92
7(502',1$0,.$,7(5027(+1,.$ 6NULSWD 9ODGLPLU0LãNRY )DNXOWHW7HKQLþNLK1DXND 1RYL6DG &+$37(521( 261291,.21&(37,,'(),1,&,-( 8þHQMHELORNRMHQDXNHPRUDSRþHWLVDUD]XPHYDQMHPRVQRYQLKGHILQLFLMDLNRQYHQFLMD ,VSUDYQRXþHQMHWLKGHILQLFLMDLNRQYHQFLMDQDVDPRPSRþHWNXMHNDRUD]XPHYDQMHRVQRYQLK SUDYLODEHM]ERODSUHSRþHWNDEHM]EROXWDNPLFHüHRWNORQLWLPQRJHNDVQLMHQHMDVQRüH 7(502',1$0,.$ 7HUPRGQLDPLNDMHQDXNDNRMDVHEDYLWUDQVIRWPDFLMRPHQHUJLMHNRMDXNOMXþXMHWRSORWX LUDGL YHOLþLQHVWDQMDVXSVWDQFHNRMDMHXNOMXþHQDXWUDQVIRUPDFLMXHQHUJLMH ,1ä,1-(56.$7(502',1$0,.$ ,QåLQMHUVND7HUPRGLQDPLNDMHGHRQDXNHNRMLVHEDYLVYLPWLSRYLPDWRSORWQLKPRWRUDL L]YRULPDVQDJHVWDFLRQDUQLPLOLSRNUHWQLPNRPSUHVLMRPLHNVSDQ]LMRPIOXLGD 7(502',1$0,ý.,6,67(0 7HUPRGLQDPLþNLVLVWHPMHPDNRMDNROLþLQDPDWHULMHNRMDVHQDOD]LXELORNRPGHOX SURVWRUDNDNRMRMMHXVPHUHQDDQLOD]D'HRSURVWRUDXNRPHVHQDOD]LSRVPDWUDQDNROLþLQD PDWHULMHPRUDELWLGHILQLVDQJUDQLFDPD2YHJUDQLFHPRJXELWLGHIRUPDELOQHLOL]DPLãOMHQH $NRMHVLVWHPGHILQLVDQNDRNROLþLQDPDWHULMHWDGDVLVWHPVDGUåLXYHNLVWXPDWHULMXLX WRPVOXþDMXQLMHPRJXüSUHQRVPDVHNUR]JUDQLFHVLVWHPD 0HÿXWLPDNRMHVLVWHPGHILQLVDQNDRGHRSURVWRUD NRMLMHRGUHÿHQJUDQLFDPDWDGD PDWHULMDPRåHGDSUHOD]LJUDQLFHVLVWHPD1DSUDYLPRUD]OLNXL]PHÿXRYHGYHGHILQLFLMH VLVWHPDGDNOHDNRQHPDUD]PHQHPDVHVDRNROLQRPWDNDYVLVWHPQD]LYDPR]DWYRUHQVLVWHP LOLNRQWUROQDPDVD2WYRUHQVLVWHP ELELRVLVWHPNRGNRJDSRVWRMLSURWRNPDVHLWDNDYVLVWHP PRåHPRQD]YDWLNRQWUROQD]DSUHPLQDSULPHWLPRGDMHNRQWUROQD]DSUHPLQDXVWYDULGHR SURVWRUDRGUHÿHQJUDQLFDPDDNRMHQHNDRGJUDQLFDSRNUHWQDWDGDWXJUDQLFXQD]LYDPR NRQWUROQDSRYUãLQD 6YHL]YDQJUDQLFDVLVWHPDVHQD]LYDRNUXåHQMHPSRVWRMLUHVWULNFLMDYH]DQD]D RNUXåHQMHDWRMHGDRNUXåHQMHSULWRPXWLþHQDSRQDãDQMHVLVWHPD 6SHFLMDODQVOXþDM]DWYRUHQRJVLVWHPD MHL]RORYDQLVLVWHP,]RORYDQLVLVWHP MHVLVWHP NRGNRMHJQHPDPHÿXVREQRJXWLFDMDVDRNROLQRP 1DMYDåQLMLNRUDNSULUHãDYDQMXSUREOHPDL]7HUPRGLQDPLNH MHRELþQRSDåOMLYR RGUHÿLYDQMHVLVWHPD 9(/,ý,1(67$1-$67$1-$,352&(6 9HOLþLQDVWDQMD MHELORNRMDSRVPDWUDQDNDUDNWHULVWLNDVLVWHPD1DSULPHUYHOLþLQH VWDQMDVXSULWLVDN ]DSUHPLQDWHPSHUDWXUDPRGXOHODVWLþQRVWLNLQHPDWVNDYLVNR]QRVW 7DNRÿHüHPRVPDWUDWLYHOLþLQRPVWDQMDELORNRMRNRPELQDFLMXSRVPDWUDQLKNDUDNWHULVWLND VLVWHPD9HOLNLEURMRYDNYLKNDUDNWHULVWLNDPRåHELWLGHILQLVDQDOLVDPRMHSDUNDUDNWHULVWLND NRULVQR'UXJDYUVWDYHOLþLQDVWDQMDVXRQHNDUDNWHULVWLNHNRMHVHQHPRJXRGUHGLWL

index termodinamika.pdf

Embed Size (px)

DESCRIPTION

termodinamika

Citation preview

Page 1: index termodinamika.pdf

7(502',1$0,.$�,�7(5027(+1,.$6NULSWD9ODGLPLU�0LãNRY)DNXOWHW�7HKQLþNLK�1DXND1RYL�6DG&+$37(5�21(

261291,�.21&(37,�,�'(),1,&,-(8þHQMH�ELOR�NRMH�QDXNH�PRUD�SRþHWL�VD�UD]XPHYDQMHP�RVQRYQLK�GHILQLFLMD�L�NRQYHQFLMD�,VSUDYQR�XþHQMH�WLK�GHILQLFLMD�L�NRQYHQFLMD�QD�VDPRP�SRþHWNX��MH�NDR�UD]XPHYDQMH�RVQRYQLKSUDYLOD�EHM]EROD�SUH�SRþHWND�EHM]ERO�XWDNPLFH��üH�RWNORQLWL�PQRJH�NDVQLMH�QHMDVQRüH�����7(502',1$0,.$7HUPRGQLDPLND�MH�QDXND�NRMD�VH�EDYL�WUDQVIRWPDFLMRP�HQHUJLMH��NRMD�XNOMXþXMH�WRSORWX L�UDG��LYHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�VXSVWDQFH�NRMD�MH�XNOMXþHQD�X�WUDQVIRUPDFLMX�HQHUJLMH�����,1ä,1-(56.$�7(502',1$0,.$,QåLQMHUVND�7HUPRGLQDPLND�MH�GHR�QDXNH�NRML�VH�EDYL�VYLP�WLSRYLPD�WRSORWQLK�PRWRUD�LL]YRULPD�VQDJH��VWDFLRQDUQLP�LOL�SRNUHWQLP���NRPSUHVLMRP�L�HNVSDQ]LMRP�IOXLGD�����7(502',1$0,ý.,�6,67(07HUPRGLQDPLþNL�VLVWHP�MH�PD�NRMD�NROLþLQD�PDWHULMH�NRMD�VH�QDOD]L�X�ELOR�NRP�GHOXSURVWRUD�ND�NRMRM�MH�XVPHUHQD�DQLOD]D��'HR�SURVWRUD�X�NRPH�VH�QDOD]L�SRVPDWUDQD�NROLþLQDPDWHULMH�PRUD�ELWL�GHILQLVDQ�JUDQLFDPD��2YH�JUDQLFH�PRJX�ELWL�GHIRUPDELOQH�LOL�]DPLãOMHQH�$NR�MH�VLVWHP�GHILQLVDQ�NDR�NROLþLQD�PDWHULMH��WDGD�VLVWHP�VDGUåL�XYHN�LVWX�PDWHULMX�L�XWRP�VOXþDMX�QLMH�PRJXü�SUHQRV�PDVH�NUR]�JUDQLFH�VLVWHPD�0HÿXWLP��DNR�MH�VLVWHP�GHILQLVDQ�NDR�GHR�SURVWRUD NRML�MH�RGUHÿHQ�JUDQLFDPD��WDGDPDWHULMD�PRåH�GD�SUHOD]L�JUDQLFH�VLVWHPD��1DSUDYLPR�UD]OLNX�L]PHÿX�RYH�GYH�GHILQLFLMHVLVWHPD��GDNOH�DNR�QHPD�UD]PHQH�PDVH�VD�RNROLQRP�WDNDY�VLVWHP�QD]LYDPR�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHPLOL�NRQWUROQD�PDVD��2WYRUHQ�VLVWHP EL�ELR�VLVWHP�NRG�NRJD�SRVWRML�SURWRN�PDVH�L�WDNDY�VLVWHPPRåHPR�QD]YDWL�NRQWUROQD�]DSUHPLQD��SULPHWLPR�GD�MH�NRQWUROQD�]DSUHPLQD�XVWYDUL�GHRSURVWRUD�RGUHÿHQ�JUDQLFDPD��DNR�MH�QHND�RG�JUDQLFD�SRNUHWQD�WDGD�WX�JUDQLFX�QD]LYDPRNRQWUROQD�SRYUãLQD�6YH�L]YDQ�JUDQLFD�VLVWHPD�VH�QD]LYD�RNUXåHQMHP��SRVWRML�UHVWULNFLMD�YH]DQD�]DRNUXåHQMH��D�WRMH�GD�RNUXåHQMH�SULWRP�XWLþH�QD�SRQDãDQMH�VLVWHPD�6SHFLMDODQ�VOXþDM�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD MH�L]RORYDQL�VLVWHP��,]RORYDQL�VLVWHP MH�VLVWHPNRG�NRMHJ�QHPD�PHÿXVREQRJ�XWLFDMD�VD�RNROLQRP�1DM�YDåQLML�NRUDN�SUL�UHãDYDQMX�SUREOHPD�L]�7HUPRGLQDPLNH MH�RELþQR�SDåOMLYRRGUHÿLYDQMH�VLVWHPD�����9(/,ý,1(�67$1-$��67$1-$�,�352&(69HOLþLQD�VWDQMD MH�ELOR�NRMD�SRVPDWUDQD�NDUDNWHULVWLND�VLVWHPD��1D�SULPHU�YHOLþLQHVWDQMD�VX�SULWLVDN� ]DSUHPLQD��WHPSHUDWXUD��PRGXO�HODVWLþQRVWL��NLQHPDWVND�YLVNR]QRVW�7DNRÿH�üHPR�VPDWUDWL�YHOLþLQRP�VWDQMD�ELOR�NRMR�NRPELQDFLMX�SRVPDWUDQLK�NDUDNWHULVWLNDVLVWHPD��9HOLNL�EURM�RYDNYLK�NDUDNWHULVWLND�PRåH�ELWL�GHILQLVDQ��DOL�VDPR�MH�SDU�NDUDNWHULVWLNDNRULVQR��'UXJD�YUVWD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VX�RQH�NDUDNWHULVWLNH�NRMH�VH�QH�PRJX�RGUHGLWL

Page 2: index termodinamika.pdf

NRPELQDFLMRP�GUXJLK�NDUDNWHULVWLND��YHü�VX�RQH�RUHÿHQH�GHILQLFLMDPD�7HUPRGLQDPLNH��'YHWDNYH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQDM�VX�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD L�HQWURSLMD�6WDQMH��LOL�XVORYL�VLVWHPD��MH�RGUHÿHQR�QXPHULüNLP�YUHGQRVWLPD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��.DNRSRVWRML�YHOLNL�EURM�PDWHPDWLþNLK�L]UD]D�NRML�SRYH]XMX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��]D�RGUHÿLYDQMH�VWDQMDQHNRJ�VLVWHPD�SRWUHEQR�MH�VDPR�QHNROLNR�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��MHU�VYH�RVWDOH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�PRJXELWL�RGUHÿHQH�SUHNR�WLK�QHNROLNR��3RVWDYOMD�VH�SLWDQMH�NRML�MH�EURM�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�SRWUHEDQ�GDEL�VH�SR]QDYDOR�VWDQMH�VLVWHPD�$NR�VLVWHP�LPD�LVWH�QXPHULþNH�YUHGQRVWL�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�X�GYD�UD]OLþLWD�QDYUDWD��WDGDNDåHPR�GD�MH�VLVWHP�GYD�SXWD�X�MHGQRP�WH�LVWRP�VWDQMX�=D�VLVWHP�VH�NDåH�GD�MH�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH�NDGD�QHSRVWRMH�ãDQVH�GD�VH�GHVH�SURPHQH�XVLVWHPX�EH]�QHNRJ�VSROMDãQMHJ�XWLFDMD��VWLPXODQVD���3URYHUD�GDOL�MH�VLVWHP�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåHVH�PRåH�L]YHVWL�WDNR�ãWR�VH�VLVWHP�L]ROXMH�L�SRVPDWUD�VH�GDOL�VH�GHãDYDMX�QHNH�SURPHQH�XVLVWHPD�X�WRP�VWDQMX��2þLJOHGQR�MH�GD�WHPSHUDWXUD�PRUD�ELWL�X�FHORP�VLVWHPX�MHGQDND��MHU�DNRQLMH�SRVWRMDüH�UD]PHQD�WRSORWH�L]PHÿX�GHOD�VLVWHPD�VD�YLãRP�WHPSHUDWXURP�L�GHOD�VLVWHPD�VDQLåRP�WHPSHUDWXURP��$NR�MH�VLVWHP�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH��RQ�PRUD�ELWL�KRPRJHQ�LOL�PRUDVDGUåDWL�NRQDþDQ�EURM�KRPRJHQLK�GHORYD��1D�SULPHU��VLVWHP�VDþLQMHQ�RG�þHOLND��YRGHQH�SDUH�LYD]GXKD�QD�VREQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�VDGUåL�NRQDþDQ�EURM�KRPRJHQLK�GHORYD�X�NRQWDNWX��DOL�WDNDYVLVWHP�QLMH�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH�MHU�üH�GRüL�GR�RNVLGDFLMH�þHOLND��WM��VWDQMH�VLVWHPD�üH�VHSURPHQLWL�EH]�LNDNYRJ�VSROMDãQMHJ�XWLFDMD��1DþHOQR�7HUPRGLQDPLND VH�EDYL�LVSLWLYDQMHPPDWHULMH�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH�L�SURPHQDPD�VLVWHPD�L]�MHGQRJ�UDYQRWHåQRJ�VWDQMD�X�GUXJR�3URFHV MH�WUDQVIRUPDFLMD�VLVWHPD�L]�MHGQRJ�VWDQMD�X�GUXJR��3XWDQMD MH�QL]�SURPHQDVWDQMD�NUR]�NRMH�VLVWHP�SUROD]L�REDYOMDMXüL�SURFHV��&LNOLþQL�SURFHV�MH�SURFHV�SUL�NRPH�VX�VYHYHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�LVWH�QD�SRþHWNX�L�QD�NUDMX��RGQRVQR�XNXSQD�SURPHQD�YUHGQRVWL�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMDMH�MHGQDND�QXOL�DNR�VLVWHP�REDYOMD�FLNOLþQL�SURFHV� �[G[ ³v �����SUL�þHPX�MH�[ QHND�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�

����,17(=,91(��(.67(1=,91(�,�63(&,),ý1(�9(/,ý,1(�67$1-$$NR�KRPRJHQL�VLVWHP�SRGHOLPR�QD�GYD�GHOD�WDGD�MH�PDVD VLVWHPD�MHGQDND�]ELUX�PDVDGHORYD��=DSUHPLQD FHORJ�VLVWHPD�MH�MHGQDND�VXPL�]DSUHPLQD�GHORYD��7HPSHUDWXUD FHORJVLVWHPD�QLMH�MHGQDND�VXPL�WHPSHUDWXUD�GHORYD�VLVWHPD��SULVDN X�VLVWHPX�WDNRÿH�QLMH�MHGQDNVXPL�SULWLVDND�GHORYD�VLVWHPD��'DNOH��DNR�MH�YUHGQRVW�QHNH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD�MHGQDNDVXPL�YUHGQRVWL�GHORYD�VLVWHPD�WDGD�WDNYX�YHOLþLQX�VWDQDM�QD]LYDPR�HNVWHQ]LYQRP YHOLþLQRP�]DSUHPLQD��PDVD��WHåLQD��HQHUJLMD��HQWDOSLMD��HQWURSLMD���GRN�DNR�MH�YUHGQRVW�QHNH�YHOLþLQHVWDQMD�MHGQDND�L�]D�FHR�VLVWHP�L�]D�GHR�VLVWHPD�WDGD�WDNYX�YHOLþLQX�VWDQMD�QD]LYDPRLQWHQ]LYQRP �WHPSHUDWXUD��SULWLVDN��JXVWLQD��$NR�VH�YUHGQRV�QHNH�HNVWHQ]LYQH�YHOLþLQH�SRGHOL�VD�PDVRP�VLVWHPD�UH]XOWXMXüD�YHOLþLQDVWDQMD�MH�LQWHQ]LYQD�L�QD]LYD�VH�VSHFLILþQRP YHOLþLQRP�VWDQMD��9HOLND�VORYD�VH�RELþQR�NRULVWH]D�R]QDþDYDQMH�HNVWHQ]LYQLK�NDUDNWHULVWLND��GRN�VH�PDOLP�VORYLPD�REHOHåDYD�RGJRYDUDMXüDLQWHQ]LYQD�NDUDNWHULVWLND�HNVWHQ]LYQD YHOLþLQD VWDQMD �LQWHQ]LYQD� VSHFLILþQDXNXSQD PDVD VLVWHPD �����*867,1$��63(&,),ý1$�=$35(0,1$�,�63(&,),ý1$�7(ä,1$*XVWLQD �U��MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�RGQRV�PDVH�VXEVWDQFH�L�]DSUHPLQH��LOL�PDVD�SR�MHGLQLFL]DSUHPLQH� PDVD]DSUHPLQD 09U { �����

Page 3: index termodinamika.pdf

6SHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD �Y��MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�]DSUHPLQD�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH��LOL�NDR�UHFLSURþQDYUHGQRVW�JXVWLQH� �9Y P U �����6SHFLILþQD�WHåLQD��J��MH�WHåLQD�VXEVWDQFH�SRGHOMHQD�VD�]DSUHPLQRP��LOL�WHåLQD�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�WH]LQD]DSUHPLQD Z9J �����9H]D�L]PHÿX�VSHFLILþQH�WHåLQH�L�JXVWLQH�PRåH�ELWL�L]YHGHQD�L]�GUXJRJ�1HZWRQ�RYRJ�]DNRQD�) PD �����SRãWR�QD�WHOR�GHOXMH�VDPR�JUDYLWDFLRQD�VLOD�LPDPR�GD�MH�Z PJ �����RYD�MHGQDþLQD�MH�X�RVQRYQL�YH]D�L]PÿX�WHåLQH�L�PDVH��3RGHOLPR�OL�MHGQDþLQX������ VD]DSUHPLQRP�GRELMDPR� JJ U �����6SHFLILþQD�JUDYLWDFLMD MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�RGQRV�JXVWLQH�VXEVWDQFH�L�QHNH�VWDQGDUGQH�JXVWLQH�3ULWLVDN3ULWLVDN�VH�RELþQR�GHILQLãH�NDR�QRUPDOQD�VLOD�SR�MHLQLFL�SRYUãLQH�NRMRP�VLVWHP�GHOXMHQD�VYRMH�JUDQLFH��3ULWLVDN�PRåH�YDULUDWL�X�VLVWHPX�RG�PHVWD�GR�PHVWD��þDN�L�NDGD�MH�VLVWHP�XVWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH�1D�SULPHU��DNR�SRVPDWUDPR�UH]HUYRDU�X�NRPH�MH�QHNDNDY�IOXLG��WHþQRVW�LOL�JDV��MHGQRVWDYQDUDYQRWHåD�VLOD�PRåH�VH�SRND]DWL�GD�SULWLVDN�UDVWH�SRVPDWUDQR�X�SUDYFX�VD�YUKD�ND�GQXUH]HUYRDUD��RYD�UD]OLND�MH�X]URNRYDQ�WHåLQRP�IOXLGD��8�PQRJLP�VOXþDMHYLPD�UD]OLND�SULWLVNDXVOHG�WHåLQH�IOXLGD�MH�]DQHPDUOMLYR�PDOD�

6OLND��9HüL�GHR�LQVWUXPHQDWD�]D�PHUHQMH�SULWLVND�PHUH�UD]OLNX�SULWLVND�IOXLGD�L�DWPRVIHUH�2YD�UD]OLND�SULWLVDND�VH�QD]LYD�*$*(�SULWLVDN�DSV DWP JDJH3 3 3 � �����$NR�MH�SULWLVDN�QLåL�RG�DWPRVIHUVNRJ�WDGD�VH�UDGL�R�YDNXXPX L�3JDJH MH�VD�SUHG]QDNRP��±��=D�IOXLG�X�VWDWLþNRM�UDYQRWHåL��YH]D�L]PHÿX�SULWLVND�L�YLVLQH�VWXED�IOXLGD�MH�GDWD�RQRYQRPMHGQDþLQRP�VWDWLNH�IOXLGD� G3 G]J � ������SUL�þHPX�MH�] YLVLQD�6YH�X�VYHPX�YHOLþLQD�SULWLVND�MH� 3 KJ' ������35,0(5,�

���2GUHGLWL�EDURPHWDUVNL�SULWLVDN�X�N3D��DNR�MH�QD�EDURPHWUX�RþLWDQR������PP�+J��6SHFLILþQDJUDYLWDFLMD�åLYH�MH������%DURPHWDU�PHUL�UD]OLNX�SULWLVND�L]PHÿX�DWPRVIHUVNRJ�L�QXOWRJ�SULWLVND��SD�WDNR�LPDPR�

3 ��3YDNXXP3DSV

3DSV3DWP3DWP 3JDJH

Page 4: index termodinamika.pdf

�DWP3 3 3 KJ � ' ������.RULVWHüL�JXVWLQX�YRGH������NJ�P���LPDPR�GD�MH���������� ���� ���� ��������N3D���

VS +J YRGH3 K JK J JKJ U U � � � ������

���2GUHGLWL�UD]OLNX�SULWLVDND�SUHWVWDYOMHQX�X�D����LQ�+JE����IW�+JD��NRULVWHüL�VSHFLILþQX�WHåLQX�YRGH�RG������,EI�IW��� � � ����� ���� �����SVL�� ���3 KJ § ·' � ¨ ¸© ¹ ������E��]D���IW�YRGH�MH� � � ����� � �����SVL���3' ������

����7(03(5$785$1HSRVWRML�EXNYDOQD�GHILQLFLMD�WHPSHUDWXUH��RQD�MH�MHGQD�RG�QHGHILQLVDQLK�X�VPLVOXQHSRVWRML�WDNDY�VNXS�UDþL�NRMLPD�VH�RQD�PRåH�GHILQLVDWL�7RSOLMH�WHOR�LPD�YHüX�WHPSHUDWXUX�QHJR�KODGQLMH�WHOR��NDGD�VH�WHPSHUDWXUD�WHOD�PHQMD�WDGD�VHPHQMDMX�L�QHNROLNR�GUXJLK�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��WDNR�GD�ELOR�NRMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�NRMD�]DYLVL�RGWHPSHUDWXUH�PRåH�ELWL�X]HWD�]D�PHUHQMH�WHPSHUDWXUH��1D�SULPHU��L�]DSUHPLQD�L�HOHNWULþQLSURYRGQRVW�þHOLþQH�ãLSNH�RSDGD�VD�SRYüDQMHP�WHPSHUDWXUH��7HOR�MH�X�WHPSHUDWXUQRM�UDYQRWH]LDNR�VYDNL�QMHJRY�GHR�LPD�LVWX�WHPSHUDWXUX�3RVWRMH�UD]QH�WHPSHUDWXUVNH�VNDOH� ������� �5 ) .7 W 7 � ������������� �. & 57 W 7 � ������JGH�MH�.±�.HOYLQ��5±�5DQNLQ�L�&±&HO]LXV����5$'5DG�MH�PHÿXVREQL�XWLFDM�L]PHÿX�VLVWHPD�L�RNUXåHQMD��5DG�MH�L]YUãHQ�RG�VLVWHPD�QDRNUXåHQMH�DNR�MH�MHGLQL�VSROMDãQML�XWLFDM�QD�RNUXåHQMH�QD�SU��SRGL]DQMH�WHUHWD��9HOLþLQD�UDGD�MHMHGQDND�WHåLQL�WHUHWD�NRML�VH�SRGLåH�L�YLVLQL�QD�NRMX�VH�WHUHW�SRGLåH�.RQYHQFLMD�MH�GD�UDG�L]YUãHQ�QD�VLVWHPX�LPD�SUHG]QDN��±���GRN�UDG�L]YUãHQ�RG�VWUDQH�VLVWHPD�NRULVWDQ�UDG��L�RQ�LPD�SUHG]QDN������1DGDOMH�üH�±:� �:LQ L�:� �:RXW�RGQRVQR�UDG�GRGDWVLVWHPX�MH�QHJDWLYDQ�D�UDG�GRELMHQ�RG�VLVWHPD�MH�SR]LWLYDQ�2SãWL�L]UD]�]D�UDG�MH� ZRUN )GVG ������VLPERO�G VH�NRULVWL�]D�QD]QDþDYDQMH�GLIHUHQFLMDOD�IXQNFLMH�NRMD�]DYLVL�RG�SXWDQMH��SDWKIXQFWLQ������5$'�.2035(6,%,/12*�=$7925(12*�6,67(0$�%(=�75(1-$6DGD�üHPR�L]YHVWL�L]UD]�]D�UDG�VLVWHPD�NRML�]DGRYROMDYD�VOHGHüH�XVORYH�

Page 5: index termodinamika.pdf

���6LVWHP�MH�]DWYRUHQ���QHPD�HIHNDWD�HOHNWULFLWHWD��PDJQHWL]PD��SRPHUDQMD��JUDYLWDFLMH��6LVWHP�NRML�]DGRYROMDYDRYH�XVORYH�VH�QD�]LYD�MHGQLVWDYQL�NRPSUHVLELOQL�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP���QHPD�WUHQMD�X�VLVWHPX���SULWLVDN�MH�LVWL�QD�VYLP�JUDQLFDPD�VLVWHPD�8VORYL�NRMH�VPR�QDYHOL�PRJX�VH�VXPDUQR�LVND]DWL�NDR�NYD]LVWDWLþQL�SURFHV�SURVWRJNRPSUHVLELOQRJ�VLVWHPD�.DR�SULPHU�VLVWHPD�NRML�]DGRYROMDYD�QDYHGHQH�XVORYH�X]PLPR�NOLS�VD�FLOLQGURP�X�NRP�VHQDOD]L�JDV�NRML�HNVSDQGLUD�SULND]DQ�QD�VOLFL���*DV�HNVSDQGLUD�RG�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD���GR�NUDMQMHJ�VWDQMD����.OLS�VH�NUHüH�VSRUR��WDNR�GD�VHHIHNWL�NUHWDQMD�PRJX�]DQHPDUWL��SULWLVDN�MH�XQLIRPDQ�X�ELOR�NRP�VWDQMX�WRNRP�HNVSDQ]LMH��DOLVH�YUHGQRVW�XQLIRUPQRJ�SULWLVND�WRNRP�HNVSDQ]LMH�PHQMD��8�ELOR�NRP�PRPHQWX�HNVSDQ]LMHVLOD�QD�NOLSX�MH�MHGQDND�SURL]YRGX�SULWLVND�JDVD�QD�þHOR�NOLSD�L�SRYUãLQH�þHOD�NOLSD��.DNR�RYDVLOD�GHOXMH�X�SUDYFX�SRPHUDQMD�NOLSD��UDG�L]YUãHQ�RG�VWUDQH�JDVD�QD�NOLS�MH�ZRUN )GV 3$GVG ������$GV MH�SRUDVW�]DSUHPLQD�G9 VLVWHPD��SD�MH�L]UD]�]D�UDG�VDGD�ZRUN 3G9G ������XNXSDQ�UDG�GRELMHQ�SUL�HNVSDQ]LML�JDVD�L]�VWDQMD���X�VWDQMH���MH����� �ZRUN 3G9 ³ ������39 ',-$*5$03RYUãLQD�LVSRG�NULYH�X�39 GLMDJUDPX�SUHWVWDYOMD�UDG�VLVWHPD

VOLND��L]UD]������� YDåL�VDPR�]D�NYD]LVWDWLþQH�SURFHVH��*DV�NRML�VH�QDOD]L�X�UH]HUYRDUX�X�NRPH�JDSRWHUXMH�SURSHOHU�SRND]XMH�GD�UDG�QHPRåH�ELWL�L]UDþXQDW�NDNR�MH�WR�SRND]DQR�X�L]UD]X��������]D�WDNDY�VLVWHP�MH�SUHPD�L]UD]X�������� UDG�MHGQDN�QXOL�MHU�MH�]DSUHPLQD�NRQVWDQWD��DOL�UDGRYDNYRJ�VLVWHPD�QLMH�MHGQDN�QXOL�$362/871,�,/,�*$*(�35,7,6$.�8� 3G9³ "

� ���JDJH

XNXSDQ UDG VLVWHPD UDG REDYOMHQ QD DWPRVIHUL3G9 3 G93 3 G93 G9

� � � ³ ³³³ ������

�G9

=DSUHPLQD

3ULWLVDN

Page 6: index termodinamika.pdf

VOLND���(IHNDWDWPRVIHUVNRJ�SULWLVND5$'�=$7925(12*�6,67(0$�35,�&,./,ý120�35(2&(68�%(=�75(1-$=DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�PRåH�SUHüL�L]�VWDQMD���X�VWDQMH���SXWDQMRP��±D±��VOLND����D�FLNOXV�VHPRåH�]DYUãLWL�SXWDQMRP��±E±���2EDYOMDMXüL�SRYUDWQL�SURFHV�VLVWHP�PRåH�SURüL�NUR]�UD]OLþLWDVWDQMD�RG�RQLK�NRMH�MH�SURãDR�REDYOMDMXüL�SRþHWQL�SURFHV��±D±���8NXSDQ�UDG�VLVWHPD�SULFLNOLþQRP�SURFHVX�MHGQDN�MH�]ELUX�SDUFLMDOQLK�UDGRYD�VLVWHPD�NRML�SUROD]L�NUR]�QLV�SURFHVDNRML�þLQH�FHORNXSDQ�SURFHV�FLNOLþQLP�

� �� �D E

D EUDG ]DWYRUHQRJVLVWHPD SUL FLNOLFQRP 3G9 3G9 3G9 3G9 3G9SURFHVX§ ·¨ ¸ � � � ¨ ¸¨ ¸© ¹ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³v ������

5DG�VLVWHPD�GRELMHQ�REDYOMDQMHP�VYDNRJ�SURFHVD�MH�SRYUãLQD�QD�39 GLMDJUDPX�LVSRG�NULYHSURFHVD��ãWR�MH�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL���

