其他詞句。
表示順序
first, second, next, then, last, finally, above all, first of all.表示補充
in addition, moreover, similarly, likewise, and, again, also, besides, further, furthermore.
(4) 過程陳述法（ Process ）：
如果要說明一件事件發生的經過，我們大多以時間的先後次序來表達，由第
一個程序／步驟開始，直到最後的程序／步驟，例如怎樣寫一篇論文，如何做
紙，如何做化學實驗等。
How do you make a telephone call? First, you lift the telephone receiver. Then, you listen for the dial tone. Next, you dial the number you want. After that, you carry on a conversation. Finally, when finished, you put the receiver back on the telephone base.
上述例子主題句是如何撥電話，跟著是 step-by-step說明整個程序，當中運
用了許多連接詞來表明先後次序。
(5) 敘述詳情法（ Detail ）：
這方法最常用於敘述個人的經驗或一些歷史事件，例如：我目擊一宗交通意
外或我的第一份暑期工，通常我們會以發生時間，地點，經過，與事件有關人
物作內容，就像報導新聞一樣。
I went on a short visit to my hometown during the summer vacation . I haven't been there for seven years and the changes that have taken place nearly took my breath away. The streets are much broader and flanked by new modern buildings. The old village shops where the villagers used to sell their eggs and rice for exchange of vegetable and oil were gone. They were replaced by a new department store, which offers for sale almost everything that the villagers need, including electrical appliances and household products. Near the motorcycle store, there also appear some small stores for businesses. In some of them fashionable clothes can be made or bought. In others you can get a decent meal or drink. My old neighbor also runs a small shop for repairing bicycles and cars. Crowds of people are shopping every day. The school where I studied has also been replaced by a bigger one with a school library. During the evening the villagers go there to read books and magazines. I was fascinated by all this.
以上敘述作者返回故鄉時所目睹的轉變，從街道，店舖，舊鄰居，以至學校
都跟昔日不同了，作者把今天的家鄉風貌詳細地呈現出來，令讀者如同身歷其
境。
Exercises:
I) Start with a topic sentence and develop it by detail:1. I saw a very funny film yesterday.2. The idea of marriage as a way of life has changed recently.
II) Start with a topic sentence and develop it by examples:1. Several useful and interesting courses have been offered this term.2. There are many kinds of programs on television that young people like to watch.
III) Start with a topic sentence and develop it by process:1. Wind is simply moving air.2. How do you make a sandwich?
7. 第七課：寫段落的方法 ( 三 )
(6) 因果關係法（ Cause and Effect ）：
這方法是以因與果構成一段落，顧名思義，文句必須分析事件或陳述句的因
果關係，而邏輯性的理據佔最重要，但要說清楚卻不容易，原因是一個"因"可
以引來很多後果，而一個"果"也可能來自很多原因，所以在撰寫時，必先考慮
那些因或果最有說明力。
I) 由因到果（ From Causes to Effect ）：
Example 1:
A lack of exercise is one of the major factors contributing to obesity（過度肥胖）. When we eat, we consume energy (measured as calories). When we exercise, we expend energy or burn up calories. For example, when we run for an hour, we burn up approximately 450 calories, depending on our body size. When the number of calories we consume exceeds the number we burn up, the excess energy is stored in the body in the form of fat. If a person is inactive, it is more likely that he will not burn up all the calories consumed, so obesity can result.
本段思路清晰，說明引致過度肥胖的其中一個原因是缺少運動，並以跑步為
例，指出運動可以燃燒熱量（卡路里），若果一個人缺少運動，便無法把進食
所吸收的熱量去除。當然，如果這是一篇文章，作者還可寫出其他引致肥胖的原
因，如：過度進食（Overeating），遺傳影響（Hereditary influences），以及新
陳代謝緩慢（Slow metabolic rate）等。
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Example 2:
Cigarette smoke contains nicotine（尼古丁）, several cancer producing or irritating substances, and carbon monoxide gas（一氧化碳氣）. Damage to the lining of the bronchial tubes（支氣管） is much more common among cigarette smokers than non-smokers, even when there is no obvious disease. Some of these changes are considered to be pre-cancerous. Lung function is generally reduced among cigarette smokers. Cigarette smoking is a greater danger than other factors －
such as community air pollution － in the causation of lung cancer and chronic
bronchitis（慢性支氣管炎）.
本段說明吸煙帶來許多後果，同上一段近似，用吸煙與不吸煙者作出比較，
更加強主題的說服力。
II) 由果及因（ From Effect back to Cause ）：
We all know the story "Dong Shi blindly imitated Xi Shi"(東施效顰). Dong Shi, an ugly woman, heard that Xi Shi was as beautiful as a fairy. One day she went to see for herself. however, Xi Shi happened to be sick that day with stomachache. She knitted her eyebrows and wore a painful expression, yet she was still surprisingly beautiful. Dong Shi mistakenly thought that her beauty derived form the painful expression on her face. Therefore Dong She knitted her eyebrows in imitation of Xi Shi. of course, she looked even uglier. The story shows us that in the pursuit of beauty we must bear in mind that truth, only truth, is beautiful. Anything artificial or false is ugly.