6OLND��6WHDG\�)ORZ����67$&,21$512�3527,&$1-(3URWRN�NUR]�QHNL�RWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�MH�VWDFLRQDUDQ�DNR�VYH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�X�VYDNRM�WDþNLRVWDMX�NRQVWDQWQH�VRE]LURP�QD�YUHPH��2GQRVQR�SRWUHEQR�MH�GD�EXGX�LVSXQMHQL�VOHGHüL�XVORYL��� 9HOLþLQH�VWDQMD�IOXLGD�NRML�SUHOD]L�JUDQLFX�VLVWHPD�RVWDMX�LVWH�X�VYDNRM�WDþNL�WH�JUDQLFH��� .ROLþLQD�PDVH�NRMD�LVWHNQH�MH�MHGQDND�QD�VYDNRP�PHVWX�X�VLVWHPX�JGH�SRVWRML�SURWRN��� .ROLþLQD�PDVH�NRMD�GRVSH�X�VLVWHP�MHGQDND�MH�NROLþLQL�PDVH�NRMD�RGH�L]�VLVWHPD��NROLþLQDPDVH�NRMD�VH�QDOD]L�PHÿX�JUDQLFDPD�VLVWHPD�MH�NRQVWDQWQD��� 6YD�LQWHUDNFLMD�RNUXåHQMD�VD�VLVWHPRP�VH�GHãDYD�QD�PDVL�NRMD�VH�QDOD]L�XQXWDU�JUDQLFDVLVWHPD�3ULPHUL��� )OXLG�HNVSDQGLUD�EH]�WUHQMD�X�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�RG�SRþHWQH�]DSUHPLQH�RG�������P�]DSUHPLQH�GR�������P���VD�SRþHWQRJ�SULWLVND�RG�����N3D��L�WR�SR�]DNRQX�S9� �&��&� �FRQVW�,]UDþXQD�WL�XNXSDQ�]DSUHPLQVNL�UDG�VLVWHPD�5HãHQMH�3UHPD�GLILQLFLML�]DSUHPLQVNL�UDG�VLVWHPD�MH� �

�: 3G9 ³ ������

3 3�

)

� � �� � �E E E

D D D3 3 3

9 9 9

Page 7: index termodinamika.pdf

.DNR�]QDPR�]DYLVQRVW�SULWLVND�L�]DSUHPLQH�LPDPR�GD�MH���

�� �� � � � ����� � ��

� � � ����P� ���N3D ���P � �����N3D����P

99 &G9: & 399 9 9 9 9939 9

§ · § · � � � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹§ · § · � � � � � � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹³ ������

L]�GRELMHQH�YUHGQRVWL�YLGLPR�GD�MH�UDG�GRELMHQ�RG�VLVWHPD��MHU�MH�YUHGQRVW�L]UDþXQDWRJ�UDGDSR]LWLYQD��D�VDJODVQR�VD�NRQYHQFLMRP�LPDPR�GD�MH�WR�:RXW����&LOLQGDU�X�NRPH�MH�VDGUåDQ�JDV�QD�DWPRVIHUVNRP�SULWLVNX�MH�SRWRSOMHQ�X�SRVXGX��NRMD�MH�GRYUKD�QDSXQMHQD��VDWHþQRãüX�NRMD�MHWDNRÿH�L]ORåHQDDWPRVIHUVNRP�SULWLVNX�.ROLNR�UDGD�MHSRWUHEQR�GD�REDYL�JDVLOL�GD�VH�REDYL�QD�JDVXGD�EL��QLYR�WHþQRVWL�ELRX�FLOLQGUX�]D�K�ELR�QLåLRG�QLYRD�WHþQRVWL�XSRVXGL�5HãHQMH��99: 3G9 ³ ������=DSUHPLQD�JDVD�QD�ELOR�NRMRM�YLVLQL�K MH��9 9 $K � ������3ULWLVDN�X�]DYLVQRVWL�RG�YLVLQH�MH��3 3 KJ � ������3D�VDGD�PRåHPR�SLVDWL�GD�MH�UDG�MHGQDN� � ���

�� ��� �KK: 3 K $GK K3$K $K $K 3

J JJ � § ·� �¨ ¸© ¹³ ������

�����5$'�35,�67$&,21$5120�,67,&$1-8�%(=�75(1-$6WUDWHJLMD�UHãDYDQMD�RYRJ�SUREOHPD�MH�VOHGHüD�D��QDFUWDWL�GHOLü�IOXLGDE��SULND]DWL�VSROMDãQMH�VLOH�NRMH�GHOXMX�QD�WDM�GHOLüF� SRYH]DWL�VSROMDãQMH�VLOH�VD�PDVRP�L�XEU]DQMHP�GHOLüD�IOXLGDG��UDãLWL�UH]XOWXMXüL�L]UD]�]D�VLOX�NRMD�REDYOMD�UDGH��SULPHQLWL�GHILQLFLMX�UDGD�NDR� )GV³

Page 8: index termodinamika.pdf

VOLND������VLOD�NRMD�GHOXMH�X�SUDYFX�VWUXMDQMD�IOXLGD�3$���VLOD�NRMD�GHOXMH�VXSUXWQR�VWUXMDQMX��3�'3��$�'$����NRPSRQHQWD�WHåLQH�HOHPHQWD��PJFRVT����QRUPDOQD�UHDNFLMD�]LGD�X�SUDYFX�VWUXMDQMD��3�'3���'$VLQD����VLOD�NRMD�SRWHUXMH�IOXLG�)Z6XPD�VYLK�VLOD�MH� � � � � FRV �FRV�Z

Z

3) 3$ 3 3 $ $ PJ 3 $ )3 $$ 3 PJ )

TT

'§ · � � ' � ' � � � ' �¨ ¸© ¹' ' � ' � � �¦ ������

L]�GUXJRJ�1HZWRQ�RYRJ�]DNRQD�GRELMDPR��SULWRP�MH�PDVD�HOHPHQWD�U�$���'$� '/��GRN�MHXEU]DQMH�'9�'W��$ 9) PD $ /U W' '§ · � '¨ ¸ '© ¹¦ ������3UHLPHWLPR�GD�MH�'/ ��'W �9VU �9�'9���

� �$ 9) $ 9 9U ' '§ ·§ · � � '¨ ¸¨ ¸© ¹© ¹¦ ������.RPELQRYDQMHP�MHGQDþLQD������� L���������L�]DQHPDULYDQMHP�þODQRYD�YLãHJ�UHGD�GRELMDPR�FRV Z$ 3 PJ ) $9 9T U� ' � � ' ������RGQRVQR FRVZ) $9 9 $ 3 PJU T ' � ' � ������6DGD�MH�UDG�REDYOMHQ�QD�HOHPHQWX�LQ FRVZZRUN ) / $ /9 9 $ / 3 PJ /U T ' ' ' � ' ' � ' ������LOL � �LQ ZZRUN ) / P9 9 ]DSUHPLQD 3 PJ ] ' ' � ' � ' ������RGQRVQR�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�

LQ ZZRUN ) / 9 9 Y 3 J ] ' ' � ' � ' ������$NR�VDGD�UD]OLNH�' ]DPHQLPR�GLIHUHQFLMDOLPD�G��GRELMDPR�

� �$� $'

� �9� 9' � �$� $'

3$$ )Z

9Z

� �9� 9''/

DT]

Page 9: index termodinamika.pdf

LQZRUN 9G9 YG3 JG] � � ������NDGD�L]LQWHJUDOLPR�GRELMDPR�L]YUãHQL�UDG�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�IOLGD�SUL�VWDFLRQDUQRP�LVWLFDQMX�VD]DQHPDUHQLP�WUHQMHP������723/27$7RSORWD�MH�LQWHUDNFLMD�L]PHÿX�VLVWHPD�L�RNROLQH�X]URNRYDQD�UD]OLNRP�QMLKRYLKWHPSHUDWXUD��7RSORWD�GRGDWD�VLVWHPX�MH�SR]LWLYQD��SUHG]QDN�MH�����GRN�MH�WRSORWD�RGYHGHQD�RGVLVWHPD�QHJDWLYQD��LPD�SUHG]QDN�±���WRSORWD�NDR�L�UDG�QLMH�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD�

Page 10: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�7:2359,�=$.21�7(502',1$0,.(

����359,�=$.21�7(502',1$0,.(0QRJL�HNVSHULPHQWL�SRND]XMX�GD�DNR�MH�XNXSDQ�UDG�VLVWHPD�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�FLNOLþQRJSURFHVD�MHGQDN�QXOL�WDGD�MH�L�XNXSQD�UD]PHQMHQD�WRSORWD�L]PHÿX�VLVWHPD�L�RNROLQH�MHGQDNDQXOL��7DNRÿH�HNVSHULPHQWL�SRND]XMX�GD�DNR�VLVWHPX�NRML�REDYOMD�FLNOLþQL�SURFHV�GRGDMHPR�UDG�UDG�L]YUãHQ�QD�VLVWHPX���PRUD�SRVWRMDWL�L�RGYRÿHQMD�WRSORWH�RG�VLVWHPD��2YL�HNVSHULPHQWLRþLJOHGQR�SRND]XMX�GD�PRUD�SRVWRMDWL�QHNDNYH�YH]D�L]PHÿX�XNXSQRJ�UDGD�L�UD]PHQMHQHNROLþLQH�WRSORWH��3RVPDWUDMPR�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�NRML�VDUåL�JDV�X�þYUVWRM�SRVXGL�L�SURSHOR��VOLND����$NR�SURSHOR�YUãL�UDG�QD�JDVX�WDGD�üH�WHPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�UDVWL��7DGD�VH�PRUD�RGYRGLWL�WRSORWDRG�JDVD�NDNR�EL�VH�RQ�YUDWLR�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH��.DGD�JRG�LPDPR�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�NRML�YUãLFLNOLþQL�SURFHV�XNXSDQ�RGYHGHQ�UDG�MH�MHGQDN�XNXSQRM�GRYHGHQRM�NROLþLQL�WRSORWH��=DNOMXþDNL]�HNVSHULPHQDWD�MH�SR]QDW�NDR�3UYL�=DNRQ�7HUPRGLQDPLNH L�RQ�VH�PRåH�SUHWVWDYLWL�NDR�: 4G G ³ ³v v �����LOL � � �: 4G G� ³v �����

6OLND������359,�=$.21�7(502',1$0,.(�=$�1(&,./,ý1(�352&(6(��(1(5*,-$3RVPDWUDMPR�VLVWHP�NRML�SUHOD]L�L]�VWDQMD���X�VWDQMH���QHNRP�RG�SXWDQMD�SULND]DQLK�QDVOLFL����QD�SULHPHU�SXWDQMRP�$�D�YUDüD�VH�X�VWDQMH���SXWDQMRP�%��3UYL�]DNRQ�7HUPRGLQDPLNHMH�

6OLND��

*DV*UDQLFDVLVWHPD

��3

$ % &

9

Page 11: index termodinamika.pdf

� �� � � �$ % 4 :G G� � � � � ³v �����LOL � � � �� �� � �$ %4 : 4 :G G G G� �� � � ³ ³ �����$NR�MH�SXWDQMD�&�ELOR�NRMD�SXWDQMD�NRMRP�EL�VH�VLVWHP�PRJDR�YUDWLWL�L]�VWDQMD���X�VWDQMH���WDGD�MH�WDNRÿH�WDþQR� � � � �� �� � �$ &4 : 4 :G G G G� �� � � ³ ³ �����NRPELQRYDQMHP�MHGQHFLQD������ L������ YLGLPR�GD�MH�� � � �� �

� �% &4 : 4 :G G G G� �� �³ ³ �����.DNR�VX�%�L�&�ELOR�NRMH�GYH�SXWDQMH��VOHGL�GD�üH�YUHGQRVW� � �4 :G G�³ ]D�VYH SXWDQMH�L]PHÿXVWDQDM���L���ELWL�LVWD��'UXJLP�UHþLPD� � �4 :G G�³ ]DYLVL�VDPR�RG�NUDMQMLK�VWDQMD�SURFHVD��=DWRMH� � �4 :G G�³ YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��2YD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VH�QD]LYD�VDGUåDQRP�HQHUJLMRP LREHOHåDYD�VH�VD�( SD�MH� � �( 4 :G G' { �³ �����.DNR�MH�( YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�QMHQ�GLIHUHQFLMDO�MH�WDþDQ�SD�MH�G( 4 :G G � �����3URPHQD�VDGUåDQH�HQHUJLMH�L]ORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD�MH�MHGQDND�QXOL�L]RORYDQRJVLV� �(' �����6DGUåDQX�HQHUJLMX�VLVWHPD�þLQH�

N S( 8 ( ( � � ������8QXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�N SX H H H � � ������

����(17$/3,-$.DNR�VH�X�WHUPRGLQDPLþNRM�DQDOL]L�þHVWR�SRMDYOMXMH�L]UD]��8 ��39��RQ�MH�GREL�QD]LY(QWDOSLMD��.DNR�MH�HQWDOSLMD GRELMHQD�NRPELQDFLMRP�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD�8 ��3��9 RQD�MHWDNRÿH�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD��'HILQLFRQD�UHODFLMD�+ 8 39K X 3Y � � ������(QWDOSLMD�MH�NRULVQD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�GHILQLVDQD�SURL]YROMQLP�L]ERURP�NRPELQDFLMH�GUXJLKYHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�L�RQD�QLMH�REOLN�HQHUJLMH�����359,�=$.21�35(,0(1-(1�1$��67$&,21$51,��=$7925(1,�6,67(06WDFLRQDUQL VLWHP�MH�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�X�NRPH�MH�]DQHPDUHQD�NLQHWLþND�L�SRWHQFLMDOQHHQHUJLMD�3RG�VWDFLRQDUQLP�VLVWHPRP�VH�SRGUD]XPHYD�GD�MH�SURPHQD�NLQHWLþNH�L�SRWHQFLMDOQH�HQHUJLMH]DQHPDUOMLYD��SD�WDNR�GRELDMPR�GD�MH� 4 : 8� ' ������LOL

� �4 : 8 8� � ����������359,�=$.21�35,0(1-(1�1$�27925$120�6,67(08

Page 12: index termodinamika.pdf

,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�LOL�]DNRQD�R�NRQ]HUYDFLML�HQHUJLMH��PRåHPR�]DNOMXþLWL���GD�]D�ELOR�NRML�VLVWHP�RWYRUHQ�LOL�]DWYRUHQ��SRVWRML�³%LODQV�(QHUJLMH´�8NXSQHNROLFLQD 8NXSQRP SRYHFDQMXGRGDWHHQHUJLMH VDGU]DQHHQHUJLMHVLVWHPX VLVWHPD§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ ������

.DGD�VH�PDWHULMD�GRGDMH�VLVWHPX�WDGD�XNXSQD�HQHUJLMD�VLVWHPD�UDVWH��MHU�PDWHULMD�NRMD�VHGRGDMH�X�VLVWHP�WDNRÿH�VDGUåL�QHNX�NROLþLQX�HQHUJLMH��.DGD�LPDPR�VOXþDM�GD�VH�PDWHULMDRGX]LPD�VLVWHPX�WDGD�XNXSQD�HQHUJLMD�VLVWHPD�RSDGD�MHU�PDWHULMD�NRMD�VH�RGYRGL�L]�VLVWHPDVDGUåL�GHR�XNXSQH�HQHUJLMH�VLVWHPD��6DGD�QD�RVQRYX�SUHGKRGQRJ�]DNOMXþLYDQMD�PRåHPRSLVDWL�8NXSQD NROLFLQD 8NXSQD NROLFLQD 8NXSQD NROLFLQDHQHUJLMH GRGDWD HQHUJLMH VDGU]DQD HQHUJLMH VDGU]DQDVLVWHPXX YLGX X PDWHULML NRMD VH XPDWHULML NRMD VHUDGD L WRSORWH GRYRGLX VLVWHP RGYRGL L] VLVWHPD§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸� �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

8NXSQR SRYHFDQMHVDGU]DQHHQHUJLMHX VLVWHPX§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ © ¹¨ ¸© ¹������8�HQHUJLMVNRP�ELODQVX�MHGQRJ�RWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD��UDG�MH�XYHN�SRGHOMHQ�QD�GYD�GHOD�D��UDGSRWUHEDQ�GD�VH�PDWHULMD�GRGD�LOL�RGX]PH�VLVWHPX�L�E��VYH�GUXJL�REOLFL�UDGD�

VOLND��3RVPDWUDMPR�VLVWHP�VD�VOLNH����VD�VOLNH�VH�YLGL�GD�IOXLG�XOD]L�X�VLVWHP�QD�PHVWX�SUHVHND���LRGYRGL�VH�L]�VLVWHPD�QD�PHVWX�SUHVHND����3RVPDWUDMPR�GHR�SURFHVD�X�NRPH�]DSUHPLQD�9�IOXLG�XOD]L�VLVWHP�NUR]�SUHVHN����'RH�IOXLGD�LPD�]DSUHPLQX�9� SRSUHþQL�SUHVHN�$� L�GD�ELGRVSHR�X�VLVWHP�SRWUHEQR�MH�GD�SUHÿH�SXW�/���6LOD�NRMD�MH�SRWUHEQD�GD�GHOXMH�QD�GHR�IOXLGD]DSUHPLQH�9� NDNR�EL�RQ�GRVSHR�X�VLVWHP�MH�)� �3�$� RYD�VLOD�GHOXMH�QD�GHR�IOXLGD�GXåGLVWDQFH�NRMD�MH�GXåLQH�L�/� SD�MH�VDGD�UDG�SRWUHEDQ�GD�EL�IOXLG�]DSUHPLQH�9� GRVSHR�X�VLVWHP�� � � � � � �ZRUN ) / 3$ / 39 ������RYR�MH�UDG�NRML�MH�L]YUãHQ�QD�VLVWHPX�RG�VWUDQH�GHOD�IOXLGD�NRML�MH�YDQ�VLVWHPD��7DNRÿH�SRLVWRP�SULQFLSX�VH�GRELMD�UDG�NRML�MH�SRWUHEQR�GD�L]YUãL�VLVWHP�GD�EL�IOXLG�]DSUHPLQH�9�QDSXVWLR�VLVWHP��UDG�NRML�MH�SRWUHEQR�GD�VLVWHP�REDYL�QD�GHOX�IOXLGD�]DSUHPLQH�9� MH�

� �ZRUN 39 ������RYDM�UDG��RGQRVQR�UDG�QD�GRYRÿHQMH�L�RGYRÿHQMH�IOXLGD�X�L�L]�VLVWHPD�QD]LYD�VH�IORZ�ZRUN�NDNRG�JD�PL�SUHYRGLOL���$NR�MH�SURWRN�YDULMDELODQ�WDGD�VH�UDG�UDþXQD�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�NDR3Y PG³ ��SULþHPX�MH��SULPHWLPR��LQIHQWL]LPDOQD�PDVD�NRMD�SUHOD]L�JUDQLFX�VLVWHPD�REHOHåHQDVD�]QDNRP�NRML�MH�NDUDNWHULVWLþDQ�]D�YHOLþLQH�NRMH�QLVX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�ãWR�MH�WDþQR�MHU�VH�WD

*UDQLFD�6LVWHPD6LVWHP)� )�$� $�

� �

�/� /�

Page 13: index termodinamika.pdf

PDVD�QH�VPDWUD�YHOLþLQRP�VWDQMD��0DVD�XQXWDU�VLVWHPD�MH�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��D�PDVD�NRMD�VHGRYRGL�VLVWHPX�QLMH�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�,�NRQDþQR�MHGQDþLQX������� PRåHPR�QDSLVDWL�NDR�� � � � NUDMQMH SRFHWQRXOD]L L]OD]LPDVH PDVH4 : 39 ( 39 ( ( (� � � � � �¦ ¦ ������

X�GLIHUHQFLMDOQRP�REOLNX�L]UD]������� MH�� � � �XOD] L]OD]4 : H 3Y P H 3Y P G(G G G G� � � � � ª º ª º¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ ������9DåQR�MH�QDSRPHQXWL�GD�NDGD�VH�UDGL�R�VWDFLRQDUQRP�LVWLFDQMX�XNXSQD�HQHUJLMD�VLVWHPD�RVWDMHNRQVWDQWQD�3ULPHUL����3UL�6WHDG\±)ORZ�SURFHVX��SULWLVDN�IOLGD�RSDGQH�L]PHÿX�XOD]D�L]OD]D�VD�����QD����SVLD�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�SRUDVWH�VD���QD����FXÂIW�,EP��XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�VH�VPDQML�]D����%�,EP�L�IOXLGX�VH�GRYHGH�WRSORWH����%�,EP��8OD]QD�L�L]OD]QD�FHY�VX�QD�LVWRM�YLVLQL��GRN�MH�XOD]QDEU]LQD�IOXLGD����ISV�D�L]OD]QD����ISV��2GUHGLWL�XNXSDQ�UDG�REDYOMHQ�QD�IOXLGX�LOL�RG�IOXLGD�5HãHQMH�

,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�VOHGL�GD�MH�UDG� � �� �� �� � � � � � � ��9 9Z T X X 3Y 3 Y J ] ]� � � � � � � � ������SUHPD�XVORYLPD�]DGDWND�LPDPR�GD�MH� � �� �� � � � �9 9Z T X 3Y 3 Y � �' � � � ������NDGD�XYUVWLPR�QXPHULFNH�YUHGQRVWL�X�MHGQDþLQX������� LPDPR�GD�MH� � �� �

� � � �� � �

% IWÂ,EI % IWÂ,EI ,EI LQ IW��> @ ���> @ ��> @ ���> @ ���> @ ���> @ �> @,EP % ,EP % LQ IW ,EP,EI LQ IW ���>IW �V @��> @ ���> @ ��> @LQ IW ,EP � ����>,EPÂIW�V Â,EI @���� ����� ����� ����������IWÂ,EI�,EP

Z]DQHPDUOMLYR

� � � � � ��� � � � � � � � � ������

���.RPSUHVRUX�MH�SRWUHEDQ�UDG�RG���KS�NRQMVNLK�VQDJD��GD�EL�NRPSULPRYDR�DPRQLMDN�VD���SVLD������)�QD�����SVLD��NRSUHVRU�VH�KODGL�����%�PLQ��=DQHPDULWL�SURPHQH�NLQHWLFNH�LSRWHQFLMDOQH�HQHUJLMH��NROLNR�VH�SURPHQL�HQWDOSLMD�DPRQLMDND�X�PLQXWL"

*UDQLFD6LVWHPD9� 9�

]� ]�T ����%�,EP Z �"

� �

Page 14: index termodinamika.pdf

5HãHQMH�3RãWR�MH�X�SLWDQMX�6WHDG\±)ORZ�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�VLVWHPD�MH�NRQVWDQWQD��3D�DNR�LPDPR�WR�XYLGX�L]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�LPDPR�GD�MH�� �� � %�>KS@ ����> @ ���>%�PLQ@ ��%�PLQPLQÂKSLQ RXWP K K : 4� � � � ��� ���������3RVPDWUDMPR�JDVQX�WXUELQX�þLML�MH�UDGQL�IOXLG�YD]GXK��9D]GXK�XOD]L�X�WXUELQX�VD�����&�L����N3D��U ������NJ�P����EU]LQRP�RG�����P�V�NUR]�XOD]QL�RWYRU�þLMD�MH�SRYUãLQD�SRSUHþQRJSUHVHND�������P���1DNRQ�ãWR�MH�NRPSULPRYDQ��JUHMDQ��L]ORåHQ�HNVSDQ]LML YD]GXK�QDSXãWDWXUELQX�QD�SULWLVNX�RG�����N3D�������&��U ������NJ�P���NUR]�RWYRU�þLMD�MH�SRYUãLQD�SRSUHþQRJSUHVHND�������P���6QDJD�NRMD�VH�GRELMD�RG�NRPSUHVRUD�MH�����N:��8QXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�LHQWDOSLMD�YD]GXKD�VX�GDWL�L]UD]LPD�X �������7 L�K �������7��X�N-�NJ�DNR�MH�WHPSHUDWXUD�X�.�2GUHGLWL�XNXSQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�GRGDWX�VLVWHPX�X�N-�NJ"5HãHQMH�3RãWR�VH�UDGL�R�6WHDG\±)ORZ�VLVWHPX�LPDPR�GD�MH�SUYL�]DNRQ�� �� �� �� � � ��9 9T Z K K J ] ]� � � � � � ������5DG�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�NRML�VH�GRELMD�RG�VLVWHPD�MH�:Z P �� ������3URWRN�PDVH�X�XOD]QRP�RWYRUX�MH� � �� � � � � ����>NJ�P @ �����>P @ ���>P�V@�����>NJ�V@P P P $9P U � � � � �� ������NDNR�SURWRN�PDVH�QD�XOD]X�X�VLVWHP�PRUD�ELWL�MHGQDN�SURWRNX�PDVH�QD�L]OD]X��ãWR�MH�L�QDSLVDQRX�MHGQDþLQL���������WDGD�EU]LQD�YD]GXKD�QD�L]OD]X�PRUD�ELWL�

� � �� ������>NJ�V@ ���>P�V@����>NJ�P @ �����>P @P9 $U �� ������6DGD�PRåHPR�QDSLVDWL�MHGQDþLQX������� X�VOHGHüHP�REOLNX�

*UDQLFD6LVWHPD

]� ]�:� LQ ���KS

4� RXW �����%�PLQ

T �"

Z� �����N:

� �*DV±WXUELQHSRZHU�SODQW�V\VWHP�

Page 15: index termodinamika.pdf

� �� �� ������� � �9 9T Z 7 7 � � � � ������RGQRVQR�DNR�]DPHQLPR�YUHGQRVWL�� � � �� �� � ���>N:@ ��� >P�V@ ��� >P�V@������ � ��������� ����>N-@� �����>NJ�V@ � �������N-�NJ9 9T Z 7 7

T� � � � � � � � � ������

���9D]GXK�VH�NRPSULPXMH�SUL�6WHDG\±)ORZ��IULFWLRQOHVV��SURFHVX�VD����N3D�����&��Y� ������P��NJ���QD�����N3D�SR�VOHGHüRM�]DYLVQRVWL�3�Y ��������� �FRQVW��EU]LQD�YD]GXKD�QD�XOD]X�MH]DQHPDUOMLYR�PDOD��GRN�QD�L]OD]X�L]QRVL�����P�V��6UDþXQDWL�UDG�SRWUHEDQ�SR�MHGLQLFL�YD]GXKD�

5HãHQMH�3ULPHQLPR�OL�SUYL�]DNRQ�LPDPR�GD�MH� � �� �� �LQ RXW � � � ��9 9Z T K K J ] ]� � � � � � ������YLGLPR�GD�QHPRåHPR�L]UDþXDQWL�WRSORWX�L�HQWDOSLMX�SD�MHGQRVWDYQR�RGEDFXMHPR�WDM�GHR�LGRELMDPR�L]UD]�]D�UDG�X�PHKDQLþNRP�VPLVOX��NRML�MH� � �� �� � � � �� �LQ 9 9Z YG3 J ] ]� � � �³ ������3UHPD�GDWLP�XVORYLPD�]DGDWND�MHGQDþLQD������� MH�REOLND��� �� �LQ 9Z YG3 �³ ������,]UDþXQDMPR�LQWHJUDO� � �� � � �� � � �

��

� � � �� ��� � � ��

����� OQ ���������� OQ �����

����� ����� ����� OQ ����� ��� �������� N-�NJ

33 & 3YG3 G3 & 3 33 333 Y 3 33

§ ·§ · � � �¨ ¸¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹§ · � � �¨ ¸© ¹§ · � � � � �¨ ¸© ¹

³ ³������

6DGD�PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWL�UDG�NRML�MH�SRWUHEDQ�VLVWHPX�]D�RYDNRY�SURFHV�� �� �� �������>N-�NJ@ >N-�NJ@ ����N-�NJ� � ����LQ 9Z YG3 � � �³ ������

$LU�&RPSUHVRU

6\VWHP%RXQGDU\9� 9�

� �

ZLQ �"

Page 16: index termodinamika.pdf

���0HãDYLQD�YD]GXKD�L�YRGHQH�SDUH�HQWDOSLMH�����N-�NJ�XOD]L�X�VLVWHP��GHKXPLGLILHU±GHRNOLPD�XUHÿDMD��VD�PDVHQLP�SURWRNRP�RG�����NJ�K��9RGD�VH�RGYRGL�L]�VLVWHPD���NJ�K�L�RQDLPD�HQWDOSLMX����N-�NJ��0HãDYLQD�YRGHQH�SDUH�RGOD]L�L]�VLVWHPD�VD�HQWDOSLMRP����N-�NJ�2GUHGLWL�RGYHGHQX�WRSORWX�RG�IOXLGD�SUL�SUROD]X�NUR]�GHKXPLGLILHU"

5HãHQMH�.DGD�SULPHQLPR�SUYL�]DNRQ�L�SULWRP�]DQHPDULPR�SRWHQFLMDOQX�L�NLQHWLþNX�HQHUJLMX�LPDPR�GDMH�� � � � � � RXWP K P K P K 4 � � �� � � ������L]�ELODQVD�PDVH�LPDPR�GD�MH�

� � �P P P �� � � ������SD�MH�VDGD�MHGQDþLQD������� REOLND� � �� �� � � � � � ���� ��� � �� ��� � �������N-�KRXW4 P K P K P P K � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ������

���6ODQD�YRGD�VD�VSHFLILþQRP�JUDYLWDFLMRP������XOD]L�X�SXPSX�QD����SVLD������)��NUR]�RWYRUSUHþQLND���LQ�D�L]OD]L�NUR]�RWYRU�SUHþQLND���LQ�QD�SULWLVNX����SVLD��L]OD]�SXPSH�MH�YLãL�RG�XOD]D]D���IW��3URWRN�PDVH�MH�����JSP��$NR�SXPSD�UDGL�EH]�WUHQMD��NROLNR�MRM�MH�SRWUHEQR�GRVWDYLWLVQDJH"

*UDQLFD6LVWHPD

��

� �

� P� �

P� � ����NJ�K

P� � ����NJ�K

'HKXPLGLILHU

�] ]� �±� ���IW3XPSD6\VWHPERXQGHU\

Page 17: index termodinamika.pdf

5HãHQMH�.DR�L�X�SUHGKRGQRP�SULPHUX�SULPRUDQL�VPR�GD�LJQRULãHPR�UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�LXQXWUDãQMX�HQHUJLMX��SD�VWRJD�UDþXQDPR�VDPR�PHKDQLþNL�UDG�� �� �� � �LQ � �� �9 9Z YG3 J ] ]� � � �³ ������NDNR�MH�GDW�SURWRN�PDVH�PRåHPR�RGUHGLWL�EU]LQH�QD�XOD]X�X�VLVWHP�L�QD�L]OD]X�L]�VLVWHPD��� ���� JDO ���>LQ@ >IW @ ,EP> @ ���� ����> @�� V >JDO@ ����>LQ @ IW���� ,EP�V

P � � � �

� ������%U]LQH�QD�XOD]X�L�L]OD]X�L]�VLVWHPD�VX�

� �� � �� � �� �� � �

���� � ��� ���ISV���� ���� � � ��� ����IWS�P9 $P $9 '9 9$ $ 'U SUU U

� � � � �§ · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹�� ������

6DGD�PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWL�UDG� � �� � � �� � � �� �� � �LQ � ��

� � � �� � � ��

�� ���� ���� ������� ��� ��� ����� ���� �������� ��� � ����IWÂ,EI�,EP����

9 9Z YG3 J ] ]9 9 9 9Y 3 3 J ] ]� � � �� � � � � �� � � � � � � � �

³������

SD�SRWUHEQD�VQDJD�L]QRVL�LQ ���� ���� ����KS���: PZ � � � ������

����35(9,�=$.21�7(502',1$0,.(�±�*(1(5$/1$�)2508/$&,-$.DNR�MH�ELODQV�HQHUJLMH�ELOR�NRJ�RWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHD�GDW�L]UD]RP�8NXSQD NROLFLQD 8NXSQD NROLFLQD 8NXSQD NROLFLQDHQHUJLMH GRGDWD HQHUJLMH VDGU]DQD HQHUJLMH VDGU]DQDVLVWHPXX YLGX X PDWHULML NRMD VH XPDWHULML NRMD VHUDGD L WRSORWH GRYRGLX VLVWHP RGYRGL L] VLVWHPD§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸� �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

8NXSQR SRYHFDQMHVDGU]DQHHQHUJLMHX VLVWHPX§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ © ¹¨ ¸© ¹������VDGD�üHPR�GDWL�EOLåL�RSLV�NDNR�VUDþXQDWL�VYH�RYH�UDGRYH��HQHUJLMH�L�WRSORWH�

Page 18: index termodinamika.pdf

XOD]L L]OD]LXOD]L L]OD]L

8NXSQD NROLFLQD 4 : 3Y P 3Y PHQHUJLMH GRGDWDVLVWHPXX YLGX 4 : P3YG P3YGUDGD L WRSORWHG G

W W· ­ � � �¸ °¸ ®¸ � � �°¸̧ ¯¹

¦ ¦³ ³¦ ¦³ ³� � � �XOD]D XOD]D

VDGU]DQD HQHUJLMDXPDWHULML NRMD VH H P PHGGRYRGLX VLVWHP G W·̧ ¸̧¹ ¦ ¦³ ³ �L]OD]D L]OD]D

VDGU]DQD HQHUJLMDXPDWHULML NRMD VH H P PHGRGYRGL L] VLVWHP G W·̧ ¸̧¹ ¦ ¦³ ³ �NUDMQMH SRFHWQRXNXSQD HQHUJLMD ( (VDGU]DQDX VLVWHPX · �¹̧

3ULPHUL����9D]GXK�QD�����N3D�L�����&��VWUXML�FHYRYRGRP��1D�FHYRYRG�MH�SRYH]DQD�ERFD��SUHNRYHQWLOD��]DSUHPLQH�������P� NRMD�VDGUåL�������NJ�YD]GXKD�QD�����N3D�L�����&��GRN�MH�YHQWLO]DWYRUHQ��9HQWLO�VH�RWYDUD�L�YD]GXK�XOD]L�X�ERFX�GRN�VH�X�ERFL�QH�SRVWLJQH�SULWLVDN�RG����N3D��9HOLþLQH�VWDQMD�VX�SRYH]DQH�L�WR�K ����X ������7 ������3Y��SUL�þHPX�MH�K�L X X�N-�NJ��7X�NHOYLQLPD��3 X�N3D�L�Y X�P��NJ��%RFD�MH�WRNRP�SURFHVD�WHUPLþNL�L]RORYDQD��YD]GXK�MHKRPRJHQ�L�X�FHYRYRGX�L�X�ERFL��YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�YD]GXKD�X�FHYRYRGX�VX�NRQVWDQWQH��L]UDþXQDWL�PDVX�YD]GXD�QD�NUDMX�SURFHVD�L�WHPSHUDWXUX�YD]GXKD�QD�NUDMX�SURFHVD�X�ERFL�3URPHQH�NLQHWLþNH�L�SRWHQFLMDOQH�HQHUJLMH�]DQHPDULWL�

5HãHQMH�$QDOL]D� 2EODVW�X�UH]HUYRDUX�üH�VH�VPDWUDWL�VLVWHPRP��.DNR�VH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�X�UH]HUYRDUXPHQMDMX�]DNOXþXMHPR�GD�VH�UDGL�R�RWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX��.DNR�VX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�X�FHYRYRGXNRQVWDQWQH�RQH�PRJX��REXKYDüHQH�L�X�SRþHWQRP�L�X�NUDMQMHP�VWDQMX��3ULPHWLPR�GD�X�VLVWHPXQHPD�UDGD��L]X]HY�UDGD�SRWUHEQRJ�]D�XEDFLYDQMH�YD]GXKD�X�VLVWHP�)ORZ�ZRUN���SULPHQLPRSUYL�]DNRQ�

T ��

Page 19: index termodinamika.pdf

6DGU]DQD 6DGU]DQD 6DGU]DQD5DG SRWUHEDQHQHUJLMD HQHUJLMD HQHUJLMD]D XEDFLYDQMHYD]GXKD YD]GXKD YD]GXKDYD]GXKD X ERFXQD SRFHWNX NRML XOD]L QD NUDMX§ · § · § ·§ ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸� � ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

������NDNR�MH�]D�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�SUYL�]DNRQ� � �

� � � ��

� �� �XO XO

L L I IL L I L I I

G8 P H SYGPX P X 3Y P XPX P P K P XW �� � � �

� ������X�RYRM�MHGQDþLQL�QHSR]QDWH�VX�QDP�GYH�SURPHQOMLYH�PI L�XI��GUXJD�MHGQDþLQD�NRMD�GDMH�YH]XL]PHÿX�RYLK�SURPHQOMLYLK�MH� ��� ���� ����

���II I I I I

I II I

9X 3 Y 3 P3 9X P

������VDGD�NDGD�]DPHQLPR�L]UD]������� X�MHGQDþLQX������� GRELMDPR�GD�MH�

��

��

� � ����������������� ������������� ��������� ��� ����� ���� ��� ���� ����� ����������� �������NJ

L L I L I II I L L LII I L L L

I

P X P P K 3 93 9 PX P KP K3 9 P 7 P 77P

� � � � � �

� � � � � � � � �

������

6DGD�PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWL�L�NUDMQMX�WHPSHUDWXUX�������������� ������������� �������. ����&

II I I

I

97 3 P7

� � ������

5HãHQMH�VD�YUOR�PDORP�UD]OLNRP��1HNL�OMXGL�YROH�GD�XYHN�SRÿX�RG�ELODQVD�HQHUJLMH�XGLIHUHQFLMDOQRM�IRUPL�NDR�ãWR�MH��]D�VOXþDM�4 ���L�: ���6DGU]DQD HQHUJLMD 3RUDVW X VDGU]DQRMX VLVWHPX L UDG HQHUJLML VLVWHPDSRWUHEDQ ]D GRGDYDQMHPPDVH PXEDFLYDQMHPDVH P GG§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ © ¹¨ ¸© ¹

������� �� � � �� �X 3Y P G8K P G8GG � ������

Page 20: index termodinamika.pdf

$NR�MH�P PDVD�X�UH]HUYRDUX��GP MH�SURPHQD�PDVH�X�UH]HUYRDUX��.DNR�LPDPR�VDPR�XOD]�PDVHX�VLVWHP��WDGD�MH�SURPHQD�PDVH�X�UH]HUYRDUX�MHGQDND�PDVL�GRVWDYOMHQRM�X�UH]HUYRDU�LOLGP �GP��3D�WDNR�LPDPR�GD�MH�ELODQV�HQHUJLMH�X�VLVWHPX��K GP G8 ������.DNR�MH�X �����3Y��WDGD�MH�8 �PX �����39��L�G8 ������3G9 ��9G3�� �����9G3�

� ����K GP 9G3 ������MHGQDþLQX������� LQWHJUDOLPR�VRE]LURP�GD�MH�K� �FRQVW��L�GRELMDPR�� � � �� ��

�������������I L I L

I LI LK P P 9 3 39 3 3P P 7

� �� � ������=DPHQRP�QXPHULþNLK�YUHGQRVWL�GRELMDPR�GD�MH�PI ������NJ��L�7I PRåH�ELWL�L]UDþXQDWR�NDR�XSUHGKRGQRP�SRVWXSNX�

$OWHUQDWLYQR�UHãHQMH�7DNRÿH�RYDM�SULPHU�VH�PRJDR�UHãLWL�L�DQDOL]RP�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�NDNR�MH�WR�QD�VOLFLSULND]DQR�

8�RYRP�VOXþDMX�EL�JUDQLFD�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�ELOD�XQXWUDãQMRVW�ERFH�L�PDVD�YD]GXKD�X�FHYLNRMD�WUHED�GD�XÿH�X�ERFX��WDNR�GD�QHPD�SUHOD]D�PDVH�SHNR�JUDQLFH�VLVWHPD��.DNR�D]GXK�L]FHYL�XOD]L�X�ERFX�]DSHPLQD�YDQ�ERFH�üH�VH�VPDQMLWL�GR�QXOH��5DG�MH�REDYOMHQ�QD�VLVWHPX�RGVWUDQH�RNROQRJ�YD]GXKD�QD�VPDQMHQMX�]DSUHPLQH�VLVWHPD�,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�LPDR�GD�MH�LQ L I4 : 8 8� � ������5DG�REDYOMHQ�QD�VLVWHPX�MH�UDG�NRML�REDYL�RNROQL�YD]GXK�X�FHYL�GD�EL�NRPSULPRYDR�GHRVLVWHPD�L]�FHYL�VD�]DSUHPLQH�9� QD�QXOX��=QDPR�GD�MH�SULWLVDN�X�FHYL�NRQVWDQWDQ��SD�MH�WDGDUDG�QD�VLVWHPX� � �� � � � � �I

I9LQ I L9 9: 3G9 39 3 P P Y� � �³ ������

,QGHNV���VH�RGQRVL�QD�YD]GXK�X�FHYL�.DGD�WDNR�GRELMHQL�UDG�XEDFLPR�X�SUYL�]DNRQ��MHG����������LPDPR�GD�MH�

4 ��

Page 21: index termodinamika.pdf

� �� � ��

� �� �I L L L I L I II L L L I I

3 P P Y PX P P X P XK P P PX P X� � � � � � ������D�WR�MH�XVWYDUL�SRþHWQD�MHGQDþLQD�X�VOXþDMX�NDGD�VPR�SUREOHP�UHãDYDOL�NDNR�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP����'REUR�L]RORYDQL�UH]HUYRDU�]DSUHPLQH�������P� VDGUåL������NJ�YD]GXKD�QD�����N3D��0DOLYHQWLO�VH�RWYDUD�L�GR]YROMDYD�GD�GHR�YD]GXKD�L]DÿH�X�DWPRVIHUX�QD�SUWLVNX�����N3D��6PDWUDWLGD�VX�XVORYL�XQLIRUPQL�X�UH]HUYRDUX�X�VYDNRP�WUHQXWNX��2GUHGLWL�SUHRVWDOX�NROLþLQX�YD]GXKD�XUH]HUYRDUX�DNR�MH�SULWLVDN�X�UH]HUYRDUX�����N3D��9HOLþLQH�VWDQMD�YDGXKD�VX�SRYH]DQH�L�WR�K ���X ������7 ������3Y��SUL�þHPX�MH�K�L X X�N-�NJ��7 X�NHOYLQLPD��3 X�N3D�L�Y X�P��NJ�

3URVWRU�XQXWDU�UH]HUYRDUD�MH�VLVWHP��RWYRUHQL���3UHRVWDOD�PDVD�YD]GXKD�X�UH]HUYRDUX�QD����N3D�üH�]DYLVLWL�RG�WHPSHUDWXUH��D�QD�WHPSHUDWXUX�üH�XWLFDWL�HQHUJLMD�NRMD�MH�XNORQMHQD�L]VLVWHPD�X�VPLVOX�LVWLFDQMD�YD]GXKD��ãWR�QDP�JRYRUL�GD�üH�QDã�SUYL�NRUDN�ELWL�SLVDQMHHQHUJLMVNRJ�EDODQVD�VLVWHPD��.DNR�VX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�YD]GXKD�NRML�SUHOD]L�JUDQLFX�VLVWHPDSURPHQOMLYH�PRUDPR�ELODQV�HQHUJLMH�SLVDWL�X�GLIHUHQFLMDOQRP�REOLNX��.DNR�LQIHQWL]LPDOQDPDVD�GP� SUHOD]L�JUDQLFX�VLVWHPD��YD]GXK�LVWLþH���SURPHQD�PDVH�XQXWDU�VLVWHPD�MH�GP��.DNRGP� QDSRãWD�VLVWHP��L�NDNR�MH�WR�MHGLQL�RWYRU�X�VLVWHPX��LPDPR�GD�MH�GP� �±GP��.DNR�MH4 ���L�: ���� �

6PDQMHQMH 6DGU]DQD HQHUJLMD UDG SRWUHEDQVDGU]DQHHQHUJLMH X P NRMD QDSRVWD GD P QDSXVWLX UH]HUYRDUX UH]HUYRDU UH]HUYRDUG G§ · § · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ ������RGQRVQR� � �� � � � � � � � �G8 H P 3 Y P H 3 Y PG G G� � � ������SUL�þHPX�VX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�EH]�LQGHNVD�YHOLþLH�VWDQMD�XQXWDU�UH]HUYRDUD�3URPHQH�SRWHQFLMDOQH�HQHUJLMH�VX�]DQHPDUOMLYH��$NR�JUDQLFX�VLVWHPD���SRVWDYLPR�WLN�LVSUHGYHQWLOD�ELüH�L�NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�]DQHPDUOMLYD��SD�WDNR�LPDPR�GD�MH�H� �X���6¶RE]LURP�QDSUHGKRGQH�SUHWSRVWDYNH�LPDPR�GD�NH�HQHUJLMVNL�ELODQV�� �� � � �G8 X 3 Y PG� � ������3RãWR�VX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�YD]GXKD�NRML�QDSXãWD�ERFX�LVWH�NDR�L�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�YD]GXKD�X�ERFL�LPDPR�GD�MH�X� �X��3� �3 L�Y� �Y��7DNRÿH�LPDPR�GD�MH�GP �±GP�� �� � � �G8 X 3Y GPG PX X SY GPXGP PGX XGP SYGPPGX SYGP

� � �� � �� � � � ������

Page 22: index termodinamika.pdf

3UHPD�]DGDWLP�YH]DPD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�LPDPR�GD�MH�X �����3Y LOL�GX �����G�3Y���SD�MHHQHUJLMVNL�ELODQV�VDGD�����

�������

���� � �� �����OQ OQI I I

L L LI I I I I LL L L L L I

PG 3Y 3YGPG 3Y GP3Y PP 3 YP 3YP 3 Y 3 9 PP 3Y 39P

§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹§ ·§ · ¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

������

.DNR�MH�]DSUHPLQD�UH]HUYRDUD�NRQVWDQWQD��LOL�9I �9L��LPDPR�GD�MH�������

��� ���

��� ��������� ��� ������������� ����� ����NJ �����NJ

I I LL L II I IL L LI IL LI L

P 3 PP 3 PP P 3P P 3P 3P 3P P

§ ·§ · �¨ ¸¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹§ · § ·� ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹ � ������

����723/271,�02725,��723/271,�.2(),&,-(17��67(3(1�.25,61267,7RSORWQL�PRWRUL�VX�QDSUDYH�NRMH�SULPDMX�WRSORWX�D�GDMX�UDG REDYOMDMXüL�SURFHVWUDQVIRUPDFLMH�FLNOLþQR�7RSORWQD�HIHNWLYQRVW�MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�RGQRV�GRELMHQRJ�UDGD�L�GRYHGHQH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�LQ: XNXSDQ GRELMHQL UDG4 GRYHGHQD NROLFLQD WRSORWHGK { ³v ������

RGQRVQR�DNR�SULPHQLPR�SUYL�]DNRQ�]D�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�WM�� LQ RXW: 4 4 4G G �³ ³v vGRELMDPR�LQ RXW RXW

LQ LQ LQ�: 4 4 44 4 4GK �{ �³v ������6LVWHP�NRML�DSVRUEXMH�WRSORWX�RG�GHOD�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�MH�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�L�SUHGDMH�WRSORWXGHOX�RNUXåHQDM�QD�YLãRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��L�SULWLRP�WR�REDYOMD�FLNOLþQR��WDNDY�VLVWHP�VH�QD]LYDWRSORWQD�SXPSD �5HIULJDUDWRU��+HDW�SXPS���5D]OLND�L]PHÿX�5HIULJHUDWRU�D L�WRSORWQH�SXPSHMH�X�FLOMX��$NR�MHFLOM�GD�GVH�RGYRGL�WRSORWD�RG�GHOD�RNUXåHQMD�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�GD�EL�WDMGHR�LPDR�QLåX�WHPSHUDWXUX��LOL�GDEL�VH�WDM�GHR�GUåDR�QD�QHNRM�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��WDGD�VH�WDNDYVLVWHP�QD]LYD�5HIULJHUDWRU �)ULåLGHU���$NR�VH�WRSORWD�SUHGDMH�GHOX�RNUXåHQMD�VD�YLãRPWHPSHUDWXURP��NRMD�MH�RGX]HWD�GHOX�RNUXåHQMD�VD�QLåRP�WHPSHUDWXURP��X�FLOMX�SRYHüDQDMWHPSHUDWXUH�LOL�RGUåDYDQMD�QDYLãRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��VLVWHP�NRML�RYDNDY�SURFHV�REDYOMD�FLNLþQRQD]LYD�VH�7RSORWQD�3XPSD�.RHILFLMHQW�LVNRULãWHQMD�5HIULJHUDWRU�D�

Page 23: index termodinamika.pdf

LQ�QL�D5 4 :E G � ³v ������.RHILFLMHQW�LVNRULãWHQMD�7RSORWQH�SXPSH�D�

RXW�9LãD+3 4 :E G � ³v ������

Page 24: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�7+5((),=,ý.(�.$5$7(5,67,.(�,

����$*5(*$71$�67$1-$�68367$1&(��ý95672��7(ý12�,�*$629,72,]�VYDNRGQHYQRJ�åLYRWD�]QDPR�GD�VH�PDWHULMD�PRåH�VUHVWL�X�þYUVWRP��WHþQRP�LJDVRYLWRP�DJUHJDWQRP�VWDQMX��1D�SULPHU��QD�VREQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�EDNDU�MH�X�þYUVWRP��åLYD�XWDþQRP�D�NLVHRQLN�MH�X�JDVRYLWRP�DJUHJDWQRP�VWDQMX��VYDND�RYD�VXSVWDQFD�VH�PRåH�SRMDYLWL�XVYD�WUL�DJUHJDWQD�VWDQMD�DNR�VH�SULWLVDN�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�SURPHQH�X�GRYROMQRM�PHUL�)D]D�MH�ELOR�NRML�KRPRJHQL�GHR�VLVWHPD�NRML�MH�IL]LþNL�RGUHÿHQ�L�RGYRMHQ�MH�RG�RVWDOLKGHORYD�VLVWHPD�JUDQLþQRP�SRYUãLQRP��/HG��YRGD�L�YRGHQD�SDUD�SUHGVWDYOMDMX�WUL�DJUHJDWQDVWDQMD�VXSVWDQFH�+�2��MHU�MH�VYDNR�VWDQMH�KRPRJHQR��IL]LþNL�RGUHÿHQR�L�UD]GYRMHQR�RG�RVWDOLKVWDQMD�JUDQLþQRP�SRYUãLQRP��1D�YLVRNRP�SULWLVNX�LPDPR�QHNROLNR�REOLND�OHGD��VYDNL�RG�RYLKREOLND�SUHWVWDYOMD�MHGQX�ID]X�OHGD��MHU�MH�MHGQD�ID]D�SRWSXQR�UD]OLþLWD�RG�GUXJH�L�UD]GYRMHQDJUDQLþQRP�SRYUãLQRP�6XOIRU�PRåH�VUHVWL�X�WUL�þYUVWH�ID]H�QD�VREQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�L�SULWLVNX��*UDILW�L�GLMDPDQW�VX�GYHID]H�þYUVWRJ�VWDQMD�XJOMHQLMND��8�JOREDOX�VYDNR�þYUVWR�VWDQMH�X�VLVWHPX�MH�X�UD]OLþLWRM�ID]L��DNRMH�VYDNR�KRPRJHQR��IL]LþNL�RGUHÿHQR�L�DNR�MH�RGYRMHQR�RG�RVWDWND�VLVWHPD�GHILQLWQRPJUDQLþQRP�SRYUãLQRP��ýYUVW�UDVWYRU�LPD�VDPR�MHGQX�ID]X�PD�NROLNR�VXSVWDQFL�ELOR�XNOMXþHQRX�QMHJD��7HþQL�UDVWYRU��WDNRÿH��PRåH�LPDWL�VDPR�MHGQX�ID]X�

8�NULVWDOLPD��MHGLQLFD�NULVWDOQH�VWUXNWXUH�MH�DWRP�LOL�MRQ�þHãüH�QHJR�PROHNXOL��LDNR�VH�PROHNXOLX�L]YHVQLP�WLSRYLPD�NULVWDOD�SRQDãDMX�LVWRYHWQR�NDR�DWRPL�LOL�MRQL��8�RYRM�SULþL�VH�WHUPLQPROHNXOL�NRULVWL�GD�EL�VH�SRMHGQRVWDYLOR�XSRUHÿLYDQMH�JDVRYD�VD�WHþQRVWLPD��0ROHNXOL�XþYUVWLP�WHOLPD�VX�UDVSRUHÿHQL�QD�PDORP�UDVWRMDQMX�SR�PXVWUL�NRMD�VH�SRQDYOMD�VD�PLQRUQLPQHUHJXODUQRVWLPD�NUR]�WHOR��5DVSRUHG�PROHNXOD��LOL�DWRPD�LOL�MRQD��X�WHOX�MH�UHãHWNDVW�8�QH�NULVWDOQLP�WHOLPD��NDR�ãWR�MH�VWDNOR��VXVHGQL�PROHNXOL�VX�UDVSRUHÿHQL�SR�RGUHÿHQRMPXVWUL��DOL�UHJXODUQRVW�WH�PXVWUH�QLMH�RGUåDQD�NUR]�WHOR�NDR�ãWR�MH�WR�VOXþDM�X�NULVWDOQLP�WHOLPD�8�NULVWDOQLP�WHOLPD�UDVSRUHG�MH�RGUåDQ�L�X�ãLUHP�L�X�XåHP�RSVHJX�GRN�X�QHNULVWDOQLP�WHOLPDUDVSRUHG�RVWDMH�RGUåDQ�VDPR�X�XåHP�RSVHJX��8�VYLP�WHOLPD�PHÿX�PROHNXODUQH�VLOH�VX�MDNH�MHUVX�PROHNXOL�GRYROMQR�EOL]X�MHGQL�GUXJLPD��2YH�PHÿXPROHNXODUQH�VLOH�WHåH�GD�RGUåH�PROHNXOHX�UHãHWNL�QD�VYRMLP�PHVWLPD��L�RG�QMLRYRJ�LQWHQ]LWHWD�]DYLVL�RWSRUQRVW�WHOD�QD�GHIRUPDFLMX�0ROHNXOL�WHOD�NRQWLQXDOQR�RVFLOXMX�RNR�VYRMLK�UDYQRWHåQLK�SRORåDMD��DOL�MH�DPSOLWXGD�WLKRVFLODFLMD�YUOR�PDOD��]ERJ�WRJD�PROHNXOL�QLNDGD�QLVX�GDOHNR�RG�VYRMLK�UDYQRWHåQLK�SRORåDMD�%U]LQD�RVFLORYDQMD�PROHNXOD�]DYLVL�RG�WHPSHUDWXUH�WHOD��6D�SRYHüDQMHP�WHPSHUDWXUH�UDVWH�LEU]LQD�L�NROLþLQD�NUHWDQMD�PROHNXOD�VYH�GRN�PHÿXPROHNXODUQH�VLOH�QH�EXGX�VDYODGDQH��*UXSDPROHNXOD�VH�SRPHUD�X�RGQRVX�QD�LVWX�WDNYX�JUXSX�PROHNXOD�L�WHOR�SRVWDMH�WHþQR�8�WHþQRP�VWDQMX�UDVWRMDQMH�PHÿX�PROHNXOLPD�MH�LVWR�NDR�L�X�þYUVWRP��3RORåDML�PROHNXOD�QLVXILNVLUDQL�X�WDþNDPD��DOL�X�UHJLRQX�PROHNXODUQLK�GLPHQ]LMDPD�RVWDMH�RGUåDQ�NULVWDORJUDIVNL�UHG�7DNR�GD�VYDNL�PROHNXO�]DX]LPD�SRORåDM�X�]DYLVQRVWL�RG�SRORåDMD�VXVHGQRJ�PROHNXOD��2YDPDOD�JUXSD�PROHNXOD�þLML�UDVSRUHG�SRGVHüD�QD�UDVSRUHG�X�þYUVWRP�WHOX�QH�RVWDMH�X�ILNVLUDQRPUHODWLYQRP�SRORåDMX�X�RGQRVX�QD�VXVHGQX�JUXSX�PROHNXOD��]ERJ�WRJD�X�WHþQR�VWDQMH�]DX]LPDREOLN�VXGD�X�NRPH�VH�QDOD]L��5DVWRMDQMH�PROHNXOD�X�WHþQRP�VWDQMH�MH�PDOR�YHüH�QHJR�XþYUVWRP�VWDQMX�*DV�MH�VXS�PROHNXOD�NRML�VX�QD�YHOLNRP�PHÿXVREQRP�UDVWRMDQMX��1H�SRVWRML�UHJXODUQRVW�XQMLKRYRP�UDVSRUHGX�X�SURVWRUX��PROHNXOL�JDVD�VX�VWDOQR�X�SRNUHWX�PHÿXVREQR�VH�VXGDUDMX�LPHQMDMX�SUDYDF�NUHWDQMD��8�JDVRYLPD�PDOH�JXVWLQH��PROHNXOL�VX�QD�YHOLNRP�UDVWRMDQMX�L�MHGLQD

Page 25: index termodinamika.pdf

LQWHUDNFLMD�PHÿX�PROHNXOLPD�MH�QMLKRYR�VXGDUDQMH��NDNR�VX�PROHNXOL�QD�YHOLNRP�UDVWRMDQMXPHÿX�PROHNXODUQH�VLOH�VX�YUOR�PDOH�����5$9127(ä$��)$=(�ý,67(�68367$&(ýLVWD�VXSVWDQFH�MH�RQD�VXSVWDQFD�NRMD�MH�KHPLMVNL�KRPRJHQD�L�RGUHÿHQD�SR�KHPLMVNRPVDVWDYX��6LVWHP�VDVWDYOMHQ�RG�WHþQH�ID]H�L�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�+�2�MH�þLVWD�VXEVWDQFD��,DNR�WRNRPSURFHVD�GHR�WHþQH�ID]H�SUHÿH�X�JDVRYLWX�VXSVWDQFD�MH�L�GDOMH�KHPLMVNL�KRPRJHQD�LQHSURPHQMHQD�SR�KHPLMVNRP�VDVWDYX��0HãDYLQD�WDNRÿH�PRåH�ELWL�þLVWD�VXSVWDQFD��1D�SULPHU�YD]GXK�MH�PHãDYLQD�NLVHRQLND�L�D]RWD��3RHQWD�MH�GD�ID]D�PRåH�ELWL�JUHMDQD��KODÿHQD�NRPSULPRYDQD�LOL�L]ORåHQD�HNVSDQ]LML�D�GD�SULWRP�QH�SURPHQL�VYRM�KHPLVNL�VDVWDY��$NR�EL�VHYD]GXK�KODGLR�GR�WHPSHUDWXUH�SUL�NRMRM�EL�GHR�D]RWD�SUHODãDR�X�WHþQR�VWDQMH�YLãH�QHEL�LPDOLþLVWX�VXSVWDQFX��MHU�WDNYD�VXSVWDQFD�QLMH�KHPLMVNL�KRPRJHQD��YHüL�MH�SURFHQDW�D]RWD�X�WHþQRPVWDQMX�QHJR�X�JDVRYLWRP���0HãDYLQD�NLVHRQLND�L�XJOMHQ�PRQRNVLGD�RVWDMH�þLVWD�VXSVWDQFD�VYHGRN�MH�QMLKRY�VDVWDY�RVWDMH�LVWL��$NR�VH�&2�PHãD�VD�2� GRELD�VH�&2� WDGD�VXSVWDQFD�QLMH�YLãHþLVWD�MHU�VH�PHQMD�QMHQ�KHPLMVNL�VDVWDYX��6WDQMH�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�MH�RELþQR�SRWSXQR�RGUHÿHQR�VDGYH�QH]DYLVQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�SRG�XVORYRP�GD�QHPD�HOHNWULþQLK�XWLFDMD��HIHNDWD�PDJQHWL]PD�GHIRUPDFLMD�L�SRYUãLQVNRJ�QDSRQD��]DWR�MH�ELOR�NRMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD�NRML�þLQL�QHNDRELþQD�VXSVWDQFD�RELþQR�IXQNFLMD�GYH�QH]DYLVQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD��1D�SULPHU�DNR�MHSR]QDW�SULWLVDN�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�YD]GXKD��WDGD�VX�RGUHÿHQH�L�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�NDR�ãWR�MH�JXVWLQD�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD��HQWDOSLMD��YLVNR]QRVW�L�WRSORWQD�SURYRGOMLYRVW��$NR�MH�SR]QDW�SULWLVDN�LJXVWLQD�YD]GXKD��WDGD�MH�RGUHÿHQD�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�L�SUHRVWDOH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��0RUD�VH�YRGLWLUDþXQD�GD�GYH�VSHFLILFLUDQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�EXGX�QH]DYLVQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��'YH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMDVX�QH]DYLVQH��DNR�MHGQD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�PHQMD�YUHGQRVW�X�QHNRP�RSVHJX�D�GUXJD�VYH�YUHPHRVWDMH�NRQVWDQWQD�7HþQD�ID]D�VXSVWDFH�VH�PRåH�MDYLWL�QD�UD]OLþLWLP�WHPSHUDWXUDPD�L�QD�UD]OLþLWLP�SULWLVFLPD��1DSULPHU��YRGD�QD���DWP��������N3D�LOL������SVLD��PRåH�ELWL�X�UDYQRWHåL�QD�ELOR�NRMRM�WHPSHUDWXULL]PHÿX���&�L�����&��WDNRÿH�YRGD�QD����&�PRåH�ELWL�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH�X�RSVHJX�SULWLVNDPDQMHJ�RG�� DWP�SD�VYH�GR�QHNROLNR�VWRWLQD�DWPRVIHUD��=DNOMXþDN�MH�GD�SULWVDN�L�WHPSHUDWXUDQHNH�ID]H�PRJX�YDULUDWL�QH]DYLVQR�QD�YHOLNRP�RSVHJX��0HÿXWLP��DNR�SRVWRMH�GYH�ID]HVXSVWDQFH�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH��WDGD�SRVWRML�YH]D�L]PHÿX�SULWVND�L�WHPSHUWXUH��'YH�ID]H�X�VWDQMXUDYQRWHåH�PRJX�SRVWRMDWL�VDPR�DNR�YUHGQRVW�WHPSHUDWXUH�RGJRYDUD�YUHGQRVWL�SULWLVND��2YHRGJRYDUDMXüH�YUHGQRVWL�SULWLVND�L�WHPSHUDWXUH�VH�QD�]LYDMX�SULWVDN�]DVLüHQMD�]D�RGJRYDUDMXüXWHPSHUDWXUX�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�]DVLüHQMD�]D�RGJRYDUDMXüL�SULWLVDN��*HQHUDOQR��XVORYL�]DVLüHQMD VXWDNYL�XVORYL�SRG�NRMLPD�VH�PRåH�MDYLWL�YLãH�ID]D�VXSVWDQFH�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH��%LOR�NRMD�ID]DVXSVWDQFH�NRMD�SRVWRML�SRG�RYDNYLP�XVORYLPD�VH�QD]LYD�ID]D�]DVLüHQMD��1D�SULPHU��YRGD�XWHþQRP�VWDQMX�L�YRGHQD�SDUD�DNR�VX�X�LVWRP�UDYQRWHåQRP�VWDQMX�WDGD�LPDPR�]DVLüHQR�WHþQXID]X�L�]DVLüHQX�SDUX�����)$=1,�',-$*5$0,3ULWLVDN±7HPSHUDWXUD�GLMDJUDP�SULND]XMH�YLãH�QHJR�MHGQX�OLQLMX�]DVLüHQDM��WHþQR±JDVRYLWR�WHþQR±þYUVWR��þYUVWR±JDVRYLWR��LOL�QHãWR�GUXJR��þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�L�QD]LYD�VH�ID]QL�GLMDJUDP�)D]QL�GLMDJUDP�VXSVWDQFH�NRMD�VH�SUL�VPU]DYDQMX�VNXSOMD�SULND]DQ�MH�QD�VOLFL��

Page 26: index termodinamika.pdf

VOLND��

VOLND���ID]QL�GLMDJUDP�YRGH�%LOR�NRMD�WDþND�QD�OLQLML�]DVLüHQMD�X�ID]QRP�GLMDJUDPX�SUHWVWDYOMD�XVORYH�SRG�NRMLPD�PRåHSRVWDMDWL�GYH�LOL�YLãH�ID]D�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH��7DþNH�NRMH�QLVX�QD�OLQLMDPD�VDWXUDFLMHSUHWVWDYOMDMX�XVORYH�SRG�NRMD�PRåH�SRVWRMDWL�VDPR�MHGQD�ID]D��7DþNH�L]PHÿX�OLQLMDþYUVWR±WHþQR�L�WHþQR±JDVRYLWR�SUHWVWDYOMDMX�REODVW�X�NRMRM�MH�VXSVWDQFD�XYHN�X�WHþQRP�VWDQMX��LRYDM�UHJLRQ�X�ID]QRP�GLMDJUDPX�VH�QD]LYD�REODVW�WHþQH�ID]H��OLTXLG�UHJLRQ���7HþQR�VWDQMH�NRMHVH�QDOD]L�LVSRG�WHPSHUDWXUH�VDWXUDFLMH�QD]LYD�VH�FRPSUHVVHG�OLTXLG LOL�VXEFRROHG�OLTXLG GD�ELVH�UD]GYRMLOR�RG�]DVLüHQRH�WHþQH�ID]H��3R�LVWRP�SULQFLSX��þYUVWR�VWDQMH�LVSRG�WHPSHUDWXUH]DVLüHQMD�QD]LYDPR�FRPSUHVVHG�VROLG��D�SDUX�NRMD�MH�L]QDG�WHPSHUDWXUH�]DVLüHQMD�QD]LYDPRSUHJUHMDQD�SDUD��VXSHUKHDWHG�YDSRU��3UHVHN�L]PHÿX�OLQLMH�LVSDUDYDQMD��OLQLMH�IX]LMH�L�OLQLMH�VXEOLPDFLMH�QD]LYDPR�WURVWUXNR�VWDQMH�2YL�XVORYL�VX�SUHWVWDYOMHQL�X�YLGX�WDþNH�VDPR�X�ID]QRPD��37��GLMDJUDPX�X�RVWDOLPGLMDJUDPLPD�VWDQMD�RQL�üH�ELWL�OLQLMH�LOL�SRYUãLQH�

S

77

&&7±NULWLFQR�VWDQMH±WURVWUXNR�VWDQMH

7HFQR

*DVRYLWR&YUVWR±*DVRYLWR

7HFQR±*DVRYLWR

&YUVWR

&YUVWR±7HFQ

RS

7

7

&

&7±NULWLFQR�VWDQMH±WURVWUXNR�VWDQMH

7HFQR*DVRYLWR

&YUVWR�����03D�����SVLD

��������&�

�������)

�����&�������)

������N3D��������SVLD

Page 27: index termodinamika.pdf

/LQLMD�LSDUDYDQMD�NRMD�VH�SUXåD�RG�WDþNH�WURVWUXNH�ID]H�7 GR�NULWLþQH�WDþNH�&��7DþND�&�VHQD]LYD�NULWLþQRP�MHU�]D�YUHGQRVWL�SULWLVND�L�WHPSHUDWXUH�YHüH�RG�NULWLþQLK�YUHGQRVWL��NULWLþQRJVWDQMD���QH�PRåH�VH�MDVQR�RGUHGLWL�JUDQLFD�L]PHÿX�WHþQH�L�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�����267$/,�',-$*5$0,�9(/,ý,1$�67$1-$2VWDOL�GLMDJUDPL�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�XNOXþXMXüL�L�GLMDJUDP�SULWLVDN±WHPSHUDWXUD�LOL�ID]QL�GLMDJUDPLVX�NRULVQL�]D�SURXþDYDQMH�IL]LþNLK�NDUDNWHULVWLND�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�L�]D�DQDOL]X�UD]OLþLWLKWHUPRGLQDPLþNLK�SURFHVD��3RVPDWUDMPR�SUYR�3Y�GLMDJUDP�SULND]DQ�QD�VOLFL���

VOLND��/LQLMD�D±F VH�QD]LYD�OLQLMD�]DVLüHQMD�WHþQH�ID]H��$NR�SULWLVDN�UDVWH��WDNRÿH�UDVWH�L�WHPSHUDWXUD]DVLüHQMD���VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�]DVLüHQMD�WHþQH�ID]H�ODJDQR�UDVWH�2EODVW�VD�OHYH�VWUDQH�OQLMH]DVLüHQMD�WHþQH�ID]H�MH�REODVW�FRPSUHVVHG�RU�VXEFRROHG�OLTXLG VWDQMH�/LQLMD�F±K VH�QD]LYD�OLQLMD�]DVLüHQDM�JDVRYLWRJ�VWDQMD��.DNR�SULWLVDN�UDVWH��VSHFLILþQD]DSUHPLQD�]DVLüHQMD�SDUH�RSDGD��2EODVW�X]�GHVQX�VWUDQX�OLQLMH�]DVLüHQMD�SDUH�MH�REODVWSUHJUHMDQH�SDUH��7DþND�F�SUHWVWDYOMD�VWDQMH�X�NRPH�MH�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�MHGQDND�]D]DVLüHQX�WHþQX�ID]X�L�]D�]DVLüHQX�JDVRYLWX�ID]X��=DSUDYR�X�WRM�WDþNL�QHPD�RGUHÿHQH�JUDQLFHL]PHÿX�WHþQH�L�JDVRYLWH�ID]H��L�WR�VWDQMH�VH�QD]LYD�NULWLþQR�VWDQMH LOL�NULWLþQD�WDþND��,]QDG�WDþNHF QH]QDPR�GDOL�VH�UDGL�R�WHþQRP�LOL�JDVRYLWRP�VWDQMX��3RVWDYOMD�VH�SLWDQMH�GDOL�VXSVWDQFD�NRMDVH�QDOD]L�X�VWDQMX�SUHWVWDYOMHQLP�WDþNRP�Q��MH�X�WHþQRM�LOL�JDVRYLWRM�ID]L��8WYUGLüHPRSURL]YROMQR�RGUHÿQD�SUDYLOD��DOL�QDM�MHGQRVWDYQLMH�MH�GD�SULPHWLPR�GD�X�WRP�UHJLRQX�X�NRP�VHQDOD]L�WDþND�Q SRVWRML�VDPR�MHGQD�ID]D��L�WD�MHGQD�ID]D�QHPD�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�NRMH�NDUDNWHULãSXWHþQX�ID]X�LOL�JDVRYLWX�7DþND�P VH�QDOD]L�X�REODVWL�WDþQH�ID]H��D�WDþND�R VH�QDOD]L�X�REODVWLJDVRYLWH�ID]H��DOL�SUHOD]�L]�VWDQMD�P X�VWDQMH�R��LOL�REUQXWR��VH�QHPRåH�GHVLWL�EH]GLVNRQWLQXLWHWD�X�YHOLþLQDPD�VWDQMD�L�EH]�IHQRPHQD�NOMXþDQMD�LOL�NRQGHQ]DFLMH�1D�37 GLMDJUDPX�]DVLüQR�WHþQR�L�]DVLüHQR�JDVRYLWR�VWDQMH�QD�LVWRP�SULWLVNX��QDUDYQR��L�QDLVWRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��MH�VWDQMH�X�NRPH�MH�VH�MDYOMD�L�WHþQD�L�JDVRYLWD�ID]D�L�SUHWVWDYOMHQR�MHWDþNRP�F���2YR�VWDQMH�QLMH�SUHWVWDYOMHQR�WDþNRP�X�3Y GLMDJUDPX�MHU�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD]DVLþHQDM�SDUH�YHüD�QJR�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�]DVLüHQMD�WHþQH�ID]H�QD�LVWRP�SULWLVNX��LPHãDYLQD�RYLK�GYHMX�ID]D�LPD�VSHFLILþQX�]DSUHPLQX�L]PHÿXRYLK�GYHMX�YUHGQRVWL��=ERJ�WRJD�

Y

7HFQR&YUVWR�7HFQ

R

*DVRYLWR*DVRYLWR�7HFQR&YUVWR&YUVWR�*DVRYLWR

7 FRQVW7 FRQVWD E

FG H

I JKLM

N P Q R

Page 28: index termodinamika.pdf

QD�3Y GLMDJUDPX�PHãDYLQD�GYH�ID]H��WHþQD�L�JDVRYLWD�PRåH�ELWL�QD�ELOR�NRP�SULWLVNX�NRML�MH�QDKRUL]RQWDOQRM�OLQLML�L]PHÿX�OLQLMH�]DVLüHQMD�WHþQH�ID]H�L�OLQLMH�]DVLüHQMD�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�,VSRG�WLK�OLQLMD�MH�MHGDQ�QLåL�SULWLVDN�SUL�NRPH�VH�PRåH�SRVWRMDWL��7R�MH�OLQLMD�WURVWUXNHID]H�3RYUãLQD�RJUDQLþHQD�OLQLMRP�WURVWUXNH�ID]H��D±E���OLQLMRP�]DVLüHQMD�WHþQH�ID]H��D±F��LOLQLMRP�]DVLüHQMD�SDUH��F±E��VHQD]LYD�YODåQL�UHJLRQ�/RNDFLMH�WDþNH�X�YODåQRP�SRGUXþMX�NRMD�SUHWVWDYOMD�PHãDYLQX�WHþQH�L�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�]DYLVL�RGSULWLVND��LOL�WHPSHUDWXUH��L�WDNRÿH�]DYLVL�RG�SURFHQWXDOQRJ�RGQRVD�ID]D�X�PHãDYLQL��9HOLþLQD�REHOHåHQD�VD�[��MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�RGQRV�PDVH�SDUH�L�PDVH�PHãDYLQH�JDVRYLWH�L�WHþQH�ID]H��[ MHSURFHQDW�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�X�PHãDYLQL���YHOLþLQD�[ PRåH�LPDWL�YUHGQRVWL�L]PHÿX���L������RGQRVQR��MH�YUHGQRVW�]D�]DVLüHQX�WHþQX�ID]X��NRMD�HJ]LVWLUD�VDPD��D�����MH�]D�]DVLüHQX�JDVRYLWX�ID]X�NRMD�DNRÿH�HJ]LVWLUD�VDPD�=DVLüHQD�JDVRYLWD�ID]D�NRMD�LPD�[ �����VH�QD]LYD�MRã�L�VXYD]DVLüHQD�SDUD��D�SDUD�SRPHãDQD�VD�WHþQRP�ID]RP�VH�QD]LYD�YODåQD�SDUD�3RVPDWUDMPR�WHþQR±JDVRYLWX�PHãDYLQX�QD�SULWLVNX�NRML�RGJRYDUD�OLQLML�I±J QD�VOLFL�����7HþQDID]D�X�PHãDYLQL�MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�WDþNRP�I��L�QMH]D�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�MH�YI��*DVRYLWD�ID]D�SDUD��QDGDP�VH�GD�VH�UDGL�R�YRGL��MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�WDþNRP�J��QMHQD�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�MH�YJ�0HãDYLQD�LPD�VSHFLILþQX�]DSUHPLQX�Y[ NRMD�MH�YHüD�RG�YI DOL�MH�PDQMD�RG�YJ��L�Y[�PRåH�ELWLL]UDåHQR�SUHNR�YI��YJ L�[��=DSUHPLQD�PHãDYLQH�MH�MHGQDND�VXPL�]DSUHPLQH�WHþQH�ID]H�L]DSUHPLQH�JDVRYLWH�ID]H��MHU�WHþQD�ID]D��NRMD�MH�X�PLNVWXUL�UDVSUãHQD�X�VLVWQH�NDSOMLFH��PRåH]DX]HWL�GHR�]DSUHPLQH�X�NRPH�QHPD�SDUH��6D�P/ L�P9 üHPR�REHOHåLWL�PDVX�WHþQH�L�PDVXJDVRYLWH�ID]H�X�PHãDYLQL�UHVSHNWLYQR��VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�PHãDYLQH�MH�

/ I 9 J/ 9[ / 9 / 99/ I J/ 9 / 9

P Y P Y9 99Y P P P P PPP Y YP P P P�� � � �� �

������.RULVWHüL�GHILQLFLMX�YHOLþLQH�[ �SUHWSRVWDYOMDP�GD�JD�PL�SR�QDãNL ]RYHPR�QHNL�VWHSHQYODåQRVWL�LOL�QHãWR�VOLþQR��NRMD�MH� L �9 /

/ 9 / 9P P[ [P P P P{ �� � ������NDGD�GHILQLFLMX�[±D�MHG������� XEDFLPR�X�MHGQDþLQX������� LPDPR�� ��[ I JY [ Y [Y � � ������LOL � �[ I J IY Y [ Y Y � � ������UD]OLND�YJ ±�YI REHOHåLPR�VD�YIJ��VWRJD�LPDPR�

[ I IJY Y [Y � ������,]�MHGQDþLQH������� YLGLPR�GD�DNR�MH�[ ����WDþND�üH�VH�QDOD]LWL�QD�SRORYLQL�OLQLMH�L]PHÿXWDþDND�I L�J��DNR�MH�[ ����WDþND�üH�VH�QDOD]LWL�QD�MHGQRM�SHWLQL�GXåLQH�OLQLMH�L]PHÿX�WDþDND�I L�J�EOLåH�WDþNL�I��)L]LþND�LQWHUSUHWDFLMH�MHGQDþLQH���������]DSUHPLQD���NJ�PHãDYLQH�MH�]DSUHPLQD��NJ�]DVLüHQH�WHþQH�ID]H�SOXV�SRUDVW�]DSUHPLQH�SUL�LVSDUDYDQMX�[ NJ�VXSVWDQFH��-HGQDþLQD�������MH�SRJRGQD�]D�L]UDþXQDYDQMH��MRã�SRJRGQLML�REOLN�]D�SUHFL]QR�L]UDþXQDYDQMH�MH�� ��[ J IJY Y [ Y � � ������)L]LþND�LQWHUSUHWDFLMD�MHGQDþLQH������� MH�]DSUHPLQD���NJ�PHãDYLQH�MH�]DSUHPLQD���NJ]DVLüHQH�SDUH�PLQXV�VPDQMHQMH�]DSUHPLQH�SUHL�NRQGHQ]DFLML���±[��NJ�VXSVWDQFH�=DVLüHQR�WHþQR�VWDQMH�QD�SULWLVNR�WURVWUXNH�ID]H�MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQR�WDþNRP�D��D�WDþND�ESUHWVWDYOMD�]DVLüHQX�JDVRYLWX�ID]X��=DVLüHQD�þYUVWD�ID]D�QD�LVWRP�SULWLVNX��L�WHPSHUDWXUL�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�MH�WDþNRP�L��7DþNH�L]PHÿX�OLQLMD�WURVWUXNH�ID]H�L]PHÿX�WDþDND�L L�D SUHWVWDYOMDMX

Page 29: index termodinamika.pdf

PHãDYLQX�þYUVWH�L�WHþQH�ID]H��þYUVWH�L�JDVRYLWH�LOL�PHãDYLQX�VYH�WUL�ID]H��7DþNH�L]PHÿX�D L�ESUHWVWDYOMDMX�þYUVWX±JDVRYLWX��WHþQX±JDVRYLWX�LOL�þYUVWX±WHþQX±�JDVRYLWX�PHãDYLQX��3DPWL�GDVWDQMD�NRMD�VX�X�37 GLMDJUDPX�REHOHåHQD�WDþNDPD�X�3Y GLDJUDPX�WD�LVWD�VWDQMX�VX�SUHWVWDYOMHQDOLQLMDPD�D�X�QHNLP�GUXJLP�GLMDJUDPLPD�VX�RQD�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�SRYUãLQDPD�=DVLüHQD�þYUVWD�ID]D�QD�SULWLVNX�YHüHP�RG�WURVWUXNH�ID]H��SULWLVDN�GXå�OLQLMH�L±G QD]LYD�VHOLQLMD�]DVLüHQDM�þYUVWH�ID]H��7HþQD�ID]D�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�VPU]DYDQMD�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�MH�WDþNDPDGXå�OLQLMH�D±H��L�WD�VH�OLQLMD�QD]LYD�OLQLMD�VPU]DYDQMD�WHþQH�ID]H��0HãDYLQD�þYUVWH�L�WHþQH�ID]HMH�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�SRYUãLQLP�RJUDQLþHQRP�OLQLMDPD�D±H��L±G L�L±D�/LQLMD�L±M MH�WDNRÿH�OLQLMD�]DVLüHQMD�þYUVWH�ID]H��DOL�WDþNH�GXå�RYH�OLQLMH�SUHWVWDYOMDMX�VWDQMD�XNRMLPD�þYUVWD�ID]D�PRåH�ELWL�X�UDYQRWHåL�VD�JDVRYLWRP�XPHVWR�VD�WHþQRP�ID]RP��/LQLMD�E±K MHSURWXåHWDN�OLQLMH�]DVLüHQH�SDUH�L�PHãDYLQH�þYUVWH�L�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�VX�X�REODVWL�RJUDQþHQRMOLQLMDPD�M±L±D±E±K������63(&,),ý1$�,�/$7(171$�723/27$3RVWRML�QHNROLNR�UD]OLþLWLK�YUVWD�VSHFLILþQLK�WRSORWD��DOL�GYH�QDMþHãüH�VXVUHWDQH�VX�VSHFLILþQDWRSORWD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�FS L�VSHFLILþQD�WRSORWD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�FY�'HILQLFLMH�RYLK�VSHFLILþQLK�WRSORWD�VX�

S YS YK XF L F7 7w w§ · § ·{ {¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ ������

QDUDYQR�X�MHGQDþLQDPD������� MH�K�±�VSHFLILþQD�HQWDOSLMD�D�X ±�VSHFLILþQD�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD��LSULPHWLPR�GD�VX�FS L�FY WDNRÿH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�PDWHULMH��6YDND�RG�RYLK�VSHFLILþQLK�WRSORWD�MHSUHWVDYOMD�YHOLþLQX�SURPH�QHNH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�X�]DYLVQRVWL�RG�SURPHQH�WHPSHUDWXUH�SRGXVORYLPD�GD�MH�SULWRP�QHND�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�NRQVWDQWQD�WRNRP�SURFHVD��1D�SULPHU��X�FS MHQDJLE�L]REDUQH�OLQLMH�X�K7 ±�GLMDJUDPX��2YH�GYH�YHOLþLQH�VX�GRELOH�QD]LY�VSHFLILþQH MHU�SRGRGUHÿHQLP�XVORYLPD�RQH�GDMX�YH]X�SURPHQH�WHPSHUDWXUH�VLVWHPD�L�GRYHGHQH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�1DGDOMH�QDã�]DGDWDN�üH�ELWL�GD�RGJRYRULPR�NRML�VX�WR�XVORYL�SRG�NRMLPD�üH�ELWL� YT F G7G �.DNR�VH�ELOR�NRMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD�PRåH�L]UD]LWL�NDR�IXQNFLMD�GYH�QH]DYLVQRSURPHQOMLYH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��XQXWUDãQMX�HQHUJLMX�PRåHPR�SLVDWL�NDR�� ��X I 7 Y �����SD�MH�SURPHQD�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�Y 7

X XGX G7 GY7 Yw w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����SD�DNR�VDGD�LVNRULVWLPR�GHILQLFLMX�VSHFLILþQH�L]REDUVNH�WRSORWH L]UD]������ üH�ELWL�REOLND�Y 7

XGX F G7 GYYw§ · � ¨ ¸w© ¹ �����UHODFLMD������ YDåL�VD�VYDNL�SURFHV�6SHFLMDOQL�VOXþDM��NDGD�VH�UDGL�R�L]REDUVNRP��SURFHV�NRML�VH�RGYLMD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�SURFHVX�üH�PRGLILNRYDWL�MHGQDþLQX������ X�REOLN�YGX F G7 �����L�RYD�UHODFLMD�YDåL�VDPR�]D�L]REDUVNH SURFHVH�6DGD�VPR�X�VWDQMX�GD�GDPR�RGJRYRU�NDGD�üH�SRVWRMDWL�YH]D�L]PHÿX�WHPSHUDWXUH�L�GRYHGHQHNROLþLQH�WRSORWH��3ULPHQLPR�SUYL�]DNRQ�7HUPRGLQDPLNH ]D�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�NRML�JODVL�SRGVHüDPR�VH�

Page 30: index termodinamika.pdf

GX T ZG G � �����NDNR�X�VLVWHP�QHPD�UDGD�L]UD]������ üH�ELWL�UHGXNRYDQ�QD�GX TG �����L�HYR�RGJRYRUD�YT F G7G �����]D�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�X�NRPH�QHPD�WUHQMD�L�VLVWHP�QH�REDYOMD�QLWL�VH�QDG�QMLP�REDYOMD�ELOR�NDNDYUDG�6DGD�PRåHPR�GDWL�HNVSOLFLWQX�GHILQLFLMX�RYLK�GYHMX�VSHFLILþQLK�WRSORWD�

FRQVW�IULFWLRQOHVV �FRQVW�IULFWLQOHVV

S SY Y

TF G7TF G7GG§ · ¨ ¸© ¹§ · ¨ ¸© ¹

�����/DWHQWQD�WRSORWD�MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�UD]OLND�HQWDOSLMH�MHGQH�ID]H�PDWHULMH�SRG��VDWXUDWLRQ�XVORYLPD��L�HQWDOSLMH�LVWH�PDWHULMH�X�QHNRM�GUXJRM�ID]L�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�L�SULWLVNX�� �� �� �

IJ J ILI I LLJ J L

/DWHQWQD WRSORWD LVSDUDYDQMD K K K QD LVWRP3L7/DWHQWQD WRSORWD WRSOMHQMD K K K QD LVWRP3 L7/DWHQWQD WRSORWD VXEOLPDWH K K K QD LVWRP3L7� �� �� �

����)$=1(�3520(1(3

7

T U�

R�Q� P� N�M�L�H�E�F�GD�

3

Y

TU�

R�Q�P�N�M�L�

H�GF�E�D�

3

K

TU�

R�Q� P�N�M�L�H�GF�E�D�

7

Y

TU�R�Q�

P�N�

M�L�

H�GF�E�D�

K

7TU�

R�Q�

P� N�M�L�

H�G F�E�D�

K

YT U�

R�Q�P�N�M�L�

H�GF�

E�D�

Page 31: index termodinamika.pdf

8�FLOMX�UD]MDãQMDYDQMD�SULURGH�ID]QLK�SURPHQD��SRVPDWUDüHPR�SURPHQX�ID]D�RþLVWH�VXSVWDQFHSULND]DQX�X�ãHVW�GLMDJUDPD�QD�VOLFL����3RVPDWUDMQPR�SUYR�SURFHV�X�NRPH�þLVWD�VXSVWDQFD�PHQMD��SUL�NRQDVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX��ID]X�RGFRPSUHVVHG�WHþQH��VWDQMH�D��GR�SUHJUHMDQH�JDVQH�ID]H��VWDQMH�H���=D�VYH�VXSVWDQFH��XQXWUDãQDHQHUJLMD�SUHJUHMDQH�JDVRYLWH�ID]H�MH�YHüD�RG�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�FRPSUHVVHG�WHþQH�ID]H�QDLVWRP�SULWLVNX��]DWR��HQHUJLMD�PRUD�ELWL�GRGDWD�VXSVWDQFL�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�RYRJ�SURFHVD��(QHUJLMDPRåH�ELWL�GRGDWD�X�YLGX�WRSORWH�LOL�UDGD��LOL�ELOR�NRMD�NRPELQDFLMD�UDGD�L�WRSORWH��'LMDJUDPLYHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�VX�LVWL�L�]D�RWYRUHQL�L�]D�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�.DNR�MH�HQHUJLMD�GRGDWD�FRPSUHVVHG�WHþQRP�VWDQMX�QD�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX��WHPSHUWXUD�WHþQHID]H�UDVWH��'RN�MH�WHþQD�ID]D�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH��WHPSHUDWXUD�QHPRåH�ELWL�YLãD�RG�WHPSHUDWXUH]DVLüHQMD��WDNR�VWLåHPR�X�WDþNX�E��1D�7Y±GLMDJUDPX�VD�VOLNH����UHFLSURþQD�YUHGQRVW�QDJLEDOLQLMH�D±E�MH��wY�w7�S��Y SXWD�NRHILFLMHQW�NXEQH�HNVSDQ]LMH��2YD�YHOLþLQD��VWDQMD��NXEQL�NRHI�HNVSDQ]LMH��LPD�WROLNR�PDOX�YUHGQRVW�]D�WHþQRVWL�GD�MH�OLQLMD�D±E X�7Y±GLMDJUDPX�VNRURYHUWLNDOQD���=D�YRGX�QD�SULWLVNX�RG���DWP��VSHFLILþQH�]DSUHPLQH�QD�PLQLPXP���&��L�QD�QLåLPWHPSHUDWXUDPD�NRHI��NXEQH�HNVSDQ]LMH�]D�WHþQRVWL�MH�QHJDWLYDQ��]D�YRGX�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXULRG���&�OLQLMD�NRQVWDQWQRJ�SULWLVND�RG���DWP�LPD�QHJDWLYDQ�QDJLE�X�7Y±GLMDJUDPX��1D�K7±GLMDJUDPX�QDJLE�OLQLMH�D±E MH��wK�w7�S��RGQRVQR�FS±VSHFLILþQD�WRSORWD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRPSULWLVNX��=D�WHþQRVWL��FS PDOR�YDULUD�VD�WHPSHUDWXURP��SD�MH�]DWR�OLQLMD�D±E�VNRUR�SUDYD�X�K7±GLMDJUDPX�.DGD�WHþQD�ID]D�VWLJQH�X�ID]X�E��HQHUJLMD�NRMD�MH�GRGDWD�VXSVWDQFL�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNXX]URNRYDOD�MH�GD�GHR�VXSVWDQFH�LVSDUL��7DGD�VH�SDUD�IRUPLUD�QD�LVWRP�SULWLVNX�L�WHPSHUDWXUL�QDNRMLPD�MH�L�WHþQD�ID]D��6WDQMH�RYH�SDUH�MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQR�WDþNRP�G��$NR�MH�GRGDWR�RQROLNRHQHUJLMH�NROLNR�MH�GRYROMQR�GD�VDPR�MHGQD�GHR�VXSVWDQFH�LVSDUL��WDGD�LPDPR�PHãDYLQX�GYHID]H�WHþQH�X�WDþNL�E L�JDVRYLWH�X�WDþNL�G��9HOLþLQH�VWDQMD�PHãDYLQH�VX�RGUHÿHQH�QHNRP�WDþNRPF NRMD�VH�QD�VYLP�GLMDJUDPLPD��NRML�LPDMX�]D�MHGQX�NRRUGLQDWX�YHOLþLQX�VWDQMD��QDOD]L�L]PDÿXWDþDND�E L�G��1D�GLMDJUDPLPD�RGQRV�UDVWRMDQMD�E±F L�E±G MH�XVWYDUL�NYDOLWHW�PHãDYLQH�[�'D�EL�MHGQD�MHGLQLFD�PDVH�SURPHQLOD�ID]X�RG�]DVLüHQRJ�WHþQRJ�VWDQMD�GR�]DVLüHQH�SDUH�QDNRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX��XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�VH�PRUD�SRYHüDWL�XJ ±�XI LOL�XIJ��$NR�IOXLGHNVSDQGLUD�SUL�RYRP�SURFHVX��$NR�VH�UDGL�R�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX��SRVWRML�QHNDNDY�UDG�QDRNUXåHQMX�SD�MH�]DWR�XNXSQD�HQHUJLMD�GRGDWD�VLVWHPX�XIJ SOXV�NROLþLQD�NRMD�MH�MHGQDNDREDYOMHQRP�UDGX��$NR�VH�UDGL�R�RWYRUHQLP�VLVWHPX��IOXLG�NRML�QDSXãWD�VLVWHP�REDYL�YLãH�IORZ±ZRUN�D�QD�RNROLQL�QHJR�IOXLG�NRML�XOD]L�X�VLVWHP�SD�MH�WDNR�XNXSQD�HQHUJLMD�GRGDWD�VLVWHPXYHüD�RG�XIJ�'RGDYDQMHP�HQHUJLMH�]DVLüHQRM�SDUL�QD�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�X]URNXMH�SRYHüDQMH�QMHQHWHPSHUDWXUH��VSHFLILþQH�]DSUHPLQH��XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�L�HQWDOSLMH��ãWR�MH�SULND]DQR�OLQLMRPG±H��=D�VYH�VXSVWDQFH��wY�w7�S MH�YHüH�]D�JDVRYLWR�VWDQMH�QHJR�]D�WHþQR�VWDQMH�QD�LVWRPSULWLVNX�L�FS��NRMH�MH�GHILQLVDQR��wK�w7�S MH�QLåH�]D�SDUX�QHJR�]D�WHþQRVW��=DWR�UHODWLYQL�QDJLEOLQLMH�D±E L�G±H QD�QHNLP�GLMDJUDPLPD�PRåH�ELWL�REMDãQMHQ�3RVPDWUDMPR�VDGD�GRGDYDQMH�HQHUJLMH�WHþQR±JDVRYLWLRM�PHãDYLQL�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�NRMD�MH]DWYRUHQD�X�NRQWHMQHUX�L�X�SRþHWNX�LPD�VSHFLILþQX�]DSUHPLQX�YHüX�RG�NULWLþQH��7DNYR�SRþHWQRVWDQMH�MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQR�WDþNRP�L QD�GLMDJUDPLPD��'RGDYDQMHP�HQHUJLMH��X�YLGX�WRSORWH�LOLQHNRJ�REOLND�UDGD�WUHQMD�NDR�ãWR�MH�UDG�SURSHOHUD��X]URNXMH�GD�MHGDQ�GHR�WHþQH�ID]H�LVSDUL�NDNR�SULWLVDN�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�UDVWX��8�VWDQMX� M VYD�WHþQD�ID]D�MH�LVSDULOD��WDNR�GD�VDGD�LPDPRVDPR�]DVLüHQX�SDUX��'DOMH�GRGDYDQMH�HQHUJLMH�VXSVWDQFL�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�X]URNXMHGD�VH�VWDQMH�PHQMD�GXå�OLQLMH�M±N�(NVSDQ]LMD�SDUH�X�EUL]JDOMNL��WXUELQL��LOL�PRWRUX��MH�RELþQR�DGLMDEDWVND�LOL�YHRPD�EOLVNDDGLMDEDWVNRM��=D�ELOR�NRMH�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH��QHNROLNR�DGLMDEDWVNLK�SXWDQMD�MH�PRJXüH��-HGQD