本段從表面看，是由故事的鋪寫到寓意，而實質上，寓意是因，而故事則是
果。
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寫作技巧：
在撰寫因果關係的段落或文章時，可從以下幾種方向思考：
1) Multiple Causes --> Effect
就以上述過度肥胖症為例：
Causes: Effect:Hereditary influences
→Obesity
Lack of exerciseSlow metabolic rateOvereating
形成過度肥胖症的原因有很多種，有些人因為缺少運動，有些人因為遺傳，
有些更可能是社會或環境因素，所以，當你要寫此題目時，必須對每種成因作
出解釋，才能有說服力，你可以用 facts, examples, data, case study等來支持自己
的論點。
Example: 你可以用本欄 Part A 所提及 Brainstorm, Free-writing等創作法去撰寫
文章的大綱:
Outline for an essay:
Causes for My fear of the Water: 1. I can't swim. 2. When I was a child, my mother wouldn't let me go near the water. 3. I don't like the feel of being immersed in water. 4. My eyes are bad. When I take off my glasses in the water, I can't see. 5. I don't trust water. I don't think it will hold me.
2) Cause --> Multiple Effects
某些題目是說明陳述句的影響，即一個"因"可引致很多"果"，我們要從多角
度去看題目，才能全面兼顧，而且要清楚說明因果兩者的關係，例子如下：
Causes: Effects:Excessive Consumption ofSugar
→Blood Sugar Imbalances Tooth Decay Hyperactivity in Children Weight Gain
3) The Causal Chain 連鎖因果關係
連鎖關係意指一個果引來一個因及另一個果，如是者，因果相連。例如：一個
超重的吸煙者有呼吸問題，如何改善此情況呢？
Shortness of breath Cause↓ ↓
Quit smoking effect↓ ↓cause
Breathe more easily Effect↓ ↓cause
Felt better Effect↓ ↓cause
Started exercise program Effect↓ ↓cause
Lost weight effect
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Exercise:
Below is a set of effects that are given in no particular order. Decide which of the effects are immediate and which are remote. Then organize them into an outline for an essay. Choose one of effects to develop a paragraph.
The Effects of Watching Television:1. People get fat.2. There are more divorces.3. More people get eyestrain.4. There is more violent crime in our cities.5. People are lonely.6. People are more afraid of each other.7. People do not like reading anymore.
8. 第八課：寫段落的方法 ( 四 )
(7) 對比法（ Comparison and Contrast ）
當我們要比較兩件事或兩個人時，除了指出其相同之處外，更會說明兩者不
同的地方。有時候，我們想描述一地方時，也會與另一地方作比較，例如：當我
們要說新加坡的經濟時，可能會以香港的情況作一比較，包括政府施政，銀行
體系，金融信貸等，令讀者更清楚明白。
一般來說，可有兩種方法來表達。第一種是先詳細說明一件事物的情況，再開
始另一項，又稱縱向比較（item-by-item comparison）。第二種是同時比較兩件
事物，穿插說明其異或同處，又稱為橫向比較（point-by-point comparison）。
縱向比較（ item-by-item comparison ）：
No two people are exactly alike, and my two older brothers, Sam and Peter, are no exceptions. Even though they have the same parents, their differences in looks,
attitude, and personality toward life reflect the differences between Eastern and Western cultures.
Like the majority of Asian men, Sam is short and has a full-moon shaped face. His smooth white skin and small arms and feet made him look somewhat delicate. Moreover, he likes to wear formal and traditional clothes.
In contrast to Sam, Peter who is his younger brother by eight years, looks more like an American boxer. He is tall and big-boned. His face is long and angular as a western character. Unlike Sam, Peter has strong feet and arms, and whereas Sam has smooth skin. In addition, Peter likes to wear causal tee-shirts and jeans or sport clothes.
本例子是比較兩兄弟的不同處，從外形，樣貌，以至衣著方面，Sam 像亞洲男士，但他的弟弟 Peter則似美國人，分別由第二段落和第三段落表示出來。
橫向比較（ point-by-point comparison ）：
Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. However, life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual than that in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they have to go to one of the public parks. On the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but a suburban dweller must go into the city for entertainment.
以上一段落是用穿插方式表達城市人和鄉民的生活各有不同，當中應用了一
些表示相反的連接詞，如：however, but, on the other hand等。
常用的比較及相反連接詞
（Transitions for Comparison & Contrast）
1. Transitions in Phrases 連接詞後須用名詞 Noun，而片語 phrase通常放在句子的前面，同時之後要用
逗號 comma（,）。
表示相同：
Similar to New York, Washington attracts many tourists.
Like many top-level universities, San Francisco University also asked for my high school grades.
表示相反：
Different from the musical hall, the Cultural Center has comfortable seats.
Compared with Toronto, Vancouver has a very warm climate.Unlike before, the apartment building was now rundown and in disrepair.
2. Coordinating Conjunctions as Transitions 一般用 but 及 yet 去表示相反的意思，使用時，Coordinating Conjunctions 會出
現在兩完整句子中間，並用逗號放在前面。
The business seat is more expensive than the economy seat on flights, yet it has better meals and comfortable seat.
3. 其他可參考 Part B 第四課之 Transitions & Conjunctions
Exercise:
Choose one of the following writing assignments.
1. Compare and contrast two people, or two products.
2. Have you ever visited or lived a place you had left a long time ago and found it has changed considerably? Compare and contrast the "way it was" with the "way it is now." Have things changed for the better or the worse?
9. 第九課：寫段落的方法 ( 五 )
(8) 分類法（ Classification ）
如果題目範圍廣泛的話，可按其內容先歸納分類，形成小組，再研究彼此
間的關係，令讀者更易明白。當你要進行項目分類時，首先會先找出項目的特性，
例如，要將一班學生分組時，可以用他們的成績來分，成績好的在一組，其次
的在一組，最差的在一組；但我們也可用學生的體型，體重，甚至體能來分組，
視乎你用什麼原則來分類，而每篇文章最好只用一種原則作分類。
步驟：
1. 根據一種原則，如衣著類型－formal, semiformal, casual2. 描述及對每一類作出定義，如什麼是 formal dressing3. 每一類都作舉例說明，如以服裝 sweat shirts, tee-shirts屬於 casual dressing，
你也可以場合來舉例，如在晚宴時，與會人士多穿著 formal dressing4. 對比各類的特點
5. 總結
Kinds of Hotels
Hotels are found in every country and city of the world and even in communities with few inhabitants. That’s why the hotel industry ranks high among the largest worldwide industries. Today, the lodging industry offers many new alternatives for the traveling public. Some properties offer luxury accommodations; others offer budget accommodations; while still others accommodate the need of travelers to be away from home. Whatever the reason, there are many different kinds of hotels and they can be classified according to their size, facility, type, price, or service. Generally, we can classify these hotels into three large groups based on location.
Airport hotels accommodate the air traveler. Because air travel has become more common, this kind of hotel has become more popular. The principal distinction is that it is located near airports. It is very convenient to the traveler. Its guests include passengers with short stay-over or cancelled flights and travelers who are in business. The length of stay is between one to three days for the guests. These kinds of hotels provide a limited level of service and the rates are usually between low to medium. The Hilton, the Marriott, and the TraveLodge are among the smaller hotel chains.
Downtown hotels, also called commercial hotels, are located near large office complexes and retail stores in the major metropolitan areas. Their primary markets are in the business industry. The downtown hotels are near business destinations for daytime activities and are close to city’s entertainment center for nighttime activities. This combination is attractive to people attending meetings and conventions. Although the primary market for these hotels is the business traveler, many tourists use them as well. The length of stay for the guests is between three to five days and rates can run between medium to high depending on the hotel. The downtown hotels have a variety of services such as room service, a coffee shop, laundry services, a gift shop and a swimming pool. The downtown Hyatt-Regency is a well-known hotel in this category.
There are also the resort hotels located near the beaches, mountains, or spas. Resorts hotels are destinations or parts of a destination complex and their primary clients are vacationers and recreation-minded people. Guests in these resorts can spend from one week to an entire season. The resorts hotels must provide guest entertainment. Because the resort guests expect to be entertained right on the premises, they are willing to pay higher rates. The level of service is much higher than what an airport or downtown hotel offers. These complexes are designed with the family and children in mind. The most famous of these is the Walt Disney World Resort, which includes not only the theme park but also all varieties of water sports, campgrounds, and golf courses.
There may be a few other general areas where hotels are located, such as along the interstate highways, but most of them are located near airports, in the downtown areas, and in resort areas.
以上一文是以酒店的種類為題，作者以酒店的”位置”來分類，共分為三
組，首先是機場酒店，其次是下城酒店（或稱商務酒店），最後是渡假式酒店，
作者介紹每類酒店的不同特點，包括：位置、住客類型、價錢、設施等 ，並作出
比較分析，令文章層次分明，同時亦舉例說明，加強理據的說明力，最後一段
則作總結。大家在撰寫有關分類的文章或段落時，不妨以此作參考。
Transitions for Classification
在撰寫一篇分類的文章時，我們可以同時使用對照法及舉例法。
1. 介紹類別時，可使用：
The first group includes those……
The next group includes those……
The last group includes those……
And finally, there is the type that……
2. 表示相同或相異時，可使用：
Unlike the hard-working student, the……
However, like the hard-working student, the……
This class is more boring than the……
3. 表示例子，可使用：
For example, when one student asked him to repeat his explanation, he became very angry.
Peter is typical of the hard-working student.
4. 強調重要性：
Of the four types of students, the hard-working students are……
This group is in the majority.
其他可參考 Part B 第四課之 Transitions & Conjunctions
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Exercise:
Choose one of the following topics for a classification paragraph or essay:
Types of exercise programs Types of television programs The books you read Types of retail stores
(C) 寫文章的要點 (Writing an Essay)
了解到段落的寫作方法，現在可以學習如何撰寫一篇文章。基本的短文可分
三部分：開始段落（Introductory Paragraph），發展段落（Development Paragraphs），總結段落（Concluding Paragraph），作者除了有好的內容外，還
須要提供及組織資料，支持自己的觀點，最後是清楚了解讀者，才能吸引他們
細讀自己的作品。
1. 第一課：記敘文（ Narrative Essay ）
記敘是指敘述事件的經過表現，情景，人物的經歷的一種文章體裁。一般可
分為兩類型：第一是事實記敘，對事件進行寫實性敘述，如新聞報導，傳記，
訪問，遊記等；第二是想像記敘，如小說，散文，故事等。
記敘文在敘述時最好能夠令讀者有置身現場的感覺，所以文章須要具體而生
動，能繪聲繪影，平時多留意身邊發生的事情，多閱報章書刊，都可對情景的
描寫更傳神。
記敘文的注意事項：
（一）敘述的人稱：
（I） First-person narrator 第一人稱敘述：你可以當事人，即第一人稱來
敘述，把文章中的事情以“我”所見所聞來告訴讀者，用主觀的表現手法，給
讀者一種親切自然的感覺，如同親身經歷一樣，加強事件的可信性，直接抒發
作者的思想情感，從而引起讀者的共鳴。
（II） Third-person narrator 第三人稱敘述：你亦可以用旁觀者的觀點與
角度來敘述事件，以客觀的寫作方法，能夠充分反映事件中各人的感受及見解，
以全知的視角來敘述。
（二）敘述的內容：
一篇記敘文應注意交代清楚事情的始末，細節，以及線索，即是何時，何
地，何事，何人和為何（when, where, what, who and why / how），全文有條有
理，使讀者易於明白。
1. 事件：為了吸引讀者的注意，可以從一些糾紛或交叉事件開展，直到高
潮出現，再將問題解決。
2. 人物：集中各主要人物的描寫，記敘人物遇到的事情，及對人物有什麼
影響。
3. 時式：一般多採用 simple past tense 及 active verbs.