Page 32: index termodinamika.pdf

WDNYD�SXWDQMD�MH�SULND]DQD�QD�GLMDJUDPLPD�L�WR�MH�P±Q��'UXJD�SXWDQMH�MH�P±R��=D�VYDNXRGRYLK�SXWDQMD�REDYOMHQ�MH�UDG�RG�IOXLGD�LOL�LPD�SURPHQH�X�NLQHWLþNRM�HQHUJLML��LOL�LPD�REHSRMDYH�3ULJXãHQMH��7KURWWOLQJ��MH�DGLMDEDWVND�VWHDG\±IORZ�HNVSDQ]LMD�SUL�NRMRM�QHPD�UDGD�QLWL�LPDSURPHQH�NLQHWLþNH�HQHUJLMH��3UYL�]DNRQ�SRND]XMH�GD�VX�HQWDOSLMH�MHGQDNH�X�RYDNYRP�SURFHVX�3URFHV�SULJXãHQMD�SUL�NPH�VH�GHãDYDMX�ID]QH�SURPHQH�MH�SULND]DQ�OLQLMRP�T±U��3ULPHWLPR�GDRYH�ID]QH�SURPHQH�QHWUHEDMX�UDG�LOL�WRSORWX�GD�EL�VH�GHVLOH�

Page 33: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�)285,'($/1,�*$629,����,'($/$1�*$6,GHDODQ�JDV�MH�JDV�]D�NRML�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD NRMD�JODVL�3Y 57 �����JGH�MH�5 NRQVWDQWD�NRMD�LPD�UD]OLþLWX�YUHGQRV�]D�VYDNL�JDV��5 VH�QD]LYD�JDVQD�NRQVWDQWD ]DVYDNL�JDV�L�LPD�MHGLQLFH�>N-�NJ�Â�.@�L�GDWD�MH�NDR�

X55 0 �����SUL�þHPX�MH�5X ±�XQLYHU]DOQD�JDVQD�NRQVWDQWD��RQD�LPD�LVWX�YUHGQRVW�]D�VYH�JDVRYH��D0 ±�PRODUQD�PDVD�JDVD��-HGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�VH�PRåH�VUHVWL�X�QHNRP�RG�VOHGHüLK�REOLND�XX

3Y 57 39 15 7P5 739 P57 39 03 57 39 1057U JGH�MH�1 ±�$YRJDGUR�RY�EURM�9UHGQRVW�XQLYHU]DOQH�JDVQH�NRQVWDQWH�MH������>N-�NPRO .@ �����>%�,EPRO 5@ ����>IW ,EI�,EPRO 5@X5 � � � �

����5($/1,�*$629,�,�-('1$ý,1$�67$1-$�,'($/12*�*$6$.ROLNR�WDþQR�MHGQDþLQD�3Y �57 SULND]XMH�NDUDNWHULVWLNH�UHDOQRJ�JDVD"�9HRPD�MH]JRGQR�NRULVWLWL�RYDNR�MHGQRVWDYQX�MHGQDþLQX�VWDQMD��DOL�PRUDPR�]QDWL�NROLNX�WDþQRVWSRVWLåHPR�]DUDG�NRULãüHQMD�WDNR]JRGQH�MHGQDþLQH��3UYR�GDMPR�NYDOLWDWLYQL�RGJRYRU��2ELþQR3Y �57 WHåL�GD�EXGH�WDþQLMD�]D�UHDOQH�JDVRYH�� NDGD�MH�PRODUQD�PDVD�PDQMD�� SUL�QLåHP�SULWLVNX�� SUL�YLãRM�WHPSHUDWXUL(YRJD�RSHW��SD]L�VDGD�VYH�RVWDOR�WL�SLãH�X�&+$37(5�1,1(��2YGH�MRã�SDPHWQR�SLãH�GD�DNRSULWLVDN�JDVD�RSDGQH�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�PROHNXOX�VH�WROLNR�XGDOMH�GD�WDGD�JDV�QLMHKRPRJHQ�SD�MH�]DWR�FHOD�RYD�SULþD�EHVPLVOHQD�����81875$â1-$�(1(5*,-$�,�(17$/3,-$�,'($/12*�*$6$,]�SUYRJ�L�GUXJRJ�]DNRQD�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�PRåH�VH�SRND]DWL�GD�]D�ELOR�NRMX�VXSVWDQFXQD�NRMX�VH�PRåH�SULPHQLWL�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�YDåL��7

XYw§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹3RG�RYLP�VH�PLVOL�GD�MH�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�QHNRJ�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�IXQNFLMD�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH�MHU�GRNOH�JRG�MH�7� �FRQVW L�X� �FRQVW ��ãWR�EL�SUHWVWDYOMDOR�-RXOH�RY�]DNRQ��=D�JDV�7 L�Y VXQH]DYLVQH�SURPHQOMLYH�SD�PRåHPR�SLVDWL � � �X I 7 Y �����SD�GLIHUHQFLUDQMHP�GRELMDPR�Y 7

X XGX G7 GY7 Yw w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����VRE]LURP�QD�GHILQLFLMX�FY PRåHPR�SLVDWL�

Page 34: index termodinamika.pdf

Y 7XGX F G7 GYYw§ · � ¨ ¸w© ¹ �����

.DNR�MH�SUHPD�-RXOH�RYRP�]DNRQX� �7XYw§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ MHGQDþLQD������ üH�ELWL�REOLND�

YGX F G7 �����L�YDåL�]D�ELORNRML�SURFHV�VYDNRJ�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�(QWDOSLMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�MH�WDNRÿH�]DYLVL�VDPR�RG�WHPSHUDWXUH��3R�GHILQLFLML�HQWDOSLMD�MHK X 3Y{ � SRãWR�VH�UDGL�R�LGHDOQRP�JDVX�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�VWDVQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�SD�HQWDOSLMDLPD�REOLN� K X 57 � ��NDNR�MH�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�IXQNFLMD�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH�]DNOMXþXMHPRGD�L�HQWDOSLMD�]DYLVL�VDPR�RG�WHPSHUDWXUH��$NR�SUHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�MH�HQWDOSLMD�IXQNFLMD�� � �K I 3 7 �����GLIHUHQFLUDQMHP�GRELMDPR�3 7

K KGK G7 G37 3w w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����VRE]LURP�QD�GHILQLFLMX�FS PRåHPR�SLVDWL�S 7

KGK F G7 G33w§ · � ¨ ¸w© ¹ �����NDNR�MH�HQWDOSLMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�IXQNFLMD�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH�MHGQDþLQD������ SRVWDMH�SGK F G7 ������WDNRÿH�YDåL�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�

����63(&,),ý1(�723/27(�,'($/12*�*$6$$QDOL]D�üH�VH�VSURYHVWL�VRE]LURP�QD�SUHWSRVWDYNX�GD�VX�FS L�FY LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�IXQNFLMHVDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH��3RÿLPR�RG�GHILQLFLMH�HQDWDOSLMH�NRMD�JODVL� K X 3Y{ � ��SD�DNR�VH�UDGL�RLGHDOQRP�JDVX�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD� 3Y 57 ��NRPELQRYDQMHP�RYLK�GYHMXMHGQDþLQD�GRELMDPR�þLQD�GRELMDPR� K X 57 � ������GLIHUHQFLUDQMHP�MHGQDþLQH���������L�NDNR�MH�5 NRQVWDQWD��GRELMDPR�GK GX 5G7 � ������=D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�YDåL�GD�MH�GK �FSG7 L�GX �FYG7��QDNRQ�]DPHPH�L]UD]�������GRELMD�REOLN�S YF G7 F G7 5G7 �

S YF F 5 �SD�MH�S YF F 5� ������2GQRV�VSHFLILþQLK�WRSORWD�REHOHåLPR�VD�N�

SYFN F{ ������NRQELQRYDQMHP�MHGDQþLQD������� L������� GRELMDPR�

� �S Y5N 5F L FN N � �

Page 35: index termodinamika.pdf

�����63(&,-$/1(�5(/$&,-(�=$�,'($/1,�*$6�6$�.2167$171,0�63(&,),ý1,0723/27$0$1D�RJUDQLþHQRP�LQWHUYDOX�WHPSHUDWXUD�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��VH�PRJX�WUHWLUDWLNRQVWDQWQLP�EH]�YHOLNRJ�QDUXãDYDQMD�WDþQRVWL�UH]XOWDWD��$NR�RYDNR�SRVWXSLPR�QHNROLNR�YH]DPHÿX�YHOLþLQDPD�VWDQMD��üH�ELWL�SRMHGQRVWDYOMHQH�QD�SULPHU�

Y SX F G7 L K F G7' ' ³ ³ ������SRVWDMHY SX F 7 L K F 7' ' ' ' ������6DGD�üH�PR�L]YHVWL�L]UD]�]D�IULFWLRQOHVV��EH]�WUQMD� DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�VDNRQVWDQWQLP�VSHFLILþQLP�WRSORWDPD�=D�]DWYRUHQ VLVWHP�SUYL�]DNRQ�PRåH�ELWL�QDSLVDQ�X�REOLNX�T GX ZG G �NDNR�MH�SURFHV�DGLMDEDWDQ VOHGL� � GX ZG �L�NDNR�MH�EH]�WUHQMD��PRåGD�EL�WR�NRG�QDV�ELOR�NYD]LVWDWLþDQ��� �GX 3GY �$NR�MH�VXEVWDQFD�LGHDODQ�JDV PRåHPR�SLVDWL�� YF G7 3GY �NDNR�EL�GRELOL�3Y PRUDPR�HOLPLQLVDWL�WHPSHUDWX�L]�SUHGKRGQRJ�L]UD]D��(OLPLQDFLMXWHPSHUDWXUH�PRåHPR�SRVWLüL�NRULãüHQMHP�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�L]�NRMH�LPDPR�GD�MH3Y7 5 L�GLIHUHQFLUDQMHP�GRELMDPR� 3GY YG3G7 5� ��]DPHQRP�RYRJ�L]UD]D�X�SUHGKRGQXMHGQDþLQX�GRELMDPR� � �� YF 3GY YG3 3GY5 � �VUHÿLYDQMHP�SUHGKRGQH�MHGQDþLQH�GROD]LPR�GR�� �

��

YY Y

SY

5 F5YG3 3GY YG3 3GYF FFYG3 3GY YG3 N3GYFG3 GYN3 Y

§ · § ·� � � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ � � �NDNR�VPR�QD�VDPRP�SRþHWNX�UHNOL�GD�VX�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�NRQVWDQWQH�UD]XPOMLYR�MH�GD�üH�LQMLKRY�RGQRV�ELWL�NRQVWDQWDQ��SD�WDNR�DNR�L]LQWHJUDOLPR�GRELMHQL�UH]XOWDW�LPDüHPR�GD�MH�N3Y FRQVW ������GDNOH�MHGQDþLQD������� MH�MHGQDþLQD�NYD]LVDWLþQRJ�DGLMDEDWVNRJ�SURFHVD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�VDNRQVWDQWQLP�VSHFLILþQLP�WRSORWDPD�=D�YHüLQX��DOL�QH�]D�VYH��NYD]LVWDWLþQH�SURFHVH�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�SROLWURSVNH�SRPHQH�VDQMD L�RQDMH�REOLND� Q3Y FRQVW ������SUL�þHPX�MH�Q ±�SROLWURSVNL�HNVSRQHQHW L�RQ�PRåH�ELWL�ELOR�NRML�EURM�D�X�]DYLVQRVWL�RG�QMHJRYHYUHGQRVWL�LPDPR�VOHGHüH�SURFHVH��� Q ���±�L]REDUQL�SURFHV �SURHV�VH�RGYLMD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�3 �FRQVW��� Q �f ±�L]RKRUQL�SURFHV��SURFHV�VH�RGYLMD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�Y �FRQVW��� Q� ���±�L]RWHUPQL�SURFHV �SURFHV�VH�RGYLMD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�7 �FRQVW�

Page 36: index termodinamika.pdf

�� Q �N ±�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV �SURFHV�NRML�VH�RGYLMD�EH]�UD]PHQH�WRSORWH�VD�RNROLQRPT� ���

3ULPHUL����'YD�NLORJUDPD�DUJRQD�X�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�NRPSULPXMH�VH�DGLMDEDWVNL�EH]�WUHQMD�VD����N3D������&�QD�����N3D��,]UDþXQDWL�D��]DSUHPLQX�QD�SRþHWNX�SURFHVD�E��]DSUHPLQX�QD�NUDMXSURFHVD�F��WHPSHUDWXUX�QD�NUDMX�SURFHVD�L�G��UDG�5HãHQMH�D��SRþHWQX�]DSUHPLQX�UDþXQDPR�L]�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�

��� �� ����� ��� ��������� ���P579 PS � � � ������SRãWR�VH�DUJRQ�PRåH�VPDWUDWL�LGHDOQLP�JDVRP�QD�GDWRP�RSVHJX�GDWLK�WHPSHUDWXUD�L�SULWLVDNDL]�SROLWURSVNH�MHGQDþLQH�]D�DGLMHEDWVNX�SURPHQX�VWDQMD�LPDPR�GD�MH�

���� � � � � � �

39 FRQVW 339 39 9 9 3N

NN N § · � ¨ ¸© ¹ ������

8�WDEOLFDPD�QDOD]LPR�GD�MH�N �������� ������ ����� ��� � �������� ��������39 9 P3 N§ · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹ ������

,]�WDEOLFD�PRåHPR�X]LPDPR�GD�MH�N �FS�FY ������������� ���������D�X�WDEOLFL�MH�N ������3ULPHWLPR�UD]OLNX�X�UH]XOWDWX� � ����� �������� � � � ���� ������� � �

������ �����.��������� �����.���

37 7 337 7 3

NNNN

� �

� �§ · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹§ · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹

������D�WHPSHUDWXUX�PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWL�L�L]�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�

� �� � � ���� �������� ������.��� ����397 7 39 � � � ������6YH�RYH�UD]OLNH�X�UH]XOWDWLPD�VX�SURX]URNRYDQH�]DRNUXåLYDQMHP�SD�XVYDMDPR�NDR�WDþQXYUHGQRVW�NRMD�VH�þHãüH�SRMDYOMXMH�D�WR�MH�7� �����.�5DG�VH�UDþXQD�L]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�

S

Y��

��

��

��

��

����

�� ���� Q ��N�!� ! �Q� Q �Q N

Q �f

Page 37: index termodinamika.pdf

� �� � � �� ���N-Y: 8 4 8 8 PF 7 7 ' � � � � ���������8�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�������NJ�YD]GXKD�NRPSULPXMH�VH�SROLWURSVNL�VD�SULWLVND�����N3D�L]DSUHPLQH�������P� QD�]DSUHPLQX�RG�������P� VD�SROLWURSVNLP�NRHILFLMHQWRP������,]UDþXQDWLD��NUDMQMX�WHPSHUDWXUX��E��UDG��F��SURPHQX�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�L�G��UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQXWRSORWH�5HãHQMH�D��3RþHWQD�WHPSHUDWXUD�YD]GXKD�MH��L]�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��

� �� ��� ����� ���.����� �����397 P5 � � ������,]�SROLWURSVNH�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWL�NUDMQML�SULWLVDN���� ��� � ����� � ��������� ���.�����39 FRQVW 97 7P57 93 9

�½ § ·° § ·� � ¾ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ © ¹© ¹°¿ ������E��5DG�PRåHPR�GRELWL�SR�GHILQLFLML�

��

� ���� � ���� ����� � ����

� ����� �������� ����� � ����N-��� �����

99 G9: 3G9 39 9939 9 �

ª º§ ·« » � �¨ ¸« »© ¹¬ ¼ª º§ · � � � � « »¨ ¸© ¹« »¬ ¼

³ ³������

F��3URPHQX�XQXWUDãQMH�QHUJLMH�PRåHPR�GRELWL�L]�MHGQDþLQH�������� �� �� � ������� ����� ��� ��� �����N-Y Y8 P F G7 PF 7 7' � � � � ³ ������G��SULPHQRP�SUYRJ�]DNRQH�GROD]LPR�GR�UD]PHQMHQH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�

�� �� �� ������� ���� �����N-8 4 : 4 8 :' � � ' � � � ���������5H]HUYRDU�]DSUHPLQH����FXÂIW�VDGUåL�XJOMHQPRQRNVLG�QD����SVLD�L������)��3XPSD�GRVWDYOMDXJOMHQPRQRNVLG�X�UH]HUYRDU��SRYHüDYDMXüL�SULWLVDN�VD����QD����SVLD��.DNR�VH�SXPSD�SUD]QLSULWLVDN�UDVWH��]DWR�MH�WHPSHUDWXUD�QD�L]OD]X�L]�SXPSH��GDWD�7 ���3������SUL�þHPX�MH�7 X5DQNLQH�D�3 MH�X�SVID��SVLD�SR�NYDGUDWQRM�VWRSL���2GUHGLWL�UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWHSRWUHEQX�GD�VH�RGUåL�WHPSHUDWXUD�X�UH]HUYRDUX�QD������)�

.RPSUHVRU &2 ����SVLD ����SVLD33LI*UDQLFDVLVWHPD

Page 38: index termodinamika.pdf

5HãHQMH�$QDOL]RP�VLVWHPD�LPDPR�GD�MH�±�LQGHNV�L R]QDþDYD�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH�X�UH]HUYRDUX±�LQGHNV�I MH�NUDMQMH�VWDQMH�X�UH]HUYRDUX±�LQGHNV���R]QDþDYD�VWDQMH�QD�L]OD]X�L�NRPSUHVRUD��RGQRVQR�QD�XOD]X�X�VLVWHP�P��3��7��8±�VX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�X�UH]HUYRDUX�X�ELOR�NRP�WUHQXWNX�8�VLVWHPX�QHPD�REDYOMDQMD�UDGD�QLWL�LPD�L]OD]D�PDVH�L]�VLVWHPD��SD�MH�SUYL�]DNRQ�± �

WRSORWD VDGU]DQD HQHUJLMD SRUDVWGRYHGHQD X GRYHGHQRM PDVL VDGU]DQHVLVWHPX L IORZ ZRUN HQHUJLMH VLVª º ª º ª º« » « » « »� « » « » « »« » « » « »¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ ¬ ¼ ������

.DNR�LQIHQWL]LPDOQD�PDVD�GROD]L�X�VLVWHP�ELODQV�HQHUJLMH�MH�� �

� �4 K P G84 PGX XGP K PG GG G� � � ������.DNR�WHPSHUDWXUD�X�UH]HUYRDUX�WHåL�GD�RVWDQH�NRQVDWDQWQD��RVWDMH�NRQVWDQWQD�L�XQXWUDãQMDHQHUJLMD�VLVWHPD�SD�MH�PGX ����SD�LPDPR�GD�MH�

� �4 XGP K PG G � ������3RWUHEQR�MH�GD�RGUHGLPR�X L�K��7HPSHUDWXUH�X�VLVWHPX�VX�IXQNFLMH�SULWLVND�SD�LPDPR�GD�MH�� ��

���� ������ � ���������� ��� �� ��� ���� ���5 ����)�� �� �� ��� ���5 ����)3

37 37 3 � � � � ������

.DNR�MH�RSVHJ�WHPSHUDWXUH�����)�GR�����)�PRåHPR�WUHWLUDWL�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�NDRNRQVWDQWH��SD�MH�FY �������%�,EPÂ.�L�FS �������%�,EPÂ.��6DJODQR�VD�RYL�LPDPR�GD�MH��6DJODQR�VD�RYL�LPDPR�GD�MH� � �� �

� �� �

L Y YS S

X X F 7 7 X F 7K K F 7 7 K F 7� � � � � � ������

X�RYRP�SUREOHPX�VPR�SUHWSRVWDYLOL�GD�MH�X� ���L�K� ���SD�WDNR�MH�L�7� ���.DGD�MHGQDþLQX������� XEDFLPR�X�ELODQV�HQHUJLMH�MHG�������� LPDüHPR�GD�MH�� �Y S4 F 7GP F 7 PG G � ������=QDPR�GD�MH�X�SXPSL��NRPSUHVRUX��WHPSHUDWXUD�IXQNFLMD�SULWLVND��D�VD�GUXJH�VWUDQH�]QDPR�GD]D�&2�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��QD�RVQRYX�RYRJD�LPDPR�GD�MH������ �

���7 3P573 3 9

������]QDPR�MRã�GD�MH � �� I 9P G P P GP G357G � ��SD�VDGD�NDGD�VYH�WR�SRYHåHPR�GRELMDPR�GDMH�

Page 39: index termodinamika.pdf

� � � �� � � �

����� � ����� �

���� �������� ���� ����

������������ �� ���������� ��� �� �� ��� �� �� ���%���� ���� ���

Y SSY

SY I L I L

9 94 F G3 F 3 G35 57F94 F G3 3 G35 7 F94 F 3 3 3 35 74

G �­ ½ �® ¾¯ ¿­ ½ � � �® ¾¯ ¿�­ ½ � � � � � � � �® ¾�¯ ¿

³ ³ ������

PLQXV�]QDN�QDP�JRYRUL�GD�VH�WRSORWD�PRUD�RGYRGLWL�RG�XJOMHQPRQRNVLGD�����-('1$ý,1$�67$1-$�,'($/12*�*$6$�,�.,1(7,ý.$�7(25,-$-HGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�PRåH�ELWL�L]YHGHQD�L]�NLQHWLþNH�WHRULMH�JDVRYD��2YGH�üH�VH�GDWLVDPR�EU]�SUHJOHG�NLQHWLþNH�WHRULMH�3RVPDWUDMPR�MHGQRDWRPQL�JDV�L�SUHWSRVWDYLPR�VOHGHüH��� *DV�VDGUåL�PQRJR�PQRJR�PROHNXOD��8�þLVWRP�JDVX�VX�PROHNXOL�LVWL��� 0ROHNXOL�VX�PDOL�X�RGQRVX�QD�QMLKRYR�SURVHþQR�UDVWRMDQMH��LOL�]DSUHPLQD�NRMX]DX]LPDMX�PROHNXOL�MH�VDPR�PDOL�SURFHQDW�]DSUHPLQH�NRMX�LVSXQMYD�JDV��2GQRVQRPLVOL�VH�QD�]DSUHPLQX�NRMX�PROHNXOL�]DX]PX�NDGD�VH�VDELMX��� 0ROHNXOL�VH�NUHüX�X�VYLP�SUDYFLPD��6YL�SUDYFL�NUHWDQMD�VX�SRGMHGQDNR�YHURYDWQL��� =DNRQ�PDNURVNRSVNH�PHKDQLNH���1HZWRQ¶V�ODZV��VH�SULPHQMXMX�QD�SRMHGLQDþQHPROHNXOH��� 0HÿXVREQL�VXGDUL�L�VXGDUL�PROHNXOD�VD�]LGRYLPD�NRQWHMQHUD�X�NRP�VH�QDOD]H�VXSRWSXQR��LGHDOQR��HODVWLþQL�3UHPD�NLQHWLþNRM�WHRULML�JDVRYD��SULWLVDN�RGQHNRJ�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�QD�]LGRYH�NRQWHMQHUDMH�UH]XOWDW�RGELMDQMD�YHOLNRJ�EURMD�PROHNXODR�]LGRYH�NRQWHMQHUD��.DNR�EL�L]YHOL�L]UD]�]DSULWLVD�NSRVPDWUDüHPR�SRQDãDQMH�MHGQRJPROHNXOD��1HND�MH�WDM�MHGQD�PROHNXO�MHGDQRG�PROHNXOD�NRML�þLQH�LGHDOQL�JDV�NRML�VHQDOD]L�X�NRQWHMQHUX�GRPHQ]LMD�$u%u&NDNR�MH�WR�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL����%U]LQD�PROHNXOD�9 LPD�NRPSRQHQWH�9[��9\L�9] NDNR�MH�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL����.DGD�PROHNXO�VD�RYRP�EU]LQRP�XGDUL�R�]LGNRQWHMQHUD�%& RQ�VH�RGELMD�EH]�SURPHQHEU]LQH�X�\ L�] SUDYFX�DOL�VH�QMHJRYD�EU]LQD�X[ SUDYFX�PHQMD�RG�9[ GR�±9[��.RPSRQHQWDNROLþLQH�NUHWDQMD�X�[ SUDYFX�MH�RG�P¶9[ GR± P¶9[ JGH�MH�P¶�PDVD�PROHNXOD��3URPHQD�NROLþLQH�NUHWDQMD�X�[ SUDYFX�MH�� P¶9[��0ROHNXOSUHÿH�UDVWRMDQMH�$ ]D�YUHPH�$ ��9[ DNR�MH�9[ NRQVWDQWQD��SUHPD�WRPH�RQ�PRåH�SUHüL�NRQWHMQHUX�[ SUDYFX�L�YUDWLWL�VH�]D�YUHPH��$���9[��9UHPH�L]PHÿX�X]DVWRSQLK�XGDUD�R�]LG�%& MH��$ ��9[��LEURM�XGDUD�R�]LG�%& X�MHGLQLFL�YUHPHQD�MH�9[ ���$��3URPHQD�NROLþLQH�NUHWDQMD�X�SUDYFX�[ VD

9[9\99] [

\

]

0

$

%

&

Page 40: index termodinamika.pdf

YUHPHQRP�MH�SURL]YRG�L]PHÿX�SURPHQH�SR�XGDUX�L�EURMD�XGDUD�SR�MHGLQLFL�YUHPHQD�� � �� � � [[ [ P 9P 9 9 $ $ ��=DWR�MH�VLOD�QD�]LGX�%&�� � �[[ [ P 9G) P 9GW $cc c ������2YR�MH�VLOD�VDPR�MHGQRJ�PROHNXOD�QD�]LG�%&��VLOD�VYLK�PROHNXOD�NRML�XGDUDMX�R�]LG�%& MH�[[ P 9) $c ¦ ������6YL�PROHNXOL�LPDMX�LVWX�PDVX�L�$ MH�NRQVWDQWD��[ [P) 9$c ¦ ������6UHGQMD�YUHGQRVW�NYDGUDWD�EU]LQH�]D�K PROHNXOD�� �� � �� � �� ����[ [ [[ 9 9 99 K� � �{ ������3D�MH�VDGD�VLOD�QD�]LGX�%& MHGQDND� �[[ P 9) $Kc ������3ULWLVDN�QD�]LGX�%& MH�

� � � �� � ��DUHD� DUHD �YRO�[ [ [ [[ ) P 9 P 9 P 93 $ $ %&K K Kc c c ������³YRO´�MH�]DSUHPLQD�NRQWHMHUD��$Â%Â&���3UHPD�QDãRM�SUHWSRVWDYFL�GD�MH�JDV�LVWL�X�VYLP�SUDYFLPDSURL]LOD]L�L�SUHWSRVWDYND�GD�MH�L�YHURYDWQRüD�XGDUD�PROHNXOD�X�VYLP�SUDYFLPD�MHGQDND�SD�MH�

� � � � � ��� �YRO YRO YRO\[ ]P 9P 9 P 93 KK Kcc c ������L]�RYRJD�SURL]LOD]L�GD�MH� � � �[ \ ]9 9 9 ������7DNRÿH�NDNR�VX�9[��9\ L�9] NRPSRQHQWH�EU]LQH�PROHNXOD�9�� � � �[ \ ]9 9 9 9 � � ������D�PRåH�ELWL�SRND]DQR��NRPH�VH�SRND]XMH��GD�MH�� � � �[ \ ]9 9 9 9 � � ������.RPELQDFLMRP�MHGQDþLQD������� L������� GRELMDPR�GD�MH�� � � �� � �[ \ ]9 9 9 9 ������=DWR�MHGQDþLQD�]D�SULWLVDN������� SRVWDMH�

� �� ��

�� YRO��P 93

3 YRO P 9K

Kc

c ������$NR�SUHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�MH�WHPSHUDWXUD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�SURSRUFLRQDOQD�NLQHWLþNRM�HQHUJLMLQMHJRYLK�PROHNXOD��LPDüHPR�GD�MH� ��P97 ' c ������JGH�MH�' IDNWRU�SURSRUFLRQDOQRVWL�

Page 41: index termodinamika.pdf

.RPELQXMXüL�MHGQDþLQH������� L������� GRELMDPR�� � � �YRO � �3 7 17' '1KK § · ¨ ¸© ¹ ������JGH�MH�K ��1�$YRJDGUR¶V�EURM��EURM�PROHNXOD�SR�PROX��8�MHGQDþLQL������� ��'1K§ ·¨ ¸© ¹ MH�NRQVWDQWDL�PRåHPR�GD�MHQD]RYHPR�5X��SD�LPDPR�GD�MH�� �YRO X3 15 7 ������³RSD�0LOH��SD�WR�MH�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD´��8MHGQDþLQL���������VPR�SUHWSRVWDYLOL�GD�MHWHPSHUDWXUD�SURSRUFLRQDOQD�NLQHWLþNRM�HQHUJLML�PROHNXOD��L�WR�MH�UH]XOLUDOR�MHGQDþLQRP�VWDQMDLGHDOQRJ�JDVD��3RVOHGLþQR��PRJOL�VPR�MHGQRVWDYQR�XSRUHGLWL�MHGQDþLQX������� VD�MHGQDþLQRPVWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD� � �� � ��YRO �YRO X