（三）敘述的方法：
一般敘述的線索可分為以下方向：
（I） 以時間為線索，按時間的推移來發展；
（II） 以地點為線索，按地點的轉移來發展；
（III） 以事件發展的過程為線索，或以人物出現的先後次序來展開；
（IV） 以事物的象徵意義為線索；
（V） 以人物的思想行為及認知來展開。
敘述的方法大致分三種：
（I） 順敘：主要按作者的思路而開展，並根據事件發生經過及先後次序來敘述，
或以時間來推移，地點的前後變化，人物的出現先後次序來敘述，而在敘述事
情時避免太呆板，平鋪直述，最好在順中有折，描寫多些環境與人物的變化。
（II） 倒敘：與順敘相反，倒敘將事件的結尾或高潮放在文章起首部分，然後
再根據事件的經過情形敘述出來。有些情況則是以目前所見的事物，再回憶從前
的往事。正由於倒敘較為懸疑，對讀者的吸引力就較大，好像一些偵探小說，能
觸發起讀者一切去思考探索。
（III） 插敘：指在文章原來的敘述中，插入對有關事件的敘述，跟著再接回原
來的線索，使文章不致於平鋪直述，能夠在情節上或人物描寫上有更多刻劃。
插敘有三種表現形式：
1. 補敘：補充敘述中所缺的段落，在敘述中先隱藏某些重要內容或情節，
做成懸念，待讀者思考，直到事件發生後，再作補充說明。
2. 追敘：指追憶過去的片段或事件，通常用以說明事件的因由或來龍去脈，
豐富文章的內容。
3. 分敘：在記敘文中，有時會出現同一時間內有多於一件事情發生，為了
說明有關的情況，便要對兩件或以上的事情分開敘述，可採用輪流敘述的方式
去表達。
Example: One afternoon in late August, as the summer's sun streamed into the car and made little jumping shadows on the windows, I sat gazing out at the tenement-dwellers, who were themselves looking out of their windows from the gray crumbling buildings along the tracks of upper Manhattan. As we crossed into the Bronx, the train unexpectedly slowed down for a few miles. Suddenly from our of my window I saw a sight I would never be able to forget: a little boy almost severed in halves, lying at an incredible angle near the track. The ground was covered with blood, and the boy's
eyes were opened wide, strained and disbelieving in his sudden oblivion. A policeman stood next to him, his arms folded, staring straight ahead at the windows of our train. In the orange glow of late afternoon the policemen, the crowd, the corpse of the boy were for a brief moment immobile, motionless, a small tableau to violence and death in the city. Behind me m in the next row of seats, there was a game of bridge. I heard one of the four men say as he looked out at the sight, “God, that's horrible.” Another said, in a whisper, “Terrible, terrible.” There was a momentary silence, punctuated only by the clicking of wheels on the track. Then, after the pause, I heard the first man say: “Two hearts.”
(Willie Morris, On a Commuter Train)
就以上例子進行分析：
（I） 脈絡（context）：包含了記敘文的基本要素—when, where, what, who, why，最初先交代事件的背景──時間，地點，發生何事，中間敘述
事件的經過，結尾表明作者的態度，全文清晰有序。
（II） 取材（selection of details）：敘述作者目擊一宗意外的情況，但文
章沒有說明所有作者所見所聞，而是有所選擇地記敘，雖只有一小段落，
但已令人感到身歷其境。
（III） 組織（organization）：以時間先後為線索，順敘鋪陳事件的出現。
（IV） 觀點（point of view）：作者是以第一人稱來敘述，增強敘事的真
實性。
（V） 目的（purpose）：敘述文往往是在敘述一件事件的基礎上向讀者昭
示一些什麼，而本例子說明作者對這件事件的態度。
Exercise: Choose one of the topics and write a composition about 120 words.
1. A visit to my hometown (or a city)(for your reference: when you paid the visit; what kind of weather it was; where you went; who went with you; what you did and saw on the way; the route that you followed; when you started back home…)
2. A traffic accident
(for your reference: when you went out; whether you walked or went by bus; what you saw on the way; how the traffic accident happened; any person was injured in the accident; when the ambulance or policemen arrived; what you did there…)
第二課：描寫文（ Descriptive Essay ）
（一） 描寫文是用生動而形象化的語言把人物，事件及環境具體刻劃出來，
如心理描寫，動作描寫，景色描寫，場景描寫等。有時候，描寫文與記敘文會互
相補充，使文章更多變化。
描寫可分為兩方面：
（I） 客觀描寫：將描寫的對象如實地描繪，不帶有感情成分，令讀者有所
知。所以在描寫時，注意多用名詞及動詞，少用帶有主觀判斷的形容詞。
（II） 主觀描寫：著重感情色彩，以求把一種情緒或意境傳神地表現出來。
在用詞時，可多選用感情色彩較重的形容詞。
Example 1 （客觀描寫）：
It was a narrow room, with a rather high ceiling, and crowded from floor to ceiling with goodies. There were rows and rows of hams and sausages of all shapes and colors – white, yellow, red, and black; fat and lean and round and long – rows of canned preserves, cocoa and tea, bright translucent glass bottles of honey, marmalade, and jam; around bottles and slender bottles, filled with liqueurs and punch – all these things crowded every inch of the shelves from top to bottom.
Example 2 （主觀描寫）：
Whenever our children came to stay at my grandmother’s house, we were put to sleep in the sewing room, a bleak, shabby, utilitarian rectangle, more office than bedroom, more attic than office, that played to the hierarchy of chambers the role of poor relation. It was a room without pride: the old sewing machine, some cast-off chairs, a shapeless lamp, rolls of wrapping paper, piles of cardboard boxed that might someday come in handy, papers of pins, and remnants of a material united with the iron folding cots put out for our use and the bare floor boards to give an impression of intense and ruthless temporality. Thin white spreads, of the kind used in hospitals and charity institutions, and naked blinds at the windows reminded us of our orphaned condition and of the ephemeral character of our visit; there was nothing here to encourage us to consider this our home.
描寫的方法：
（I） 白描（general description）：抓住描寫對象的某些主要特徵作概括的描
繪勾勒。
（II） 細描（specific description）：著重細緻刻劃描寫對象的典型特徵。
Example 3 （白描）：
An old and popular New England tradition for resident and visitor alike, is relaxing walk through one of our historical cemeteries….
Haphazard rows of slate tablets give way in time to simple marble tablets bearing urn and willow motifs. The latter in turn lose popularity to marble gravestones of a variety of sizes and shapes and often arranged in groups or family plots. The heyday of ornate marble memorials lasted into the 1920s, when measured rows of uniformly sized granite blocks replaced them.Example 4 （細描）：
The stones are marble, modernly glossy and simple, though I suppose that time will eventually reveal them as another fashion, dated and quaint. Now, the sod is still raw, the sutures of turf and unhealed, the earth still humped, the wreaths scarcely withered…I remember my grandfather’s funeral, the hurried cross of sand the minister drew on the coffin lid, the whine of the lowering straps, the lengthening, cleanly cut sides of clay, the thought of air, the lack of air forever in the close dark space lined with pink satin….
描寫的對象：
（I） 人物描寫：刻劃人物的外貌及思想感情，而思想感情往往通過人物本身的
言行舉止表現出來。
（i） 外貌：對人物外表，包括容貌，神情，態度，手勢，姿態，服飾等方
面的描寫。同時，肖像的描寫並不是一次性的，注意人物經過時間的推移、環境
的變遷，或與人接觸後，可能對其外貌的轉變。
（ii） 語言：人物的語言必須根據人物本身的性格及身份，寫出人物說話
時的特點，有能說善道的，有幽默風趣的，有沉默寡言的，並且配合說話時的
精神狀態及環境氣氛，才能寫出人物個性化的語言。
（iii） 行為：人物的行為是其性格的具體表現，所以，要選擇最能反映人
物性格的行為來描寫。
（iv） 心理：刻劃出人物在一定的環境下，圍繞客觀事物所產生的看法、聯
想、感覺，描繪人物的形象及思想，從而顯示人物的內心世界，或根據時間發展，
描寫人物經歷一連串事件後的心理轉變。
（v） 角度：可從人物的正面或側面加以描寫，正面描寫是直接描述人物
的外貌，行為，心理活動；側面描寫則通過其他人物的描寫來烘托主人翁的性
格特質。
（II） 景物描寫：描繪環境，情景，場面及自然現象等，通過景物的描寫來表
現人物的態度，及環境對人物的影響。情形就好像繪畫一幅圖畫，將場景的位置
及周圍情況描繪出來，有時甚至提供這地方的地理概況，歷史，經濟，政治等
資料。
（i） 景的描寫：在處理空間次序上，可從一個現場觀察者的視線，把由近
到遠，高到低，左到右，或前到後所見到的景象去描述。
（ii） 物的描寫：可集中描寫空間內某一物件，去表達它與人物的特定關
係或在文中的意義，例如一幅人像畫，可寫出其繪畫時間，形狀大小，顏色用
料，同時，更進一步，描述人像畫與主人翁的關係，畫中人物的轉變，從而帶
出這幅畫的重要性。
Example 5 （寫景）：
A Walk on the SeashoreNot very far from my house lies seashore in the south. We can go there on foot in
about ten minutes. In summer evenings when the sun is setting, my father likes to take me with my sisters to have a walk along the seashore. Though we do not like the loneliness of the place, we are glad to enjoy the coolness of sea breeze and the beautiful scenery of the nature.
The beach is rather rough with many big and small stones on the surface. The sand is also very big in form and brown in color. At the time of low tide, we can see the reefs appearing out of the water. It is not fit for swimmers to come here to bathe, so it is quiet all over the year.
Moreover, when the tide is low, we may see some poor boys of the nearby villages. They carry bamboo baskets on their backs or under their arms. Running on the solitary beach, they are trying to pick up the small crabs among the rocks. They take them home for food or sell them for a little money.
On the sea, we can see the distant fishing boats sailing back to the harbour to anchor there at night. The setting sun looks like an immense yolk. The sky turns into orange red and the surface of the sea is glittering like a sheet of gold leaf. The waves beating at the rocks sound like music. After all, a walk on the seashore is always enjoyable.