3 P93 15 7K c ������L�NRPELQRYDWL�GD�GRELMHPR� � ��� �� � � �X X

P9 P97 P9 FRQVW15 15K K c cc ������.RULVWHüL�YDåQX�IL]LþNX�NRQVWDQWX�N NRMD�MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR� X15N K{ L�QD]LYD�VH�%ROW]PDQQ¶VNRQVWDQWD��PRåHPR�QDSLVDWL�SRVOHGQMX�MHGQDþLQX�X�IRUPL�NRMD�üH�VH�NRULVWLWL�X�VOHGHüRM�VHNFLML���� �P9N7 c ����������63(&,),ý1(�723/27(�,'($/12*�*$6$�,�.,1(7,ý.$�7(25,-$8QXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�MH�VXPD�NLQHWLþNLK�L�SRWHQFLMDOQLK�HQHUJLMD�PROHNXOD�NRMHþLQH�WDM�JDV��8�MHGQRM�RG�SUHGKRGQLK�VHNFLMD�VPR�UHNOL�GD�MH�SRWHQFLMDOQD�HQHUJLMD�LGHDOQRJJDVD�NRQVWDQWQD��,]�WRJ�UD]ORJD�QMHQD�YUHGQRVW�PRåH�ELWL�X]WD�GD�MH�]HUR��SD�MH�XMHGQRDWRPQLP�JDVRYLPD��X�NRMLPD�LPDPR�VDPR�WUDQVODWRUQR�NUHWDQMH�PROHNXOD��XQXWUDãQMDHQHUJLMD� ��P98 10X K c ������3URL]YRG�PRODUQH�PDVH�L�VSHFLILþQH�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�MH�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�SR�MHGQRPPROX�JDVD��.RULVWHüL�MHGQDþLQX������� GRELMDPR�� �� � X0X N7 5 71K ������7DGD�MH�PRODUQD�VSHFLILþQD�WRSORWD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL���Y XY FRQVW

0X& 57 w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������D�PRODUQD�VSHFLILþQD�WRSORWD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�MH�� �� �S Y X X X X& & 5 5 5 5 � � ������L�RGQRV�VSHFLILþQLK�WRSORWD�MHGQRDWRPQRJ�JDVD�MH�

Page 42: index termodinamika.pdf

� ��� ��S SY YF &F &N ������

8�FLOMX�GD�RYX�SURFHGXUX�SRQRYLPR�]D�GYRDWRPQL�JDV�SRWUHEQR�MH�GD�SUHWVWDYLPR�QDþHOQRHTXLSDUWLWLRQ��SRGMHGQDNR�GHOMHQMH�HQHUJLMH�SR�VWHSHQLPD�VORERGH��HQHUJLMH�L�SRMDP�VWHSHQDVORERGH��8�PRQR�DWRPQRP�JDVX�VPR�LPDO�GD�VH�PROHNXO�PRåH�NUHWDWL�VDPR�X�[ SUDYFX�L�]DQMHJRYR�NUHWDQMH�GRYROMQR�QDP�MH�ELOR�GD�]QDPR�9[ GD�EL�L]UDþXQDOL�NLQHWLþNX�HQHUJLMX��MHU�RQLPD�VDPR�MHGQD�VWHSHQ�VORERGH��$NR�EL�PROHNXO�PRJDR�GD�VH�NUHüH�X�ELOR�NRP�SUDYFX�WDGD�ELWPRUDOL�]QDWL�9[��9\ L�9] GD�EL�PRJOL�GD�L]UDþXQDPR�NLQHWLþNX�HQHUJLMX�PROHNXOD��L�WDGDPROHNXO�LPD�WUL�VWHSHQD�VORERGH��$NR�PRPHQW�LQHUFLMH�PROHNXOD�RNR�[ RVH�QLMH�QXOD��LPROHNXO�URWLUD�RNR�WH�RVH��WDGD�RQ�LPD�L�NLQHWLþNX�HQHUJLMX�URWDFLMH�SD�EL�PRUDOL�GD�SR]QDMHPRL�XJDRQX�EU]LQX�PROHNXOD�RNR�[ RVH��ãWR�MH�MRã�MHGDQ�VWHSHQ�VORERGH�YLãH��5RWDFLMD�RNRSUHRVWDOH�GYH�RVH�GDMH�MRã�GYD�VWHSHQD�VORERWH��-HGDQ�YDåDQ�SULQFLS�X�NLQHWLþNRM�WHRULML�MHSULQFLS�HTXLSDUWLWLRQ HQHUJLMH�NRML�NDåH�GD�VH�XNXSQD�NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�PROHNXOD�SRGMHGQDNRGHOL�QD�VWHSHQH�VORERGH��=ERJ�WRJD��NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�PRQRDWRPQRJ�JDVD�þLML�PROHNXOL�VHNUHüX�VDPR�WUDQVODWRUQR��WUL�VWHSHQD�VORERGH��JODVL��5X7������HQHUJLMD�MHGQRJ�VWHSHQD�VORERGHEL�ELOD�5X7������3ULQFLS�HTXLSDUWLWLRQ HQHUJLMH�QDP�JRYRUL�GD�MH�HQHUJLMD�MHGQRJ�VWHSHQDVORERGH�5X7�����SR�PROX��=D�I VWHSHQL�VORERGH�LPDPR�GD�MH�NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�� XI0X 5 7 ������3D�MH�SUHPD�WRPH�� �� �

Y XY FRQVWS Y X X X X

0X I& 57 I I& & 5 5 5 5 w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ � � � L ��S S

Y YF & IF &N � ������3RVPDWUDMPR�VDGD�PROHNXO�GYRDWRPQRJ�JDVD�VDVWDYOMHQ�RG�GYH�WHãNH�WDþNH��8��NLQHWLþNRMHQHUJLML�GYRDWRPQL�PROHNXO��SRUHG�NLQHWLþNH�HQHUJLMH�WUDQVODFLMH��PRåH�LPDWL�L�NLQHWLþNXHQHUJLMX�URWDFLMH�RNR�RVD�NRMH�VH�PHÿXVREQR�QRUPDOQH�L�NRMH�VX�QRUPDOQH�QD�OLQLMX�NRMD�VSDMDGYD�DWRPD��.LQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�RNR�RVH�NRMD�VSDMD�DWRPH�MH�MHGQDND�QXOL�MHU�MH�PRPHQW�LQHUFLMH]D�WX�RVX�MHGQDN�QXOL��$WRPL�PRJX�YLEULUDWL�RNR�OLQLMH�NRMD�LK�VSDMD�ãWR�XNOMXþXMH�MRã�GYDVWHSHQD�VORERGH�NUHWDQMD�MHU�VX�XNOMXþHQH�L�SRWHQFLMDOQD�L�NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD��'D�EL�VH�RGUHGLODHQHUJLMD�RVFLORYDQDM�PRUDMX�VH�SR]QDYDWL�L�EU]LQD�L�SRORåDM�PROHNXOD��=DWR�GYRDWRPQLPROHNXO�LPD�VHGDP�VWHSHQL�VORERGH��WUL�WUDQVODFLMH��GYD�URWDFLMH�L�GYD�YLEUDFLMH��.DNR�ELOR�RVFLORYDQMH�VH�MDYOMD�VDPR�QD�YLVRNLP�WHPSHUDWXUDPD��QD�VREQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��QD�SULPHUGYRDWRPQL�PROHNXO�LPD�VDPR�SHW�VWHSHQL�VORERGH��1D�YUOR�QLVNLP�WHPSHUDWXUDPD�GYRDWRPQLPROHNXO�LPD�WUL�VWHSHQD�VORERGH�

Page 43: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�),9('58*,�=$.21�7(502',1$0,.(

����2*5$1,ý(1-$�3592*�=$.21$�7(502',1$0,.(3UYL�]DNRQ�7HUPRGLQDPLNH L]UDåDYD�YH]X�L]PHÿX�WRSORWH��UDGD��L�XNXSQH�HQHUJLMHVLVWHPD��WDNR�GD�SUYL�]DNRQ�VH�þHVWR�QD]LYD�L�]DNRQ�RGUåDQMD�HQHUJLMH��2Q�QHPD�RJUDQLþHQMD�XVPLVOX�REOLND�SUHWYDUDQMD�HQHUJLMH�QLWL�LPD�RJUDQLþHQMH�X�VPLVOX�GDOL�MH�QHNL�GHR�SURFHVDIL]LþNL�PRJXü�����'58*,�=$.21�7(502',1$0,.('UXJL�]DNRQ WHUPRGLQDPLNH�VH�PRåH�IRUPXOLVDWL�QD�QHNROLNR�QDþLQD��DOL�VYDNDSRVWDYND�GUXJRJ�]DNRQD�VH�X]LPD�NDR�SRVWXODW��'YH��QDMSR]QDWLMH�IRUPXODFLMH�GUXJRJ�]DNRQDWHUPRGLQDPLNH�VX��&ODXVLV�YD�L�.HOYLQ±3ODQFN�RYD�SRVWDYND�&ODXVLV�RYD�IRUPXODFLMD�JODVL��QLMH�PRJXüH�RVWYDULWL�WDNYX�PDãLQX�NRMD�EL��EH]�LNDNYLK�GUXJLKXWLFDMD��SUHQRVLOD�WRSORWX�VD�KODGQLMHJ�QD�WRSOLMH�WHOR�.HOYLQ±3ODQFN�RYD�IRUPXODFLMD�GUXJRJ�]DNRQD�JODVL��QHPRJXüH�MH�RVWYDULWL�PHKDQL]DP�WDNDYGD�UDGL�FLNOLþQR�UD]PHQMXMXüL�WRSORWX�VD�WHORP�NRMH�VH�QDOD]L�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�����3(53(780�±�02%,/(3HUSHWXP�± PRELOH�SUYH�YUVWH��QDUXãDYD�SUYL�]DNRQ�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�WDNR�ãWR�UDGHüLFLNOLþQR�SURL]YRGL�YHüL�UDG�QHJR�ãWR�MRM�MH�GRYHGHQR�WRSORWH�3HUSHWXP�± PRELOH�GUXJH�YUVWH��QDUXãDYD�GUXJL�]DNRQ�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�WDNR�ãWR�UDGHüLFLNOLþQR�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VD�WHORP�NRMH�MH�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�3HUSHWXP�± PRELOH�WUHüH�YUVWH��MH�PDãLQD�NRMD�DNR�VH�MHGQRP�VWDYL�X�SRJRQ�QDVWDYOMDVD�UDGRP�QHRJUDLþHQR�PQRJR�YUHPHQD�EH]�XVSRUDYDQMD��0RJXÿH�MX�MH�RVWYDULWL�HOLPLQDFLMRPWUHQMD��ãWR�GR�VDGD�QLNRP�QLMH�SRãOR�]D�UXNRP�

Page 44: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�6,;3295$71,�,�1(3295$71,�352&(6,����'(),1,&,-(1HNL�SURFHV�MH�UHYHU]LELODQ DNR��QDNRQ�ãWR�VH�RQ�GHVL��VLVWHP�L�RNUXåHQMH�SRQRYRGRVSHMX�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH�WM��X�VWDQMH�SUH�SRþHWND�RGYLMDQMD�SURFHVD��$NR�VH�QHGHVL�SUHGKRGQRQDYHGHQL�VOXþDM�SURFHV�MH�LUHYHU]LELODQ�'D�EL�VH�RGUHGLOR�GDOL�VLVWHP�L�QMHJRYR�RNUXåHQMH�PRåH�GD�VH�YUDWL�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH�QDNRQ�ãWRVH�SURFHV�GHVL��SRWUHEQR�MH�SULPHQLWL�GUXJL�]DNRQ�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�

����,/8675$&,-$3UYR�üHPR�LOXVWURYDWL�LUHYHU]LELOQL SURFHV�L]�GYD�UD]ORJD��3UYR��ODNãH�MH�SRND]DWLQHPRJXüQRVW�RGYLMDQMD�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD��'UXJR��NDGD�MHGQRP�RGUHGLPR�LUHYHU]LELOQLSURFHV�ODNR�MH�SUHSR]QDWL�UHYHU]LELOQL��MHGQRVWDYQR�XWYUGLPR�GD�QHPD�LUHYHU]LELOQLKNDUDNWHULVWLND�3RVPDWUDMPR�SURFHV�X�NRPH�MH�JDV�]DWYRUHQ�X�WRSORWQR�L]RORYDQRP�UH]HUYRDUX�L�SRWLVNLYDQ�MHSURSHORP��VOLND������

VOLND��3URFHV�SRþLQMH�WDNR�ãWR�VH�SXVWL�GD�WHUHW�SDGD�WRNRP�NUHWDQMD�WHUHWD�UHPHQLN�QD�YUDWLORSRNUHüH�SURSHOHU�WDNR�GD�SURSHOHU�VDELMD�JDV�X�UH]HUYRDUX��*DV�MH�QDNRQ�RYRJ�SURFHVD�SUHãDRL]�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD�$�X�VWDQMH�%��,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�]QDPR�GD�MH�RYDM�SURFHV�L]D]YDR�SRYHüDQMHXQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�X�VLVWHPX�L�SRYHüDQMH�WHPSHUDWXUH�VLVWHPD�6DGD�MH�SLWDQMH��GDOL�MH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ"�$NR�MH�UHYHU]LELODQ�WDGD�MH�PRJXüH�YUDWLWL�L�VLVWHPL�RNUXåHQMH�X�VWDQMH�$��6XLVWHP�üH�VH�QDüL�X�SRþHWQRP�VWDQMX�DNR�SRVWRML�PRJXüQRVW�GD�VHWHUHW�SRGLJQH�X�SRþHWQL�SRORåDM�QD�UDþXQ�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�JDVD��'DOL�MH�WR�PRJXüH"�6YL]QDPR�GD�QLMH��GDNOH�RYDM�SURFHV�MH�LUHYHU]LELODQ��X]JUHG�EXGL�UHþHQR�QDUXãDYD�VH�GUXJL�]DNRQWHUPRGLQDPLNH�3ULPHU�%ORN�SRþLQMH�GD�NOL]L�QL]�VWUPX�UDYDQ�GR�L�GRVSHYD�GR�QDMQLåH�WDþNH�UDQL��'D�OL�MH�RYDM�SURFHVUHYH]LELODQ"

*DV

$ $% %

$%

2UJLQDOQLSURFHV 3RYUDWQL�SURFHV�SUHWSRVWDYOMD�VHGD�MH�PRJXF�3URFHV�FHORJFLNOXVD�VLVWHPD

(QHUJLMVNLUH]HUYRDU

Page 45: index termodinamika.pdf

5HãHQMH�6LVWHP�VH�VDVWRML�RG�EORND�L�VWUPH�UDYQL��7RNRP�REDYOMDQMD�SURFHVD�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHULMD�EORND�LVWUPH�UDYQL�VH�SRYHüDYD�]D�RQX�NROLþLQX�]D�NRMX�VH�VPDQML�SRWHQFLMDOQD�HQHUJLMD�EORND�7HPSHUDWXUD�PDOLK�GHORYD�EORND�L�UDYQL�UDVWH��9LGLPR�GD�QHPD�SURPHQH�X�RNUXåHQMX��$NR�MHRYDM�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ��REUQXW�SURFHV�MH�PRJXü��2EUQXW�SURFHV�EL�ELR�SRGL]DQMH�WHUHWD�QDSRþHWQX�YLVLQX�SUL�þHPX�VH�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�VPDQMXMH�VLVWHPD��EORND�L�UDYQL��VUD]PHUQRSRYHüDQMX�SRWHQFLMDOQH�HQHUJLMH�EORND��7HPSHUDWXUD�EORND�L�UDYQL�EL�RSDGDOD��.DNR�QHPDSURPHQD�X�RNUXåHQMX�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�RUJLQDOQRJ�SURFHVD��QHPRåH�ELWL�QL�SRYUDWQRJ�SURFHVD�3UHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�MH�SRYUDWQL�SURFHV�PRJXü��2Q�PRUD�ELWL�VDGUåDQ�X�FLNOXVX��WR�MH�SURWLYUHþQRGUXJRP�]DNRQX�WHUPRGLQDPLNH��3UYR��QHND�VH�SRYUDWQL�SURFHV�REDYL��SRGL]DQMH�EORND�L]SRORåDMD�%�X�SRORåDM�$��SULWRP�RSDGD�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD��L�WHPSHUDWXUD��EORND�L�UDYQL�6OHGHüH��GRGDMPR�WRSORWX�VLVWHPX�RG�QHNRJ�HQHUJLMVNRJ�UH]HUYRDUD�L]�RNUXåHQMD�GD�ELSRYHüDOL�XQXWUDãQMX�HQHUJLMX�]D�YUHGQRVW�]D�NRMX�VH�RQD�VPDQMXOD��3RPHULPR�EORNKRUL]RQWDOQR�QD�YLVLQX�SRORåDMD�%��QHPD�REDYOMHQRJ�UDGD���3XãWDPR�EORN�X�SRORåDM�%��WDGD�MHREDYOMHQL�UDG�MHGQDN�SURPHQL�X�SRWHQFLMDOQRM�QHUJLML��8�RYRP�VOXþDMX�VLVWHP�MH�REDYLR�FLNOXV�8NXSDQ�UH]XOWDW�FLNOXVD�MH�X]LPDQMH�HQHUJLMH�L]�HQHUJLMVNRJ�UH]HUYRDUD�L�SULWRP�QHPDQLNDNYLK�HIHNDWD�NRMH�MH�VLVWHP�REDYLR�QDG�RNUXåHQMHP�3UHPD�GXJRP�]DNRQX�RYDM�FLNOXV�QLMH�PRJXü����3RND]DWL�GD�MH�SUHOD]�WRSORWH�SUL�NRQDþQRM�UD]OLFL�WHPSHUDWXUD�LUHYHU]LELODQ�

5HãHQMH�$NR�MH�SUHOD]�WRSORWH�VD�WHOD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+ QD�WHOR�NRMH�LPD�QLåX�WHPSHUDWXUX�7/UHYHU]LELODQ��WDGD�MH�SUHOD]�WRSORWH�VD�WHOD�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�7/ QD�WHOR�NRMH�LPD�YLãXWHPSHUDWXUX�7+ PRJXü�EH]�LNDNYLK�SURSUDWQLK�HIHNDWD��3UHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�MH�PRJXü�SUHOD]WRSORWH�VD�7/ QD�7+��.RQVWUXLãLPR�FLNOXV������1HND�MH�QHND�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�4+ SUHGDWD�RGUH]HUYRDUD�QD�7+ WRSORWQRP�PRWRUX�NRML�UDGL�FLNOLþQR��SURL]YRGHüL�UDG�L�SUHGDYDMXüL�QHNXNROLþLQX�WRSORWH�4/ UH]HUYRDUX�QD�7/��,]�LVNXVWYD�]QDPR�GD�MH�RYR�PRJXüH������2QGD�QHNDQHND�NROLþLQD�WRORWH�4/ SUHOD]L�RG�UH]HUYRDUD�QD�7/ GR�UH]HUYRDUD�QD�7+ �PL�VPR�SUHWSRVWDYLOLGD�MH�WDNDY�SURFHV�PRJXü��.DNR�MH�4/ GRGDWD�UH]HUYRDUX�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�LVWD�WD�NROLþLQDWRSORWH�MH�L�RGYHGHQD�RG�QMHJD��GDNOH�UH]HUYDU�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�UDGL�FLNOLþQR��7RSORWQLPRWRU�UDGL�FLNOLþQR��1D�VOLFL�MH�VLVWHP�NRML�UDGL�FLNOLþQR�]DNUXåHQ�LVSUHNLGDQRP�OLQLMRP��2YDMVLVWHP�NRML�UDGL�FLNOLþQR�SURL]YRGL�UDG�QD�UDþXQ�UD]PHQMHQH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH��ãWR�SURWLYUDþLGUXJRP�]DNRQX��SRJOHGDMPR�XQD]DG�NRML�RG�RYD�GYD�SURFHVD�QLMH�PRJXü��3UYL�SURFHV�MHPRJXü��WR�]QDPR�L]�LVNXVWYD��GUXJL�SURFHV�VPR�SUHWSRVWDYLOL�GD�MH�PRJXü��DOL�NDNR�RQSURWLYUHþL�GUXJRP�]DNRQX�QDãD�SUHWSRVWDYND�MH�SRJUHãQD�WM��RQ�QLMH�PRJXü��3RãWR�SUHOD]DWRORWH�VD�7/ QD�7+ QLMH�PJXü�VOHGL�GD�MH�SURFHV�SUHOD]D�WRSORWH�XVOHG�NRQDþQH�UD]OLNH�XWHPSHUDWXUDPD�VD�7+ QD�7/ QHSRYUDWDQ�

5H]HUYRDUQD�7+5H]HUYRDUQD�7/7RSORWQLPRWRU

5DG

4/

4/4+

Page 46: index termodinamika.pdf

���3RND]DWL�GD�MH�VORERGQD�HNVSDQ]LMD�JDVD�QHSRYUDWQL�SURFHV��3ULPHU�VORERGQH�HNVSDQ]LMH�MH�7RSORWQL�L]RORYDQL�UH]HUYRDU�MH�SRGHOMHQ�X�GYD�GHOD�SUHJUDGRP�*DV�VH�QDOD]L�X�MHGQRP�RGGHORYD�UH]HUYRDUD��GRN�MH�GUXJL�GHR�UH]HUYRDUD�SUD]DQ��3RVWRML�MHGDQ�RWYRU�QD�SUHJUDGL�NRMLNDGD�VH�RWYRUL�RPRJXüDYD�JDVX�GD�VORERGQR�HNVSDQGLUD�LVSXQMDYDMXüL�SUD]DQ�GHR�UH]HUYRDUD�8�RYRP�SURFHVX�QHPD�UDGD�

5HãHQMH�8�FLOMX�GD�SRNDåHPR�GD�MH�VORERGQD�HNVSDQ]LMH�QHSRYUDWQL�SURFHV��PL�üHPR�SRND]DWL�GD�MHUHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�QHPRJXü��3UYR�SUHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�MH�UHYH]ELOQL�SURFHV�PRJXü��5HYHU]LELOQLSURFHV�EL�LPDPR�VOHGHüL�WRN��SUYR�EL�JDV�]DX]HR�FHOX�]DSUHPLQX�UH]HUYRDUD�LD�]DWLP�EL�JDVSUHãDR�X�MHGQX�SRORYLQX�UH]HUYRDUD�SRYHüDYDMLüL�SULWLVDN��6YH�RYR�EL�WUHEDOR�GD�VH�GHVL�EH]NRQWDNDWD�VD�RNROLQRP��VORERGQD�HNVSDQ]LMD�VH�GHãDYD�EH]�NRQWDNDWD�VD�RNROLQRP�3RVPDWUDMPR�VOLNX����NRMD�SULND]XMH�SURFHV�X�WUL�ID]H������3RþLQMHPR�VD�GHORP�NDGD�VH�JDVQDOD]L�X�MHGQRP�GHOX�UH]HUYRDUD��QHND�JDV�HNVSDQGLUD�NUR]�PRWRU�VYH�GRN�VH�X�SDUWLFLMDPDUH]HUYRDUD�QH�L]MHGQDþL�SULWLVDN��SUL�HNVSDQ]LML�JDVD�NUR]�PRWRU�JDV�REDYOMD�UDG�L�]DWR�PXRSDGD�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD������2GVWUDQLPR�MHGDQ�GHR�L]RODFLMH�UH]HUYRDUD�L�GRGDPR�WRSORWX�RG�QHNRJ�VSROMQMHJ�HQHUJLMVNRJ��UH]HUYRDUD��NRMD�MH�SRWUHEQD�GD�VH�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�YUDWLQD�SRþHWQX�YUHGQRVW���=D�VORERGQX�HNVSDQ]LMX�MH�'8 ����NDNR�VH�WDM�SURFHV�REDYOMD�VD�: ���L4 ���������*DV�SUHOD]L�L]�GHVQH�NRPRUH�X�OHYX��VYH�GRN�GRN�VH�GHVQD�NRPRUD�QH�LVSUD]QL�7DNR�GD�MH�VDGD�JDV�X�SRþHWQRP�VWDQMX��YLGL�VOLNX��

$QDOL]RP�RYRJ�FLNOXVD�PRåHPR�]DNOMXþLWL�GD�MH�QMHJRY�UH]XOWDW�SURL]YRGHQL�UDG�QD�UDþXQDSVRUERYDQH�WRSORWH�L]�RNROLQH��2YDM�FLNOXV�WLPH�QDUXãDYD�GUXJL�]DNRQ��3RQRYQLPLVSLWLYDQMHP�FLNOXVD�]NOXþXMHPR�GD�VX�SUHRFHVL���L���PRJXüL�GRN�MH�SURFHV���]D�NRML�VPRSUHWSRVWDYLOL�GD�MH�PRJXü��3UHPD�GUXJRP�X]DNRQX�QDãD�SUHWSRVWDYND�MH�SRJUHãQD�3UHPD�VYHPX�ãWR�MH�QDYHGHQR�VORERGQD�HNVSDQ]LMD�MH�LUHYHU]LELOQL��QHSRYUDWQL�SURFHV��

*$6 *$635$=12 *$63RFHWQR�VWDQMH .UDMQMH�VWDQMH

3/ 3/3/35 3535

5DG0RWRU 3URWRNJDVD3URFHV��*DV�SUHOD]L�L]MHGQH�NRPRUHX�GUXJX�VYH�GRNVH�QH�SRVWLJQH �5DG� �±�3 3 8/ 5'

(QHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU41HPD�SURWRNDJDVD3URFHV��7RSORWD�VH�GRGDMHGRN�XQXWUDVQMDHQHUJLMD�QH�GRVWLSRFHWQX�YUHGQRVW � �� �4 8 3 3' / 5

3URFHV����SRG�XVORYRPGD�MH�PRJXF���*DV�WHFHX�SUDYFX�NDNR�MH�WRSULND]DQR�QD�VOLFLVYH�GRN� ���UDVWH�VR�VYRMHSRFHWQH�YUHGQRVWL33 5/

Page 47: index termodinamika.pdf

6OLþQLP�UH]RQRP�NDR�X�SUHGKRGQLP�SULPHULPD�PRåH�VH�]DNOMXþLWL�GD�SURFHVL�NRML�XNOMXþXMXPHãDQMH��QHHODVWLþQX�GHIRUPDFLMX�WHþQRVWL��SURFHV�NRML�REDYOMD�VWLãOMLYD�WHþQRVW��L�RGUHÿHQLEURM�GUXJLK�HIHNDWD��VX�WDNRÿH�QHSRYUDWQL��5HYH]LELOQL�SURFHV�QH�VPH�XNOMXþLYDWL�D� 7UHQMHE� 5D]PHQX�WRSORWH�SUL�NRQDþQRM�WHPSHUDWXUQRM�UD]OLFLF� 6ORERGQX�HNVSDQ]LMXG� 0HãDQMHH� 1H�HODVWLþQX�GHIRUPDFLMX3ULPHU�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD�EL�L]JOHGDR�RYDNR��SRVPDWUDMPR�VLVWHP�NRML�VH�VDVWRML�RG�NOLSD�LFLOLQGUD�NRML�VX�LGHDOQR�L]RORYDQL�WM��DSVROXWQR�DGLMDEDWQL�L�QHPD�WUHQMD�L]PHÿX�QMLKRYLKSRYUãLQD��$NR�VH�NOLS�YHRPD�SRODNR�JXUD�ND�XQXWUD��VDELMD�VH�JDV��SULWLVDN�üH�VH�SRYHüDYDWL�SRFHORM�]DSUHPLQL�FLOLQGUD�SRGMHGQDNR��WDNRÿH�üH�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�SR�FHORM�]DSUHPLQL�SRGMHGQDNRUDVWL��9HRPD�PDOD�VSROMDãQMD�VLOD�QD�NOLSX�üH�GR]YROLWL�GD�NRPSULPRYDQL�JDV�HNVSDQGLUDJXUDMXüL�NOLS�SD�WDNR�VLVWHP�YUãL�UDG�QD�RNUXåHQMX��UDG�HNVSDQ]LMH�JDVD�MH�SRWSXQR�MHGQDN�UDGXSRWUHEQRP�]D�QMHJRYX�NRPSUHVLMX��.DGD�JDV�NRML�MH�X�SUYRP�SURFHVX�ELR�NRPSULPRYDQ�L]YUãLHNVSDQ]LMX�EH]�UD]PHQH�WRSORWH�VD�RNROLQRP�WDGD�LPDPR�UHYHU]LELOQL�FLNOXV��%LWQR�MHQDSRPHQXWL�GD�MH�SRWUHEQR�GD�VH�NOLS�NUHüH�YHRPD�SRODNR��MHU�DNR�EL�VH�NOLS�NUHWDR�EUåHSULWLVDN�X�RNROLQL�þHOD�NOLSD�EL�ELR�YHüL�QHJR�QD�XGDOMHQLMLP�PHVWLPD�RG�þHOD�NOLD�SD�WDNR�QH�ELSULWLVDN�X�VLVWHPX�ELR�KRPRJHQ��L�SURFHV�QH�EL�ELR�UHYHU]LELODQ�5DG�MH�PQRJR�YUHGQLML�REOLN�HQHUJLMH�RG�WRSORWH�MHU�VH�UDG�PRåH�SRWSXQR�SUHWYRULWL�X�WRSORWX�DWRSORWD�QH�PRåH�XYHN�GD�VH�SRWSXQR�SUHWYRUL�X�UDG�3ULPHU�MRã�MHGQRJ�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD�EL�ELR�VWDFLRQDUQR�VWUXMDQMH�JDVD�EH]�WUHQMD�NUR]DGLMDEDWVNLL]RORYDQX�SULJXãQLFX�

3UYL�]DNRQ�]D�RYDNDY�VLVWHP�SRND]XMH�GD�NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�UDVWH�X�SUDYFX�NUHWDQMD�IOXLGD�HQWDOSLMD�RSDGD��$NR�MH�SULJXãQLFD�SUDüHQD�GLIX]RURP�HQWDOSLMD�IOXLGD�UDVWH�L]PHÿX�SUHVHND��L���GRN�NLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD�RSDGD��QD�NUDMX�IOXLG�NRML�L]OD]L�L]�GLIX]RUD�QDOD]L�VH�X�VWDQMXLGHQWLþQRP�SRþHWQRP�VWDQMX�SUH�XOD]D�X�SULJXãQLFX��'DNOH�RYR�MH�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�1DNRQ�RYLK�SULPHUD�GROD]LPR�GR�]DNOMXþND�GD�UHYHU]LOQL�SURFHV�PRUD�ELWL�WDNDY�GD��� 5HYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�PRUD�ELWL�WDNDY�GD��QDNRQ�ãWR�VH�GHVL��VLVWHP�L�RNUXåHQMH�PRJXREDYLWL�LVWL�SURFHV�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�L�GD�SULWRP�SUROD]H�NUR]�LVWD�VWDQMD��6YHHQHUJLMVNH�WUDQVIRUPDFLMH�PRUDMX�VH�REDYLWL�REUQXWLP�UHGRP�DOL�SULWRP�LP�VH�QHVPHPHQMDWL�IRUPD�LOL�YHOLþLQD��PRåH�VH�PHQMDWL�VDPR�SUDYDF��� 6PHU�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD�PRåH�VH�PHQMDWL�SUL�PDOLP��LQIHQWL]LPDOQLP��SURPHQDPDYHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��� 2EDYOMDMXüL�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�VLVWHP�L�RNUXåHQMH�PRUDMX�XYHN�ELWL�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåHLOL�LQIHQWL]LPDOQR�EOL]X�VWDQMD�UDYQRWHåH��L]�WRJ�UD]ORJD�SURFHV�PRUD�ELWL�NYDVLVWDWLþDQ��� 5HYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�QHVPH�XNOXþLYDWL�WUHQMH��QHNRQWUROLVDQX�HNVSDQ]LMX��QHVPH�ELWLUD]PHQH�WRSORWH�L]PHÿX�GHORYD�VLVWHPD�VD�NRQDþQRP�UD]OLNRP�WHPSHUDWXUD�

3ULJXVQLFD 5DVSUVLYDF

� � �

Page 48: index termodinamika.pdf

'D�EL�QHNL�SURFHV�ELR�UHYHU]LELODQ�PRUD�LVSXQMDYDWL�VYD�þHWLUL�JRUH�QDYHGHQD�XVORYD��GRYROMQRMH�GD�VDPR�MHGDQ�XVORY�QLMH�LVSXQMHQ�L�DXWRPDWVNL�SURFHV�QLMH�UHYHU]LELODQ������81875$â1-$�,�632/-$â1-$�5(95=,%,/12676LVWHP�MH�LUHYHU]LELODQ�DNR�SRVWRML�WUDQVIHU�WRSORWH�VD�RNUXåHQMHP�]ERJ�NRQDþQHUD]OLNH�X�WHPSHUDWXUDPD��0HÿXWLP��DNR�VLVWHP�REDYOMD�LUHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�VDPR�QD�WRPPHVWX�JGHVH�YUãL�UD]PHQD�WRSORWH�VD�RNUXåHQMHP��WDGD�NDåHPR�GD�WDM�VLVWHP�REDYOMD�XQXWDUQMLUHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV��MHU�XQXWDU�VLVWHPD�QHSRVWRML�QLãWD�ãWR�EL�PRJOR�GD�QDUXãL�QMHJRYXUHYHU]LELOQRVW��DOL�RQ�MH�VSROMDãQMH�LUHYHU]LELODQ�2G�VDGD�SD�QDGDOMH�L�X�EXGXüH�X�RYLP�SLVDQLMDPD�NDGD�VH�NDåH�GD�QHNL�REUD]DF�YDåL�]DUHYHU]LELODQ SURFHV��SURFHV�MH�SRWUHEQR�GD�EXGH�VDPR�XQXWUDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ��$NR�MH�QHNLSURFHV�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�]DþL�GD�MH�RQ�L�XQXWUDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ��GRN�REUQXW�VOXþDM�NDGDMH�SURFHV�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�D�XQXWUDãQMH�LUHYHU]LELODQ�QH�YDåH�RSãWH�IRUPXOH�YHü�VHPRUDMX�SULPHQLWL�SRVHEQH��ELüH�QDJODãHQR�NDGD�MH�SURFHV�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�D�XQXWUDãQMHLUHYHU]LELODQ����� 3GY³ ,� YG3³ 8�,5(9(5=,%,/1,0�352&(6,0$0DQML�XYRG�*OHGDM�µYDPR�NDGD�VPR�SULþDOL�R�UDGX�VLVWHPD�GHILQLVDOL�VPR�UHODFLMX�]D�L]UDþXQDYDQMH�UDGDNRG�SURFHVD�NRML�VH�RGYLMDMX�EH]�WUHQMD�L�VDGD�VPR�XWYUGLOL�NRMH�XVORYH�WUHED�GD�LVSRQMDYDVLVWHP�GD�EL�SURFHV�ELR�UHYHU]LELODQ�SD�VDGD�VDPR�PHQMDPR�³ãWR�MH�YDåLOR�]D�IULFWLRQOHVVSURFHVH´�VDGD�³YDåL�]D�UHYHU]LELOQH´��PLVOL�VH�QD�XQXWUDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQH�SURFHVH��VDJODVQR�VDSUHGKRGQLP�SDUDJUDIRP���7DNR�GD�VDGD�LPDPR�ZRUN 3GY ³ �����]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�L

N SZRUN YG3 ( ( � �' �'³ �����]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�RWYRUHQRJ��VWHDG\�IORZ��VLVWHPD�1DUDYQR�MHGQDþLQH������ L������ QH�PRJX�ELWL�SULPHQMHQH�QD�LUHYHU]LELOQH�SURFHVH�MHU�VLVWHPQLMH�X�UDYQRWHåQRP�VWDQMX�'YH�LOXVWDFLMH�RYH�VHNFLMH�3RVPDWUDMPR�VLVWHP�NRML�MH�VDVWDYOMHQ�RG�JDVD�NRML�VH�QDOD]L�X�]DWYLUHQRM�SRVXGL��*DV�VH�PHãDPHãDþHP�X�REOLNX�SURSHOHUD�NRML�LPD�VSROMQL�SRJRQ��3UL�SURFHVX�PHãDQD�LPDPR�X�VYDNRPWUHQXWNX�SURPHQX�SULWLVND�RWG�WDþNH�GR�WDþNH�X�JDVX�VYDNDNR�MH� �3G9 ³ ��5DG�MH�GRVWDYOMHQVLVWHPX�X�VPLVOX�REUWDQDM�PHãDþD��PHãDQMH�JDVD��SD�MH� �ZRUN z ��6OHGL�GD�MH�ZRUN 3G9z ³ ��LMHGQDþLQD������ QH�YDåL�X�RYRP�VOXþDMX�.DR�GUXJX�LOXVWUDFLMX�SRVPDWUDMPR�SURWRN�QHVWLãOMLYH�WHþQRVWL�NUR]�GHR�KRUL]RQWDOQH�FHYLNRQVWDQWQRJ�SRSUHþQRJ�SUHVHND�� �SH' ±�SRSWHQFLMDOQD�HQHUJLMD�MH�NRQVWDQWQD��NDR�LNLQHWLþND�HQHUJLMD� �NH' ��1HPD�UDGD��ZRUN �����$NR�MH�SDG�SULWLVND�X]URNRYDQ�WUHQMHP��YG3 z³ ��3RVOHGLFD�� S NZRUN YG3 H Hz � ' � '³ L�MHGQDþLQD������ QHPRåH�ELWL�SULPHQMHQD�XRYRP�VOXþDMX�

ZRUN� 3G9� �z������ �ZRUN� 3G9z��� ZRUN� YG3��� H � H � ��� ' '� ��� N S zz�� ' 'ZRUN� YG3�±� H H�� N�±� S

Y �FRQVW

� �

Page 49: index termodinamika.pdf

'D�SRQRYLPR��MHGQDþLQD������ YDåL�VDPR�]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD��DMHGQDþLQD������ YDåL�VDPR�]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�RWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�SUL�VWDFLRQDUQRP�SURWRNX������5(9(5=,%,/1,�,�632/-$â1-(�5(9(5=,%,/1,�&,./86,

&LNOXV�VDþLQMHQ�RG�SRWSXQR�UHYHU]LELOQLK�SURFHVD�VH�QD]LYD�UHYHU]LELOQL�FLNOV�$NR�VX�VYL�SURFHVL�VSOMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQL��FLNOXV�VH�QD]LYD�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQL�FNOXV�.DR�SULPHU�MHGQRJ�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�FLNOXVD�SRVPDWUDMPR�QHNL�LGHDOQL�JDV�X�FLOLQGUX�VD�NOLSRP�1HND�JDV�HNVSDQGLUD�UHYHU]LELOQR�QD�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX��2EDYOMDQMHP�RYRJ�SURFHVD�WRSORWDMH�SUHGDWD�JDVX�L�JDV�MH�L]YUãLR�UDG�QD�RNUXåHQMX��'DOMH�WRSORWD�VH�RGYRGL�RG�JDVD�SULNRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�VYH�GRN�JDV�QH�GRVWLJQH�SRþHWQX�WHPSHUDWXUX��&LNOXV�VH�]DYUãDYD�WDNRãWR�VH�JDV�L]RWHUPQR�NRPSULPXMH�GR�SRþHWQRJ�SULWLVND�L�]DSUHPLQH��UDG�MH�L]YUãHQ�QD�VLVWHPX�LWRSORWD�MH�RGYHGHQD�RG�VLVWHPD��2YDM�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�SULND]DQ�MH�QD�VOLFL����D�E���9LGLPRGD�MH�UDG�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�SURFHVD�X�RED�VPHUD�MHGQDN�SR�DSVROXWQRM�YUHGQRVWL�

VOLND���3ULPHU�9D]GXK�X�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�L]ORåHQ�MH�UHYHU]LELOQRP�FLNOXVX�NRML�MH�VDVWDYOMHQ�RG�WULUHYHU]LELOQD�SURFHVD�����HNVSDQL]LMD�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�VD����N3D������&�QD�����&�����KODÿHQMH�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�GR�����&��L�����L]RWHUPQD�NRPSUHVLMD�GR����N3D��2GUHGLWLUD]PHQMHQX�HQHUJLMX�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�]D�VYDNL�SURFHV���E��WRSORWQL�VWHSHQ�LVNRULãWHQMD�FLNOXVDL��F��UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�HQHUJLMH�VYDNRJ�SURFHVD�DNR�FLNOXV�LGH�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�5HãHQMH�

D��9D]GXK�SRG�RYLP�XVORYLPD�VH�SRQDãD�NDR�LGHDOQL�JDV��=D�UHYHU]LOQX�L]REDUVNX�HNVSDQ]LMXUDG�MH� � � � � � �� � � � �� �����N-�NJÂ. �� �� . ����N-�NJZ 3GY 3 Y Y 5 7 7 � � � ³ �����YLGLPR�GD�VPR�X�SUHGKRGQRP�L]UD]X�LVNRULVWLOL�MHGQDþLQX�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�

3

9

3RYUVLQD� �:RUNR X W3

9

3RYUVLQD� �:RUNL Q

3

Y

� ��7 �FRQVW

Page 50: index termodinamika.pdf

6¶RE]LURP�GD�VH�YD]GXK�SRQDãD�NDR�LGHDOQL�JDV�LPDPR�GD�MH�SURPHQD�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH��SRGHILQLFLML��LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�SUL�VYDNRP�SURFHVX�� � � ���� � � � ������N-�NJÂ. �� �� . ����N-�NJ7 Y Y7X X F G7 F 7 7� � � ³ �����VSHFLILþQD�L]RKRUVND�WRSORWD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�MH�NRQVWDQWQD�QD�GDWRP�RSVHJX�WHPSHUDWXUD�,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�]D�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�LPDPR�GD�MH�VSHFLILþQD�UD]PHQMHQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�

� � ���� ���� ����N-�NJT X X Z � � � �����3UL�KODÿHQMX�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�Z ����GRN�MH�RGYHGHQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�� � � ���� � � � ������ ��� ��� ����N-�NJ7RXW Y Y7T X X F G7 F 7 7 � � � ³ �����=D�L]RWHUPQX�NRPSUHVLMX��UDG�MH�

� �� �

� � �� � � �� � � �OQ OQ OQ OQ�������� ��� OQ ����N-�NJ���

Y YY Y 3 3 7GY YZ 3GY 57 57 57 57 57Y Y 3 3 7§ · § · § · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ © ¹© ¹§ · � � �¨ ¸© ¹³ ³ �����

L]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�LPDPR�GD�MH�� � ���� � ����N-�NJRXW LQT Z X X � � � �����3UHWVWDYLPR�UH]XOWDWH�X�WDEHOL�3URFHV T��N-�NJ Z��N-�NJ��±�� ���� ������±�� ±����� �����±�� ±����� ±�����&LNOXV ��� ���E��7RSORWQL�VWHSHQ�LVNRULãWHQMD�FLNOXVD�MH�GHILQLVDQ�NDR���� ����� ��������LQZTGK { ³v �����F��$NR�VH�FLNOXV�GHãDYD�XQD]DG�LPDüHPR�

3URFHV T��N-�NJ Z��N-�NJ��±�� ���� ������±�� ���� �����±�� ±����� ±�����&LNOXV ±���� ±����.DNR�MH�FLNOXV�X�RYRP�SULPHUX�RSLVDQ�SUHPD�SUHGKRGQRP�SDUDJUDIX�FLNOXV�MH�VSROMDãQMHUHYHU]LELODQ��WRSORWD�PRUD�ELWL�UD]PHQMHQD�VDPR�X�LQIHQWL]LPDOQR�PDOLP�L�NRQDþQLPUD]OLDNPD�X�WHPSHUDWXUL��,]�WRJ�UD]ORJD�WHPSHUDWXUD�PDOLK�GHORYD�RNUXåHQMD�VH�PHQMD�SULL]REDUQRP�L�L]RKRUQRP�SURFHVX��$NR�EL�WL�PDOL�GHORYL�RNUXåHQMD�UD]PHQMLYDOL�WRSORWX�VDVLVWHPR�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�L]RWHUPQRJ�SURFHVD�WDGD�EL�FLNOXV�ELR�VSROMDãQMH�LUHYHU]LELODQ�$QDOL]LUDMPR�VDGD�FLNOXV�NRML�MH�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�DOL�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VD�RNROLQRPVDPR�QD�GYH�NRQVWDQWQH�WHPSHUDWXUH��$NR�GYD�WHOD�UHYHU]LELOQR�UD]PHQH�QHNX�NROLþLQX�WRORWHQD�NRQVWDQWQLP�WHPSHUDWXUDP�7+ L�7/��WRSORWD�PRUD�ELWL�UD]PHQMHQD�NDGD�MH�VLVWHP�QDNRQVWDQWQLP�WHPSHUDWXUDPD�L�NROLþLQD�UD]PHQMHQH�WRSORWH�RGJRYDUD�LQIHQWL]LPDOQL�UD]OLNDPDWHPSHUDWXUD�7+ L�7/��'UXJLP�UHþLPD��VLVWHP�NRML�REDYOMD�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQL�FLNOXVUD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWD�VDPR�X�RSVHJX�L]PHÿX�GYH�NRQVWDQWQH�WHPSHUDWXUH�L�QH�PRåH�UD]PHQLWLWRSORWX�RVLP�DNR�REDYOMD�L]RWHUPDOQL�SURFHV�

Page 51: index termodinamika.pdf

.DR�SULPHU�MHGRJ�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�FLNOXVD�DQDOL]LUDMPR�FLNOXV�NRML�VH�RGYLMD�L]PHÿXGYD�HQHUJLMDVND�UH]HUYRDUD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUDPD�7+ L�7/��NRML�MH�SULND]DQ�QD�VOLFL�[��L�VPDWUDGL�GDWDM�FLNOXV�REDYOMD�QHNL�JDV�X�]DWYRUHQRP�LOL�X�VWHDG\±IORZ�VLVWHPX�

3URFHV��±�� *DV�þLMD�WHPSDUDWXUD��7+ ±�G7��HNVSDQGLUD�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�L]RWHUPQR�RG�VWDQMD��GR�VWDQMD����*DV�MH�REDYLR�UDG��L�WRSORWD�MH�SUHGDWD�RG�UH]HUYRDUD�QD�7+ VLVWHPX�NRML�MH�QDWHPSHUDWXUL��7+ ±�G7���.DNR�MH�WRSORWD�UD]PHQHQD�]D�LQIHQWL]LPDOQX�UD]OLNX�X�WHPSHUDWXUDPDRYDM�SURFHV�MH�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�3URFHV���±��� *DV�HNVSDQGLUD�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNL�RG�VWDQMD���GR�VWDQMD����REDYOMDMXüLUDG��2EDYOMDMXüL�SURFHV�WHPSHUDWXUD�VLVWHPD�SDGQH�VD��7+ ±�G7��QD��7/ ��G7��3URFHV���±��� *DV�VH�NRPSULPXMH�L]RWHUPVNL��YUDüDMXüL�WRSORWX�X�UH]HUYRDU�NRML�MH�QD�7/�2YDM�SURFHV�MH��NDR�L�SURFHV��±���VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�MHU�VH�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWD�SULLQIHQWL]LPDORM�UD]OLFL�WHPSHUDWXUD��,]RWHUPQD�NRPSUHVLMD�VH�QDVWDYOMD�VYH�GRN�JDV�QH�GRÿH�XVWDQMH����X�NRPH�üH�JDV�ELWL�NRPSULPRYDQ�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNL�VYH�GR�VWDQMD���3URFHV���±��� *DV�VH�NRPSULPXMH�UDYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNL�VYH�GRN�QH�GRVSH�X�SRþHWQRVWDQMH��7HPSHUDWXUD�VLVWHPD�UDVWH�RG���7/ ��G7��GR��7+ ±�G7���3RYUãLQD�RJUDQLþHQD�NULYDPD�QDGLMDJUDPX�SUHWVWDYOMD�XNXSDQ�UDG�RYRJ�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�FLNOXVD��.DNR�VLVWHP�REDYOMDFLNOXV��SURPHQD�XNXSQH�HQHUJLMH�MH�MHGQDND�QXOL�� �G( ³v ���(IHNWL�RYRJ�VSROMDãQMHUHYHU]LELOQRJ�FLNOXVD�VX������7RSORWD�MH�SUHGDWD�RG�VWUDQH�HQHUJLMVNRJ�UH]HUYRDUD�þLMD�MHWHPSHUDWXUD�7+ VLVWHPX������WRSORWD�MH�SUHGDWD�HQHUJLMVNRP�UH]HUYRDUX�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7/��L����GRELMHQ�MH�UDG��3UYL�]DNRQ�SRND]XMH�GD�MH�GRELMHQL�UDG�MHGQDN�UD]OLFL�X]HWH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�RGUH]HUYRDUD�QD�7+ L�SUHGDWH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�UH]HUYRDUX�QD�7/�.DNR�MH�FLNOXV�UHYHU]LELODQ�RQ�VH�PRåH�RGYLMDWL�L�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX��WM��FLNOXV�EL�WHNDR��±�±�±�±���3UL�RYRP�VPHUX�RGYLMDQMD�FLNOXVD�WRSORWD�EL�VH�X]LPDOD�RG�UH]HUYRDUD�QD�7/��D�SUHGDYDODUH]HUYRDUX�QD�7+��VOHGL�GD�UDG�PRUD�ELWL�REDYOMHQ�QDG�VLVWHPRP�

� �

� 7 G7+ ±

7 G7/ ±4 ��4 ��

7 �FRQVW

7 �FRQVW

3

9

Page 52: index termodinamika.pdf

����&$5127�RY�&,./86'D�EL�VH�RVWYDUL�&DUQRW�RY�FLNOXV�SRWUHEQR�MH�GD�LPDPR��� VLVWHP�� QHNL�HQHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+�� QHNL�HQHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�7/�� QHNL�YLG�SHULRGLþQRJ�L]RODWRUD�VLVWHPD�RG�MHGQRJ�LOL�RED�HQHUJLMVND�UH]HUYRDUD�� QHNL�GHR�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�MH�VSRVREDQ�GD�SHULRGLþQR�DEVRUEXMH�UDG�RG�VLVWHPD�L�YUãLSHULRGLþQR�UDG�QD�VLVWHPX�1HND�LPDPR�NDR�VLVWHP�JDV�L�QHND�FLNOXV�SRþLQMH�RG�VWDQMD���NDNR�MH�WR�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL��WHPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�MH�7+��1DNRQ�WRJD�VH�L]RODFLMD�XNODQMD�RG�FLOLQGUD��L�FLOLQGDU�MH�X�NRQWDNWX�VDUH]HUYRDURP�QD�WHPS�7+��*DV�HNVSDQGLUD�YHRPD�SRODNR��REDYOMDMXüL�UDG�QD�RNUXåHQMH�7HPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�WHåL�GD�RSDGD��DOL�HQHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU�SUHGDMH�WRSORWX�VLVWHPX�L�RGUåDYDJDQD�WHPSHUDWXUL��7+ �G7���3RGVHWLPR�VH�GD�MH�UD]PHQD�WRSORWH�UHYHU]LELOQD�VDPR�DNR�VXWHPSHUDWXUQH�UD]OLNH�LQIHQWL]LPDOQH��$NR�WHPSHUDWXUQD�UD]OLND�SDGQH�LVSRG��7+ �G7��SURFHVüH�ELWL�VSROMDþQMH�LUHYHU]LELODQ��2YDM�UHYHU]LELOQL�L]RWHUPDOQL�SURFHV�VH�REDYOMD�VYH�GRN�VLVWHPQHVWLJQH�X�VWDQMH����X�LVWR�YUHPH�NDGD�NOLS�GRÿH�X�SRORåDM���FLOLQGDU�VH�RGYDMD�RG�UH]HUYRDUD7+ L�YUDüD�VH�L]RODFLMD��7DGD�JDV�HNVSDQGLUD�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNL�JXUDMXüL�NOLS��'DNOH�JDVMH�REDYOMDR�UDG�SUL�DGLMDEDWVNRM�SURPHQL�VWDQMD�WDNR�GD�WHPSHUDWXUD�VLVWHPD�SDGD��.OLS�VHSRPHUD�VYH�GRN�YUHGQRVW�WHPSHUDWXUH�VLVWHPD�QH�EXGH�7/��7DGD�V�JDV�QDOD]L�X�VWDQMX���SULND]DQRP�QD�3Y�GLMDJUDPX��1DNRQ�RYRJD��XNODQMD�VH�L]RODFLMD�L�FLOLQGDU�V�GRYRGL�X�NRQWDNWVD�UH]HUYRDURP�QD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��6DELMDQMHP�NOLSD�WHPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�WHåL�GD�UDVWH��DOL�NDNRMH�VLVWHP�X�NRQWDNWX�VD�UH]HUYRDURP�NRML�LPD�QLåX�WHPSHUDWX�L�QMHPX�VH�SUHGDMH�NROLþLQDWRSORWH�NRMD�üH�REH]EHGLWL�GD�X�VLVWHPX�WHPSHUDWXUD�EXGH��7/ ��G7���.DNR�VH�YUãL�UD]PHQDWRSORWH�]D�LQIHQWL]LPDOQX�UD]OLNX�WHPSHUDWXUD�SURFHV�MH�VSROMDþQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�2YD�UHYHU]LELODQ�L]RWHUPDOQD�NRPSUHVLMD�JDVD�VH�REDYOMD�VYH�GR�VWDQMD����6WDQMH���MH�WDNYR��GDDNR�VH�YUDWL�L]RODFLMD��JDV�VH�NRPSULPXMH�DGLMDEDWVNL�L�UHYHU]LELOQR�WDNR�GD�WHPSHUDWXUD�LSULWLVDN�JDVD�UDVWX�GR�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD���

VOLND ��

(QHUJLMVNLUH]HUYRDUQD�7+

(QHUJLMVNLUH]HUYRDUQD�7/

,]RODFLMD

9

9

9

3

3

3�

��

��

��

�*DV 0HVDYLQDWHFQR±JDVRYLWRVWDQMH

0HVDYLQDWHFQR±JDVRYLWRVWDQMH�L�SUHJUHMDQDSDUD

Page 53: index termodinamika.pdf

1D�VOLFL�MH�SULND]DQD�ãHPD�L�3Y GLMDJUDP�&DUQRW�RYRJ�FLNOXVD�]D�6WHDG\±)ORZ�VLVWHP��X�NRPHMH�UDGQD�VXSVWDQFD�PHãDYLQD�WHþQR±JDVRYLWR�VWDQMH��LOL�þHVWR�QD]LYDQD��YODåQD�SDUD���3URFHV��±��MH�UHYHU]LELOQR�L]RWHUPDQR�GRGDYDQMH�WRSORWH�SUL�þHPX�GROD]L�GR�LVSDUDYDQMD�VXSVWDQFH�XUD]PHQMLYDþX�WRSORWH��QHPD�REDYOMHQRJ�UDGD��'RN�VH�RGYLMD�UHYHU]LELOQD�DGLMDEDWVNDHNVSDQ]LMD�WHPSHUDWXUD�YODåQH�SDUH�SDGD�VD�7+ QD�7/��ãWR�VH�GHãDYD�X�WXUELQL��7RSORWD�VH�RGUDGQRJ�IOLGD�YUDüD�X�NRQHQ]DWRU��8�NRQGHQ]DWRUX�VH�QH�REDYOMD�QLNDNDY�UDG��)OXLG�NRMLQDSRãWD�NRQGHQ]DWRU�X�VWDQMX���VH�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNL�NRPSULPXMH�GR�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD���þLPH�MH�FLNOXV�]DYUãHQ�

3ULPHUL���,]YHVWL�L]UD]��X�NRPH�ILJXULãX��WHPSHUDWXUH�UH]HUYRDUD�7+ L�7/��WRSORWQH�HIHNWLYQRVWL�&DUQRW�RYRJ�FLNOXVD�NRULVWHüL�LGHDOQL�JDV�NDR�UDGQL�IOXLG���2YDM�SUREOHP�SURPRYLãH�GDüH�NRHILFLMHQWLVNRULãWHQMD�ELWL�IXQNFLMD�WHPSHUDWXUD��

5HãHQMH�3R�GHILQLFLML�WRSORWQL�VWHSHQ�LVNRULãWHQMD�MH�LQ LQ: :4 4GK { ³v ������.RULVWHüL�SUYL�]DNRQ�]D�VLVWHP�NRML�REDYOMD�FLNOXV�LPDPR�GD�MH�

� �LQ RXW RXW /LQ LQ LQ LQ +: 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4G GK � � �³ ³v v ������6YH�WRSORWH�NRMH�VX�GRGDWH�UDGQRP�IOXLGX�X�WRNX�REDYOMDQMD�FLNOXVD�GRWDWH�VX�SUL�L]RWHUPQRMHNVSDQ]LML��SURFHV��±����SUL�NRMRM�MH�WHPSHUDWXUD�UDGQRJ�IOLGD�7/ LOL�LQIHQWL]LPDOQR�PDQMD��3UYL]DNRQ�]D�RYDM�VLVWHP�SUL�L]RWHUPQRM�HNVSDQ]LML�MH�

� �4 8 8 : � � ������

7XUELQD.RPSUHVRU

(QHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU7+

(QHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU7/

5DG 5DG4+

4/� �

��9

3

�� �

� 7+ �FRQVW7/ �FRQVW

7+ 7+4+

7/ 7/4/: 4 4LQ �±�+ /

9

3' &

%$

4 � 4 �

Page 54: index termodinamika.pdf

8QXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�MH�IXQNFLMD�WHPSHUDWXUH��SD�MH�SUHPD�WRPH�'8 ����7DNRÿH�]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�LPDPR�GD�MH�: 3G9 ³ ��SD�MH�SUHPD�WRPH����+4 3G9 � ³ ������=DPHQRP�3 VDJODVQR�VD�MHGQDþLQRP�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��GRELMDPR�GD�MH�

� � �� � �� OQ OQ+ +P57 9 94 G9 P57 P579 9 9§ · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹³ ������,VWLP�UH]RQRP�GROD]LPR�GR�

� ��� � � � �� OQ OQ/ / / 994 8 8 : 3G9 P57 P579 9§ · § · � � � � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹³ ������=DPHQRP�RYLK�YUHGQRVWL�X�L]UD]�]D�WRSORWQL�NRHILFLMHQW�GRELMDPR�GD�MH�

� �� �� �� �

OQ OQ� �OQ OQ/ /+ +

9 9P57 79 99 9P57 79 9K § · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ � �§ · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

������=D�UHYHU]LELOQH�DGLMDEDWVNH�SURFHVH��±��L��±��LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�LPDPR�L]�MHGQDþLQH�DGLMDEDWH�� � � �� � � �� � � �

� � � �L+ +/ /

9 7 7 9 7 79 7 7 9 7 7N N N N� � � �§ · § · § · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ © ¹© ¹ ������SD�MH�

� �� �� �� �

L9 99 99 99 9

������

VDGD�LPDPR�GD�MH�WRSORWQL�NRHILFLMHQW�LVNRULãWHQMD�� /+77K � ������0RåHPR�]DNOMXþLWL�GD�WRSOWQL�NRHILFLMHQW�LVNRULãWHQMD�&DUQRW�RYRJ�FLNOXVD�HIHNWLYQRVW�FLNOXVDUDVWH�VD�SRUDVWRP�UD]OLNH�WHPSHUDWXUD�UH]HUYRDUD�

����2%5187,�&$5127�RY�&,./86&DUQRW�RY�FLNOXV�DNR�VH�RGYLMD�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�QLMH�WRSORWQL�PRWRU�NRML�SURL]YRGL�UDG�YHü�MHUHIULJHUDWRU�LOL�WRSORWQD�SXPSD��3ULRYRP�VPHUX�&DUQRW�RYRJ�FLNOXVDWRSORWD�VH�DSVRUEXMH�L]�UH]HUYRDUD�NRML�MHQD�QLåRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�X�SUHGDMH�VHUH]HUYRDUX�QD�YLãRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��'DEL�VHFLNOXV�REDYL�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�PRUD�VHVLVWHPX�GRVWDYLWL�UDG�L]�RNUXåHQMD�5DGQD�VXSVWDQFD�X�&DUQRW�RYRP�FLNOXVXDSVRUEXMH�WRSORWX�RG�4/ REDYOMDMXüLL]RWHUPQL�SURFHV�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7/ �LOL�7/ ±�G7��MHU�WHPSHUDWXUD�UDGQH�VXSVWDQFH�PRUD�ELWL

7+ 4+

7/ 4/: 4 4LQ �±�+ /

Page 55: index termodinamika.pdf

LQIHQWL]LPDOQR�QLåD�RG�WHPSHUDWXUH�UH]HUYRDUD�NDNR�EL�VH�WRSORWD�PRJOD�UD]PHQLWL���=DWLP�WHPSHUDWXUD�UDVWH�DGLMDEDWVNL�GR�7+��2EDYOMDMXüL�RYDM�L]RWHUPDOQL�SURFHV�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+�WRSORWD�4+ MH�SUHGDWD�UH]HUYRDUX�QD�YLãRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�&LNOXV�VH�]DYUãDYD�DGLMDEDWVNLPSURFHVRP�NRML�VQLåDYD�WHPSHUDWXUX�UDGQH�VXSVWDQFH�L�YUDüD�VLVWHP�X�SLþHWQR�VWDQMH��1DUDYQRVYL�SURFHVL�VX�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQL��,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�LPDPR�GD�MH�XNXSDQ�SRWUHEQL�UDGVLVWHPX�LQ + /: 4 4 � ������

3ULPHU����,]YHVWL�L]UD]�]D��X�IXQNFLML�WHPSHUDWXUD�UH]HUYRDUD�7+ L�7/��]D�LVNRULãWHQMH�&DUQRW�RYRJUHIULJHUDWRUR�DNR�MH�UDGQD�VXSVWDQFD�LGHDOQL�JDV�

1D�RVQRYX�GHILQLFLMH�VWHSDQD�NRULVQRVWL�UHIULJHUDWRUD�L�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�LPDPR��/ / /5 LQ + / +

4 4 4: 4 4 4E �� ������3UDWHüL�SRWSXQR�LVWX�SURFHGXUX�NDR�X�SUHGKRGQRP�SULPHUX�GRELMDPR�GD�MH���

� �� �

OQOQ OQ

/ /5 + /+ /

9P57 9 77 79 9P57 P579 9E § ·¨ ¸© ¹ �§ · § ·�¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