分析如下：
（I） 第一段：鳥瞰（方位“我家”south；距離“步行”ten minutes；人物 my father, my sister and I；整體印象 （the beautiful scenery of the nature）
（II） 第二段：近景（the beach; the sand; the reefs）
（III） 第三段：人物（some poor boys of the nearby villages）
（IV） 第四段：遠景（the distant fishing boats; the setting sun; the sky）
Example 6 （寫人）：
Colan HobartShe was ninety-two years old when I met her, a gentle, diminutive lady in
European dress. Her face was deeply lined, and her coarse grey hair had yellowed with the years. She spoke softly in a quivering voice that was half English, half American. Her gnarled hands testified to the years of hard work on the farm in her homeland. Yet, in her dark eyes and in her gentle manner there was a childlike simplicity as she told me her tale. I thought “She has the wisdom that comes with years of experience, and the gentle purity of a child – a wonderful but strange combination of traits.” I knew that I would never forget her.
Her name was Colan Hobart. When she was a young woman, her homeland was invaded by foreign troops. She had been keeping house for her father, brothers, husband, and her two young children. One day she returned from the market and found the mutilated bodies of her father and one of her brothers on her doorstep. They were among the many victims of the war. Colan’s husband was much older than she, and he soon succumbed to the rigorous demands of fieldwork and mental strain, leaving Colan alone with her two small children. Many of the town’s people helped her, and she was able to produce enough on the small farm to feed her family. Shortly after the turn of the century, her daughter married and went to America. After a few years Colan’s daughter sent her some money to come to the United States. Colan had lived in the United States for thirty years.
As Colan told her story, her eyes became large with fears and her breath became rapid with excitement. Then she wept. After a short time, she sat silently with her head bowed. Suddenly, she rose from the chair, lifted her skirt to just above her ankles, and began to dance in short, jerky steps. She sang almost inaudibly in her native language, but I knew it was a children’s song. The simple melody and the simple dance steps were those of children all over the world. Her eyes shone with youthful gaiety, and her voice was light and happy.
Her grandson appeared at this time, spoke to her affectionately, and led her from the room.
分析如下：
（I） 第一段：老婦的年齡，國籍，外貌，性格。
（II） 第二段：老婦的身世，移民美國前的不幸經歷。
（III） 第三、四段：苦盡甘來的今日，由細述往事時的表情與內心的
變化來暗示。
Exercise:(1) Describe your bedroom or classroom. (eg describe details from left to right or right to left / top to bottom or bottom to top / front to back or back to front)(2) Describe one of your friends. (eg name, age, work, marriage, appearance, height, face, habit, interests… / how did you get to know him or her? / what kind of person is he or she? / what is his or her outstanding feature? / how does he or she deal with people? / why do you like him or her?)(3) Describe the city in which you live. (eg name of the city, where is it? / what are its surroundings like? / what are its main characteristics – important buildings, places of historical interest? / how is the climate there? / how many inhabitants are there? / what amusement does it provide? / do you like it? Why or why not?)
第三課：說明文（ Expository Essay ）
（一）
說明文是闡述或解釋某一事物的發生、發展、結果、特徵、性質、狀態、功能等的
文體，主要用於介紹某些操作程序，解釋抽象概念，說明客觀事物的特點，或
闡明自然現象等，能提供事物的 What, Why, How 方面的知識，使讀者明白事理。
除了一般課堂作文外，多用於研究報告及實驗結果的文章。
說明可分為兩種：
（I） 事物說明文：指說明的事物是具有形體的東西。
（II） 事理說明文：指說明抽象的概念，或介紹事物的本質屬性，或陳述
事情的原因等。
說明文與其他文體的分別：
（I） 說明與記敘：說明偏重於知識性、科學性，大多是為了解釋說明某些
客觀事物，幫助讀者了解客觀世界；敘述則偏重於具體地反映事物的情況
和變化過程，使人有所感知和感動。
（II） 說明與描寫：說明要求以平實簡潔的語言，將事物的狀態、性質、功
能、成因、過程等告訴讀者；描寫是對事物作生動的描繪，使讀者有深刻的
感受。
（III） 說明與議論：說明是為了讓讀者了解情況、明白事理、知道真偽，一
般不確立什麼論點；議論是對事物或問題進行推斷、論證、發表評論、提出作
者的論點及主張。
說明的方法：
（I） 定義說明法：對某種事物的本質特徵或概念作準確而簡要的說明。
（i） 簡短定義 Short Definition：先陳述要解釋的定義，再說明它所屬的
組別，最後說明它與其他組別不同之處。
“Pardon” is an action of a court or ruler forgiving a person for an illegal act and giving freedom from punishment.“Excuse”is the reason, whether true or untrue, given when asking to be forgiven for absence, wrong behavior, a fault, etc.
( Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English )
（ii） 延伸定義 Extended Definition：有別於簡短定義只用一兩句來解釋，
延伸定義本身便可成一篇文章，而通常要下定義的語句較為複雜或抽象，而解
釋的方法包括：
（1） 提供例子說明；
（2） 列出其顯著的特點和特徵；
（3） 提出歷史發展的實證；
（4） 以比較及對比方式來解釋；
（5） 先分明別類，再逐一說明每類之差異。
Example:One-upmanship One-upmanship is the art of impressing other people. You are “one up” on someone if you have said something impressive, something that makes the other person feel inferior. At the beginning of this year, I met three new students who all knew the art of one-upmanship. One said that his brother was a lieutenant in the Marine Corps. The other told me that he had been at a school that had its own fully equipped television studio. The third had just come from an exclusive prep school in New England. To play the game, I should have thought of an answer that would put me “one up” in turn. To the first, I should have replied that my uncle is the adjutant to the Commanding General of the Corps. To the second, I should have said that our school has an electronically operated language lab. To the third, I should have said that my father is a professor at Harvard. Unfortunately, none of those things is true.
分析如下：
本文向讀者說明一個單詞 － One-upmanship，並運用了簡短定義法，對
One-upmanship 下了扼要定義，跟著以舉例方法延伸這詞的解釋，用作者見到
的 three new students 如何運用 one-upmanship 的例子來說明，以及他欲反敗為勝
的方法，將抽象的定義演繹成具體生動的事例。
（II） 分類說明法：將事物按照一定的標準和範圍，系統地分成若干點或若干
方面來說明，可以從不同角度或準則，對說明對象進行多次分類。一般用於內容
較複雜、涉及面較廣的事物進行說明，通常不少於三類，不多於六類。
在一篇短文中，首段是 introduction，之後的段落是每種分類的說明，可依時間、
空間次序來決定類別陳述的先後，而最後一段是總結或建議。
Example:
Part-time JobsThere are many part-time jobs for college students who need money to help pay their bills. For students who enjoy talking to customers, sales jobs are ideal. Some people like to find their own customers, so they choose door-to-door sales of products ranging from beauty aids and encyclopedias to vacuum cleaners. Other people prefer working in department stores, where customer finds them. Students who like being around people, but do not want to persuade them to buy anything, might prefer clerking in a grocery or discount store. Those who enjoy providing service to the public might prefer office jobs as secretaries, file clerks, or bookkeepers. And those who like to keep their surroundings clean and neat might find that being dishwashers, stockroom persons, or janitors fills their need for both money and job satisfaction.
分析如下：
本文雖未列小段，但讀完後對大學生的兼職工作已有大致了解，因為採用
了分類說明法。兼職工作分為：door-to-door sales; sales in department stores; clerking in a grocery or discount store; office jobs; keeping clean and neat jobs。
（III） 比較說明法：運用同類事物或不同類事物與要作說明的事物進行比較，
以突出其特徵，所以，在說明較為複雜的或不為人所熟悉的事物時，用比較的
方法可以把難於理解的事物說得清楚易懂。
常用於：
（i） 顯示某一事物的優異之處；
（ii） 說明兩類似事物的不同之處；
（iii） 說明兩不同事物的共同之處；
（iv） 說明兩者的相同及相異之處。
寫段落要點：
首段：陳述比較事物的相同及差異的地方。
主要內容：詳細說明比較事物的異同，可以 subject-by-subject，先用一段落說明
一事物，跟著一段說明另一事物，如此類推；亦可以用 point-by-point，就某一
方面比較兩事物的異或同，在同一段落中出現，下一段則比較兩者的其他方面，
如此類推。
總結：要留意總結中必須提及兩種比較事物，及重申文章的主題。
（V） 舉例說明法：一般有兩種情形：一是列舉舉例，說明事物或事理所包括
的範圍；二是典型舉例，例子具有化表性，能充分說明要講的問題。說明文中的
舉例與議論文中的舉例有所不同，前者是為了印證所要說明的情況屬實，使人
有所知；後者是為了印證觀點的正確，使人有所信。
Exercises:Choose one of the titles and write a composition of about 120 words.1. True Love (using extended definition)2. Varieties of Friendship (using classification)3. American movies and Chinese movies (using comparison)4. Greed (using examples)
第四課：議論文（ Argumentative Essay ）
議論文是議論說理的文章體裁，可以說是說明文的延伸，除了應用於校內
的論文寫作之外，也常見於一般報章雜誌，針對現實生活中的各種問題，運用
邏輯思維，通過分析及列舉事實來闡明作者的觀點或見解。
議論文的構成有三部分：論點（viewpoint）、論據（fact, evidence）、論證
（substantiation）。論點是作者表明的主張及觀點；論據是用來證明論點的理由
及事實；論證是運用論據來證明論點的過程和方法，表明論點與論據的邏輯關
係。
議論方法如下：
1） 引言：可分兩部分，一是引出問題，二是提出定義及闡明背景資
料。
2） 作者論點的明確陳述
3） 不同觀點的明確陳述
4） 議論結果
5） 結論
(一) 撰寫引言（Introduction）的一般方法如下：
1 ） 統計數據或事實 Statistics / Facts ：
Each 60 seconds 3 people are killed by handguns. Handgun shootings have taken the lives of doctors, lawyers, politicians and even nuns. More people die by handgun shootings than by cancer. There must be stricter handgun law enforcement.
2 ） 表明主題的重要性 Importance of Topic ： The Constitution guarantees it. The colonists were protected by it and
modern day Americans insist on it. The right to bear arms means Americans should be able to purchase guns for their protection and for their sport.
3 ） 問題形式 Questions ： Is your husband using his computer to cheat on you? Are your kids
fantasizing about sex on the internet? Do you know where your kids and spouse are? If they are in front of the computer, you might have reason to worry. There are several reasons why the computer is not “man's best friend.”
4 ） 曲折的接法 Zigzag ： New York City has an international reputation for being “the city that
never sleeps.” In other words, criminals work 24 hours a day in the “Big Apple.” However, if recent statistics are correct, this reputation is undeserved. In fact, New York City might be one of the safest cities in the world.
(二) 結論的寫法：
1 ） Make a plea for a change. The parents, the schools and the government must make a combined
effort to educate young people about the dangers of drug abuse. Moreover, the whole society must change its attitude toward such over the counter preparations as sleeping pills, diet pills and tranquilizers. The careless use of these drugs creates an atmosphere that invites the use of illegal narcotics. When we realize our full responsibility in dealing with this problem, drug addiction may begin to disappear as a national menace.
2 ） Draw the necessary conclusions from what has been said. Thus it can be seen that the strong warnings about drug abuses heard
on radio and television and seen in newspapers and magazines are not
exaggeration. The evidence is overwhelming and only one overriding conclusion can be drawn: drugs are deadly, and experimenting with them can lead people and, in fact, our entire society to the point of extinction.
3 ） Summarize the major points of the essay. Narcotics, then can affect the user in a variety of ways, most of which
are frightening and dangerous. When someone tries an illicit drug, he or she may experience immediate effects such as severe hallucinations, serious mental changes and a loss of appetite. Taken over a long period of time, drugs may cause hepatitis, a complete mental breakdown, or even death from an overdose. If people can be made to truly understand these effects, the seductive appeal of drugs will disappear and thousands of useful lives will be saved from the terrifying results or narcotics addiction.
在引言及結論中的注意事項：
1）不要使用以下句子 Never use expressions like: “Now I will tell you about…” “I would like to discuss…” or “In my paper I will explain…” Such expressions are too obvious.2）Never apologize for what you are going to write: “I do not know very much about this subject…”3）The introduction and conclusion should not be tacked on: they should be an integral part of the whole essay.4）The size of the introduction and conclusion should not be out of proportion to the size of the whole essay.
(三) 論點的寫法：
對於同一個問題或事物，站的角度不同，正反不同，會提出不同甚
至相反的論點。每論點再詳細說明，輔以例證，實據或資料作支持。就
以下例子，無論是持正或反的意見，也須詳述理據所在，才能以理服
人。
例子（一）：
Topic: Should We Restrict Immigration?正方
PRO (Yes, we should restrict immigration.)
Reasons:1. Immigrants take jobs from American citizens.2. Immigrants don't pay their taxes, and they abuse the welfare system.3. With their strange customs, immigrants place a strain on American culture.
反方
CON (No, we should not restrict immigration.)Reasons:1. Immigrants do menial jobs that American citizens won't do.2. Immigrants pay their taxes and avoid welfare.3. Immigrants help renew American culture by the variety of their customs.
例子（二）：
Science: Who Needs It?At our school all students are required to take a minimum of six courses in the natural sciences: three in the biological sciences and three in the physical sciences, regardless of the student's major. Students majoring in the humanities often have to struggle to get through these demanding courses, and their grade-point averages usually suffer as a result. It has been suggested that the requirements be modified, reducing the number of natural science courses required so that students can take more courses directly related to their majors. As a humanities major, I admit this would make college life a lot easier for me, but I still oppose the measure because natural science courses provide us with a crucial part of our education. Students majoring in the humanities usually object to taking such science courses because they claim the courses are irrelevant to their majors. “What good will physics do me when I'm teaching Spanish?” a friend of mine asked. It's true that physics, chemistry, biology, and the like may not have a direct application to most careers in the humanities, but this objection ignores one of the key issues of a university education. A university is not simply a training facility; it is an institution of higher learning where students are educated, not merely trained. Even the term university implies that it's a place to obtain a general knowledge base; a university education means the student has been educated in many subjects. Since part of our universal knowledge is science, it is and logically should be a part of the university curriculum. Humanities students might accept this argument and agree that they should take some natural science, but not as many courses as are now required. They might
suggest a one-semester course in biological science and a one-semester course in physical science, along with perhaps one semester of math for non-majors. This, they argue, would expose them sufficiently to the universe of science. If the point of a university education were merely to expose students to a variety of subjects, then I might agree. But a university education implies more than mere exposure. After all, people can be exposed to subjects by watching television. Again, the purpose of going to a university is to get an education. What does that mean? It means more than just training and exposure; it means that students learn enough to become critical thinkers in the various disciplines. It means that they should gain enough understanding of the sciences, humanities, social sciences, and the arts to be able to discuss issues in these areas intelligently and to be able to question other people's views rather than just accept what people tell them. One or two semesters of general science cannot sufficiently educate students in this field. What one learns in natural science courses is more than mere factual information. One learns to think critically, to approach problems logically, to use reasoning. And this takes time. It takes work. It takes studying different areas of science and applying the general principles in laboratory situations. Developing a critical ability in science is important, but why? In addition to providing the student with a universe of knowledge, an understanding of science is vital in our highly technological society. We are all confronted with issues involving nuclear waste, chemical pollutants, medical advances, exploration in space, and so forth. In order to make intelligent decisions---in fact, even to be involved in the decision-making process---people need to have an understanding of these issues that goes beyond mere ”exposure.” Otherwise, the uneducated become mere puppets who, out of ignorance, can but nod in agreement with anyone who professes expertise. Finally, I contend that science courses do have relevance to the humanities, and this is through the critical thinking approach of the scientific method. The scientific method is an approach to solving problems, an approach that has been tried and proven. It is an approach that demands that the researcher obtain support for his or her hypotheses. Courses in the humanities demand critical thinking as well. Students of literature must support their interpretations with “evidence” from the literary work; art majors must test their ideas---or hypotheses---by experimenting and drawing conclusions. True, in these fields one does not follow the formal scientific method, but it is the practice with that way of thinking that can benefit students in other fields. Science courses, then, provide us not only with knowledge that is
crucial for intelligent functioning in our society, but they also provide us with the opportunity to develop our critical, logical reasoning skills. Although these courses are difficult for the nonscience majors, they are well worth the effort. The knowledge and thinking skills gained from these courses make us less vulnerable to charlatans and politicians as we more intelligently and critically evaluate the propositions offered to us.
Exercises:
Choose one of the following topics and write an argumentative essay.1) Women have achieved equality with men in society.2) Should schools cut back on physical education in favor of more academic courses?3) Should immigrants be forced to replace their culture?4) Mobile phone should not be banned in schools.5) Should doctors always be honest with their patients?