������

����'58*,�632/-$â1-(�5(9(5=,%,/1,�&,./86,&DUQRW�RY�FLNOXV�QLMH�MHGLQL�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQL�FLNOXV�WRSORWQRJ�PRWRUD��'YD�GUXJDFLNOXVD�NRMD�VX�SR]QDWD�VX�6WLUOLQJ�RY�FLNOXV�L�(ULFFVRQ�RY�FLNOXV��=DMHGQLþND�NUDNWHULVWLNDRYD�GYD�FLNOXVD�MH�ãWR�RED�XNOMXþXMX�SULQFLS�UHJHQHUDFLMH��NRML�VH�NRULVWL�X�VDYUDPHQLPSDUQLP�L�JDVQLP�WXUELDQPD�.DNR�EL�QHNL�FLNOXV�ELR��VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�L�SULWRP�UD]PHQMLYDR�WRSORWR�VD�UH]HUYRDULPDNRML�VX�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��WRSORWD�PRUD�ELWL�UD]PHQMHQD�VDPR�SUL�L]RWHUPQRPSURFHVX��0RJXüD�MH�UD]PHQD�WRSORWH�L]PHÿX�VLVWHPD�L�UH]HUYRDUD�L�SUL�QHL]RWHUPDOQRPSURFHVX�DNR�MH�WDM�UH]HUYRDU�QHND�UHJHQHUDWLYQD�QDSUDYD��NRMD�X�MHGQRP�GHOX�FLNOXVDDSVRUEXMH�WRSORWX�RG�VLVWHPD�D�X�GUXJRP�GHOX�SURFHVD�SUHGDMH�QHNX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�VLVWHPX�

7+ 7+4+

7/ 7/4/: 4 4LQ �±�+ /

9

3 ��

��

4 � 4 �

Page 56: index termodinamika.pdf

1DUDYDQR��UHJHQHUDWRU�PRUD�ELWL�UHYHU]LELODQ���WM��WRSORWD�VH�UD]PHQMXMH�QD�LQIHQWL]LPDOQLPUD]OLNDPD�X�WHPSHUDWXUL��1D�VOLFL����SULND]DQD�MH�ãHPD�VWLUOLJ�RYRJ�FLNOXVD�L�39 GLMDJUDP�]DUDGQX�VSVWDQFX�NRMD�LPD�NDUDNWHULVWLNH�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��0DãLQD�VH�VDVWRML�RG�FLOLQGUD�NRML�LPDQD�RED�NUDMD�SR�MHGDQ�NOLS�L]PHÿX�NOLSRYD��QD�VUHGLQL��MH�UHJHQHUDWRU��5HJHQHUDWRU�MH�ORãSURYRGQLN�WRSORWH�WDNR�GD�þDN�L�DNR�SRVWRML�WHPSHUDWXUQL�JUDGLMHQW�WRSORWD�NRMD�SUROD]L�NUR]QMHJD�X�SUDYFX�RVH�FLOLQGUD�MH�]DQHPDUOMLYD��&LOLQGDU�MH�SRWSXQR�L]RORYDQ�L]X]HY�QD�PHVWLPDNRQWDNWD�VD�UH]HUYRDULPD��&LNOXV�LPD�VOHGHüL�WRN�

3URHFHV��±�� 7RSORWD�MH�GRGDWD�JDVX�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+ �RGQRVQR�7+ ±�G7��RG�UH]HUYRDUD�QD7+��3UL�RYRP�UHYHU]LELOQRP�L]RWHUPDOQRP�SURFHVX�OHYL�NOLS�VH�NUHüH�X�OHYR��REDYOMDMXüL�UDG]DSUHPLQD�UDVWH�D�SULWLVDN�RSDGD�3URFHV��±�� 2ED�NOLSD�VH�SRPHUDMX�X�GHVQR�RGUåDYDMXüL�]DSUHPLQX�NRQVWDQWQRP��3ULRYRPH�QHPD�UD]PHQH�WRSORWH�QL�VD�MHGQLP�UH]HUYRDURP��.DNR�JDV�SUROD]L�NUR]�UHJHQHUDWRU�WRSORWD�MH�SUHGDWD�UHJHQHUDWRUX�RG�VWUDQH�JDVD��WDNR�GD�WHPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�SDGD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUX7/��VD�YUHPHQRP�JDV�QDSXãWD�GHVQX�VWUDQX�UHJHQHUDWRUD��WHPSHUDWXUD�UHJHQHUDWRUD�PRUD�ELWLLVWD�NDR�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�X�VYDNRM�WDþNL�SD�VH�]ERJ�WRD�MDYOMD�JUDGLMHQW�WHPSHUDWXUH��1HPDREDYOMHQRJ�UDGD�SUL�RYRP�SURFHVX�3URFHV��±�� 7RSORWD�MH�RGYHGHQD�RG�JDVD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7/ �LOL�7/ ��G7��X�UH]HUYRDU�QD�7/GD�EL�VH�WHPSHUDWXUD�JDVD�RGUDåDOD�NRQVWDQWQRP��GHVQL�NOLS�VH�SRPUD�ND�XQXWUD��REDYOMDMXüLUDG�QD�JDVX��SULWLVDN�VH�SRYHüDYD�

7+

7+

7+

7+

7+

7/

7/

7/

7/

7/6WDQMH��

6WDQMH��

6WDQMH��

6WDQMH��

3

9

��

3URFHV��±�� �� �FRQVW� � ��±�� �FRQVW�� �RSDGD��±��4 7 79 7LQ +4 7 79 7RXW�� �FRQVW� � ��±�� �FRQVW�� �UDVWH� /

Page 57: index termodinamika.pdf

3URFHV��±�� 2ED�NOLSD�VH�SRPHUDMX�X�OHYR�SULWRP�]DSUHPLQD�RVWDMH�NRQVWDQWQD��.OLSRYL�VXX�RYRP�SURFHVX�EOLåL�MHGDQ�GUXJRP�QHJR�SUL�SURFHVX��±���MHU�MH�9� �9�� 9� �9����1HPDUD]PHQH�WRSORWH�QL�VD�MHGQLP�UH]HUYRDURP��.DGD�JDV�SUHOD]L�QD]DG�NUR]�UHJHQHUDWRU�SUHGDMHPX�VH�HQHUJLMD�NRMD�MH�DNXPXOLUDQD�X�UHJHQHUDWRUX�WRNRP�SURFHVD��±��L�WHPSHUDWXUD�QD�OHYRPNUDMX�UHJHQHUDWRUD�MH�7+��1HPD�REDYOMHQRJ�UDGD�SUL�RYRP�SURFHVX�MHU�MH�]DSUHPLQDNRQVWDQWQD�6SROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�MH�]DYUãHQ��3ULPHWLPR��GD�MH�VLVWHP�UD]PHQLR�WRSORWX�VDPR�VDGYD�HQHUJLMDVND�UH]HUYRDUD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUDPD�7+ L�7/�1D�VOLFL�MH�SULND]DQD�ãHPD�(ULFVVRQ�RYRJ�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�FLNOXVD�L�39 GLMDJUDP�]DUDGQL�IOLG�VD�RVRELQDPD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��6WHG\�IORZ�(URFVVRQ�RYD�PDãLQD�XNOXþXMH������WXUELQXX�NRMRM�JDV�HNVSDQGLUD�L]RWHUPVNL��REDYOMDMXüL�UDG�L�DSRUEXMXüL�WRSORWX�RG�HQHUJLMVNRJUH]HUYRDUD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+������NRPSUHVRU�X�NRPH�VH�JDV�L]RWHUPVNL�NRPSULPXMH�QDWHPSHUDWXUL�7/ �LOL�7/ ��G7��SUL�þHPX�VH�SUHGDMH�WRSORWD�UH]HUYRDUX�QD�7/��L�����FRXQWHUIORZWRSORWQL�UD]PHQMLYDþ�NRML�LPD�XORJX�UHJHQHUDWRUD��8�UHJHQHUDWRU�XOD]L�JDV��L]�NRPSUHVRUD��QDWHPSHUDWXUL�7/ �LOL�7/ ±�G7��L�L]OD]L�L]�QMHJD�QD�7+ �LOL�7+ ±�G7���2YR�MH�SURFHV��±���*DV�L]WXUELQH�SURWLþH�NUR]�UHJHQHUDWRU�X�VXSUXWQRP�VPHUX��2YR�MH�SURFHV��±���7HPSHUDWXUD�JDVDSDGD�VD�7+ QD�7/��L�RGYRGL�VH�WRSORWD�NRMD�MH�GRYHGHQD��WR�MH�SURFHV��±��

7/ 7+

.RSUHVRU 7XUELQD5HJHQHUDWRU

44/ 4+:LQ

:RXW

3

9

���

��

��

Page 58: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�6(9(11(.(�326/(',&(�'58*2*�=$.21$

����&$5127�RY�35,1&,3'YD�]DNOMXþND�þLQH�&DUQRW�RY�SULQFLS,��1L�MHGQD�PDãLQD�QHPRåH�ELWL�HILNDVQLMD�RG�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQH�PDãLQH�NRMD�UDGL�QD�LVWLPWHPSHUDWXUQLP�JUDQLFDPD��³7HPSHUDWXUQH�JUDQLFH´�VX�WHPSHUDWXUH�GYD�HQHUJLMVND�UH]HUYRDUDVD�NRMLPD�VLVWHP�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�,,��6YH�VSROMDãQMH�UHYH]LELOQH�PDãLQH�NRMH�UDGH�X�LVWLP�JUDQLFDPD�WHPSHUDWXUH�LPDMX�LVWLVWHSHQ�NRULVQRVWL�'RND]�&DUQW�RYRJ�SULFLSD��1D�VOLFL���D�MH�QHND�PDãLQD�; VD�GUXJH�VWUDQH�VSROMDãQMHUHYHU]LELOQD�PDãLQD�5 NRMD�UDGL�L]PHÿX�LVWLK�WHPSHUDWXUQLK�JUDQLFD�NDR�L�PDãLQD�;��.DR�SUYLNRUDN�X�GRND]LYDQMX�GD�QL�MHGQD�PDãLQ�QH�PRåH�LPDWL�YHüL�NRHI��NRULVQRVWL�RG�VSROMDãQMHUHYHU]LELOQH�PDãLQH��SUHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�PDãLQD�; LPD�YHüL�NRHILFLMHQW�NRULVQRVWL�RG�VSROMDãQMH

UHYH]LELOQH�PDãLQH�5��7DGD�]D�LVWX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�4+ GRVWDYOMHQX�PDãLQDPD�LPDPR��:; !:5 L�4/; ��4/5���8�RYRP�UD]PDWUDQMX�4 L�: SRVPDWUDPR�VDPR�SR�DSVROXWQLP�YUHGQRVWLPD��6DGD�GR]YROLPR�GD�HVSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQD�PDãLQD�5 UDGL�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�NDNR�MHSULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL���E��3UL�UDGX�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�UHYHU]LELOQD�PDãLQD�SUHGDMH�WRSORWX�4+UH]HUYRDUX�QD�7+��ãWR�]DKWHYD�UDG�:5��.DNR�MH�YHOLþLQD�:5 PDQMD�RG�SURL]YHGHQRJ�UDGD�:;PDãLQH�;��PDãLQD�; PRåH�SRJRQLWL�UHYHU]LELOQX�PDãLQX�NRMD�RSHULãH�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�SUHGDYDMXüL�NROLþLQX�UDGD��:; ±�:5��GHORYLPD�RNUXåHQMD��5HYHU]LELODQ�PDãLQD�SUHGDMH�4+WRSORWH�UH]HUYRDUX�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+��D�PDãLQD�;�DSVRUEXMH�LVWX�NRORþLQX�WRSORWH�L]�LVWRJUH]HUYRDUD��3UHPD�WRPH�LPDPR�GD�MH�UD]PHQMHQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�VD�UH]HUYRDUDRP�QDWHPSHUDWXUL�7+ MHGQDND�QXOL��L�WDM�UH]HUYRDU�VH�PRåH�HOLPLQLVDWL�L]�VLVWHPD�WDNR�GD�LPDPRGLUHNWQR�SUHGDYDQMH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�4+ RG�5 GR�;��6DGD�SRVPDWUDMPR�VLVWHP�X�NRPH�VX�5 L�;GLUHNWQR�VSRMHQL��X�VPLVOX�UD]PHQH�WRSORWH��QD�VOLFL�MH�WR�SULND]DQR�LVSUHNLGDQRP�OLQLMRP��2YDNDY�VLVWHP�UDGL�FLNOLþQR��UD]PHQMYDMXüL�WRSORWX�VD�VDPR�MHGQLP�UH]HUYRDURP�L�SURL]YRGLUDG��2YR�MH�SUHPD�.HOYLQ±3ODQFN�RYRP�WYUÿHQMHP�QHPRJXüH��,]�RYRJD�VOHGL�GD�MH�QDãDSUHWSRVWDYND�GD�MH�K; !�K5 SRJUDãQD�'RND]�GUXJH�WDþNH�&DUQRW�RYRJ�SULQFLSD��1HND�VX�REH�PDãLQH�QD�VOLFL����VSROMDãQMHUHYHU]LELOQH��3UHWSRVWDYLPR�GD�VX�QMLKRYL�NRHILFLMHQWL�NRULVQRVWL�UD]OLþLWL��WDNR�GD�üH�UD]OLNDSURL]YHGQLK�UDGRYD�RYLK�PDãLQD�ELWL�SR�DSVROXWQLM�YUHGQRVWL�MHGQDND�UD]OLFL�GRVWDYOMHQLK

5H]HUYRDU7+ 5H]HUYRDU7+4+ 4+:; � �: ±; :5:5 :5

4/5 4/54/; 4/;

4+ 4+

5H]HUYRDU7/ 5H]HUYRDU7/

5HY�0DV5 5HY�0DV50DVLQD; 0DVLQD;K; ; + � �: 4 K5 5 +5 � �: 4

Page 59: index termodinamika.pdf

NROLþLQD�WRSORWD��(IHNWLYQLMD�PDãLQD�üH�SRWHULYDWL�PDQMH�HIHNWLYQX�X�REUQXWRP�VPHUX�L�SULWRPüH�SURL]YRGLWL�UDG�UD]PHQMXMXüL�WRSORWX�VD�VDPR�MHGQLP�UH]HUYRDURP��2YR�MH�LVWR�SURWLYUHþQR.HOYLQ�3OQFN�RYRM�IRUPXODFLML�GUXJRJ�]DNRQD�����67(3(1�.25,61267,�5(9(5=,%,/1,+�0$â,1$'UXJD�WDþND�&DUQRW�RYRJ�SULQFLSD�NDåH�GD�VWHSHQ�NRULVQRVWL�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�FLNOXVD]DYLVL�VDPR�RG�WHPSHUDWXUD�VD�NRMLPD�VH�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWD��6WHSHQ�NRULVQRVWL�QH�]DYLVL�RGUDGQH�VXSVWDQFH��=D�GDWH�WHPSHUDWXUQH�JUDQLFH�UHYHU]LELOQL�FLNOXV�YD]GXKD�LPD�SRWSXQR�LVWLVWHSHQ�NRULVQRVWL�NDR�L�UHYHU]LELOQL�FLNOXV�NRML�REDYOMD�VLVWHP�þLML�MH�UDGQL�IOXLG�SDUD�LOL�EROLNRMD�GUXJD�VXSVWDQFD�

Page 60: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�(,*+7(17523,-$

3UYL�]DNRQ�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�GRYRGL�QDV�GR�YHRPD�NRULVQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��VDGUåDQH�HQHUJLMHVLVWHPD��(��7HUPLQ�HQHUJLMD�NRULVWLVWL�VH�VYDNRGQHYQR��RELþQR�X�LVWRP�VPLVOX�NDR�L�X�WHKQLFL�LQDXFL��3UHPD�WRPH��L]UD]�HQHUJLMD�QDP�MH�SR]QDW�RG�UDQLMH��ãWR�üH�QDP�SRPRüL�GD�EROMHUD]XPHPR�]QDþHQMH�HQHUJLMH�'UXJL�]DNRQ�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�WDNRÿH�QDV�GRYRGL�GR�GHILQLFLMH�MRã�MHGQH�NRULVQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�HQWURSLMD��6��1DVXSURW�HQHUJLML��L]UD]�HQWURSLMD�VH�QH�NRULVWL�X�VYDNRGQHYQRP�åLYRWX�����9(/,ý,1$�67$1-$�(17523,-$-HGDQ�QDþLQ�GD�VH�SRNDåH�GD�MH�QHND�RVRELQD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�MH�GD�VH�SRNDåH�GD�MHFLNOLþQL�LQWHJUDO�MHGQDN�QXOL��)L]LþNL��RYR�]QDþL�GD�DNR�VLVWHP�REDYOMD�NUXåQL�FLNOXV�RVRELQDNRMX�LVSLWXMHPR�LPD�LVWX�YUHGQRVW�QD�SRþHWNX�L�QD�NUDMX�SURFHVD��7DGD�RVRELQD�]DYLVL�VDPR�RGVWDQMD�VLVWHPD��2YR�MH�WDþQR�]D�VYH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�'HILQLFLMD�HQWURSLMH��LOL�SURPHQH�HQWURSLMH��MH�

UHY 46 7G' ³ �����3RNDåLPR�GD�VYDNL�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�PRåH�ELWL�DSURNVLPLUDQ�QL]RP�DGLMDEDWVNLK�LL]RWHUPVNLK�SURFHVLPD��1D�SULPHU��QD�VOLFL�MH�SULND]DQ�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�SXQRP�OLQLMRP�DQMHJRYD�DSURNVLPDFLMD�LVSUHNLGDQRP��YLGLPR�GD�MH�SURFHV�DSURNVLPLUDQ�VD�GYH�DGLMDEDWH�LMHGQRP�L]RWHUPRP��6D�VOLNH�YLGLPR�GD�VX�SRYUãLQH�LVSRG�NULYLK�MHGQDNH��3RVPDWUDMPR]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP��NDNR�MH�SRYUãLQD�LVSRG�RYH�GYH�NULYH�MHGQDND�LPDPR�XVORY�]D�UDG�GD�MH�

VOLND���� � � �E F: :� � � � �����,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�LPDPR�

� � � � � �4 8 8 :� � � � �����L� � � � � �E F E F4 8 8 :� � � � � � � � �����LPDMXüL�X�YLGX�GD�XQXWUDãQMD�HQHUJLMD�]DYLVL�VDPR�RG�NUDMQMLK�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD��RGX]LPDMXüL�RGMHGQDþLQX������ MHGQDþLQX������ GRELMDPR�

F �� E

=DSUHPLQD

3ULWLVDN 5HYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNLSURFHV

5HYHU]LELOQLL]RWHUPQLSURFHV%ROL�NRML�UHYH]LELOQL�SURFHV

5HYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNLSURFHV

Page 61: index termodinamika.pdf

� � � �E F4 4� � � � �����UHþLPD��UD]PHQMHQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�SUL�SURPHQL�VWDQMD�����MH�MHGQDND�UD]PHQMHQRM�WRSORWL�SULL]RWHUPQRM�SURPHQL�VWDQMD�E�F MHU�VX�SURFHVL���E L�F���DGLMDEDWVNL�6DGD�NDGD�]QDPR�GD�VH�ELOR�NRML�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�PRåH�DSURNVLPLUDWL�QL]RP�L]RWHUPQLK�LDGLMDEDWVNLK�SURFHVD��SURDQDOL]LUDMPR�SULPHU�SULND]DQ�QD�VOLFL���D��6LVWHP�L]�VWDQMD���REDYOMDUHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV��������D�]DWLP�QDVWDYOMD�GXå�UHYHU]LELOQH�SXWDQMH�������GR�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD���3ULYL�NRUDN�X�RYRP�GRND]X�MH�GD�VH�SRVWRMHüL�SURFHV�DSURNVLPLUD�QL]RP�UHYHU]LELOQLKDGLMDEDWVNLK�L�L]RWHUPDOQLK�SURFHVD�NDNR�MH�WR�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL���E��2YH�UD]QH�DGLMDEDWVNH�SXQH��L�L]RWHUPQH��LVSUHNLGDQH��OLQLMH�PRJX�ELWL�VSRMHQH�WDNR�GD�SUHWVWDYOMDMX�QL]�&DUQRW�YLKSURFHVD�NDNR�MH�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL���F��,]�GUXJRJ�]DNRQD�]D�&DUQRW�RYH�SURFHVH�D�E�F�G�L�H�I�J�K��YDåL�

� �� �� �� �

+ /+ /+ /+ /

4 47 74 47 7 �����

JGH�VX�X]LPDMX�WHPSHUDWXUH�QD�NRMLPD�VLVWHP�REDYOMD�L]RWHUPDOQH�SURFHVH�

VOLND���8�MHGQDþLQL������ X]HWH�VX�VDPR�DSVROXWQH�YUHGQRVWL�UD]PHQMHQH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH��DNR�4+WRSORWD�NRMD�VH�GRYRGL�VLVWHPX�D�4/ WRSORWD�NRMD�VH�GRYRGL�VLVWHPX��V¶RE]LURP�QD�NRQYHQFLMXR�SUHG]QDNX�GRYHGHQH�L�RGYHGHQH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�MHGQDþLQX������ PRåHPR�SLVDWL�NDR�� �� �� �� �

��

+ /+ /+ /+ /

4 47 74 47 7� � �����

,]�SUHGKRGQLK�MHGQDþLQD�MH�RþLJOHGQR�GD�MH�� � � �� � � � ��� �+ / + /

+ / + /4 4 4 47 7 7 7§ · § ·� � � � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ �����

0RåHPR�XSURVWLWL�L]UD]�XYRÿHQMHP�R]QDNH�4 NRMD�SUHWVWDYOMD�UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�L�7NDR�WHPSHUDWXUX�QD�NRMRM��VH�REDYOMD�UD]PHQD�WRSORWH��47 ¦ �����$NR�MH�EURM�&DUQRW�YLK�FLNOXVD�YHOLN�WDGD�DSURNVLPLUDQD�SXWDQMD�PQRJR�EOLåD�VWYDUQRM��$NREURM�&DUQRW�YLK�FLNOXVD�SRVWDQH�GRYROMQR�YHOLN��DNR�L]YUãLPR�GRYROMQR�VLWQX�DSURNVLPDFLMH�GD4�7 SRVWDQH�G 4�7��WDGD�LPDPR�GD�MH� �UHY 47G ³v ������

� � �� � �� � �� � �

3 3 3

Y Y YD E F

Page 62: index termodinamika.pdf

3RVPDWUDMPR�GYD�UDYQRWHåQD�VWDQMD���L���VLVWHPD�NDNR�MH�WR�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL�����3XWDQMD���D���MH�UDYHU]LELOQD�SXWDQMD�RG�VWDQMD���GR����3XWDQMH���E���L���F���VX�ELOR�NRMH�GYH�UHYHU]LELOQHSXWDQMH�L]PHÿX�VWDQMD���L����'YD�FLNOXVD�PRJX�ELWL���D���E���L���D���F���]D�NRMH�MH�FLNOLþQLLQWHJUDO�MHGQDN�QXOL��8�VYDNRP�RG�FLNOXVD�FLNOLþQL�LQWHJUDO�PRåH�ELWL�SUHWVWDYOMHQ�X�YLGX�GYDLQWHJUDOD�&LNOXV���D���E��������������� � �� � �D E4 4 47 7 7G G G� � � ³ ³ ³v

&LNOXV���D���F��������������� � �� � �D F4 4 47 7 7G G G� � � ³ ³ ³v2GX]LPDQMHP�RYD�GYD�L]UD]D�GRELMDPR�� �

� �E F4 47 7G G� � ³ ³NDNR�VX�E L�F ELOR�NRMH�GYH�SXWDQMH�L]PHÿX�GYD�VWDQMD�VOHGL�GD�MH�YUHGQRVW� 47G³ LVWD�]D�VYHUHYHU]LELOQH�SURFHVH�L]PHÿX�GYD�VWDQMD�

VOLND���9HOLþLQD�VWDQMD� UHY 47G³ VH�QD]LYD�HQWURSLMD L�REHOHåDYDPR�MH�VD�6��3UHPD�WRPHUHY 46 7G' ³ ������MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�VLVWHPD��.DNR�MH�HQWURSLMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��'6 L]PHÿX�GYD�VWDQMD�MH�LVWR�EH]�RE]LUD�GDOL�MH�FLNOXV�UHYHU]LELODQ�LOL�QH�6OLþDM�VD�HQWURSLMRP�MH�SRWSXQR�LVWL�NDR�L�VD�HQHUJLMLP�VLVWHPD�(��]DSUDYR�DNR�åHOLPR�GD]QDPR�YHOLþLQX�HQWURSLMH�X�ELOR�NRP�VWDQMX�[ PRåHPR�MH�RGUHGLWL�QD�VOHGHüL�QDþLQ�

�[ UHY 46 6 7G � ³v ������SULWRP�PRUDPR�]QDWL�YUHGQRVW�6��-HGQDþLQD������� YDåL�]D�ELOR�NRML�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�LOL�ELOR�NRMX�NRQVWDQWQX�NROLþLQX�PDWHULMH�

VOLND���

3

Y

�F ED

6LVWHP$ 6LVWHP%GP� GP�2WYRUHQL�VLVWHP�V

*UDQLFD�V

*UDQLFD�&

Page 63: index termodinamika.pdf

2GUHGLPR�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�RWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD��X�WX�VYUKX�SRVPDWUDMPR�RWYRUHQVLVWHP�V NRML�MH�SULND]DQ�QD�VOLFL�����1HND�PDVD�GP� NRMD�XOD]L�X�VLVWHP�LPD�VSHFLILþQXHQWURSLMX�V���0DVD�GROD]L�L]�VLVWHPD�$ NRML�PRåH�ELWL�X�SDUWLNXODUQRM�IRUPL�NDNR�MH�WRSULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL��6LVWHP�$ QH�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VD�RNROLQRP�YHü�MH�UDG�NRML�MH�SUHGDWVLVWHPX�$ MHGQDN�SRWUHEQRP�UDGX�GD�VH�PDVD�GP� GRGD�VLVWHPX�V��.DNR�MH�PDVD�L]�VLVWHPD�$SUHGDWD�VLVWHPX�V SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�VLVWHPD�MH�±V�GP���1HND�PDVD�NRMD�VH�RGYRGL�L]�VLVWHPDV LGH�X�VLVWHP�% NRML�VH�SRQDãD�NDNR�VLVWHP�$��3URPHQD�HQWURSLMH�VLVWHPD�% MH�WDGD�V�GP��.DNR�QHPD�UD]PHQH�WRSORWH�X�VLVWHPLPD�$ L�% WDGD�MH�UD]PHQMHQD�WRSORWD�VLVWHPD�& MHGQDNDUD]PHQMHQRM�WRSORWL�VLVWHPD�V �YLGL�VOLNX���3D�MH�WDNR�]D�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�RJUDÿHQ�JUDQLFRP�&�� �& UHY & UHY

4 4G6 7 7 VG G§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ ������JGH�MH�7 WHPSHUDWXUD�GHOD�VLVWHPD�QD�NRPH�VH�SUHGDMH�WRSORWD��SRGVHWLPR�VH�GD�WHPSHUDWXUDRWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�QLMH�XQLIRUPQD���.DNR�MH�HQWURSLMD�HNVWHQ]LYQD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�LPDPR�

� � � ��

F $ %F $ %

UHY

G6 G6 G6 G6G6 G6 G6 G64G6 V P V P7V

VV V

G G G � � � �§ · � �¨ ¸© ¹

������RYR�MH�RSãWL�L]UD]�]D�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�]D�QHNL�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP� 3ULPHWLPR�GD�]D�VWDFLRQDUQRLVWLFDQMH�LPDPR�GD�G6V ���L�GP� �GP���SD�]DWR�MHGQDþLQD������� SRVWDMH��

� � ��� � �UHY4 V V P7 V

G G§ · � �¨ ¸© ¹VUHÿLYDQMHP�RYRJ�L]UD]D�LPDPR�GD�MH� �� � � �UHYTV V 7V

G� ³ ������ãWR�VH�VODåH�VD�GHILQLFLMRP�'V NRMD�YDåL�]D�ELOR�NRMX�NRQVWDQWQX�NROLþLQX�PDVH��XNOMXþXMXüL�LPDVX�NRMD�VH�NUHüH�NUR]�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�����,=5$ý81$9$1-(�3520(1(�(17523,-(2YDM�GHR�üH�ELWL�SULND]DQ�QD�QHNROLNR�SULPHUD�,�SULPHU�,]UDþXQDMPR�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH���>NJ@�KHOLMXPD�NRML�VH�UHYHU]LELOQR�]DJUHYD�QDNRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�RG�����>3D@ �����>�&@�GR���>�&@�X�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�FS ������>N-�NJ�Â�.@�5HãHQMH�,]�GHILQLFLMH�HQWURSLMH�LPDPR�GD�MH� ��UHY

46 7G' ³GDOMH�LPDPR�GD�MH�� �

�L] SUYRJ ]DNRQD WHUPRGLQPLNH��SURFHV MH UHYHYHU]LELO]Q��SULWLVDN MHNRQVWDQWDQ�� � �GHILQLFLMD HQWDOSLMH ��JDV MHLGHDODQ�S

4 G8 :G8 3G9G8 G 39G 8 39 G+ +PF G7

G G � � � � =DPHQRP�GRELMDPR�GD�MH�

Page 64: index termodinamika.pdf

�� SPF G76 7' ³NDNR�MH�FS NRQVWDQWQD�LQWHJUDFLMRP�GRELMDPR�

��

���OQ � ���� OQ ����>N-�NJ .@���S 76 PF 7' � � �,VWL�SULPHU�VPR�PRJOL�UHãLWL�QD�VOHGHüL�QDþLQ�

VOLND���3RVPDWUDMPR�VOLNX����QD�NRMRM�MH�SULND]DQ�SURFHV��L]ELUDMPR�MHGQX�UHYHU]LELOQX�SXWDQMX�QDSULPHU���[���JGH�MH�9 �9� L�7 �7���.DNR�MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�LVWD�]D�VYH�SXWDQMH�L]PHÿXVWDQMD���L���LPDPR�GD�MH� � �� �[ [UHY UHY UHY4 4 46 7 7 7G G G' �³ ³ ³ ������3ULPHQLPR�SUYL�]DNRQ�WHUPRGLQDPLNH��DOL�LPDMPR�X�YLGX�GD�VX�SURFHVL���[ L���[ UHYHU]LELOQL��

�[

[G8 G8 3G96 7 7�' �³ ³ ������NDNR�VLVWHP�VDGUåL�LGHDODQ�JDV�VOHGL�GD�MH�� �� ��[ [Y Y[ [PF G7 PF G7G9 P5G96 7 7 7 9�' � �³ ³ ³ ³ ������NDNR�VX�FS L�5 NRQVWDQWH��QDNRQ�LQWHJUDFLMH�LPDPR�

��OQ OQ[Y [7 96 PF P57 9' � ������NDNR�VPR�XYRGHüL�UHYHU]LELOQX�SXWDQMX�XQDSUHG�RGUHGLOL�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�X�VWDQMX�[�]DPHQRPWLK�YUHGQRVWL�MHGQDþLQD������� LPD�REOLN� � �� � �

� � �OQ OQ OQY Y7 7 76 PF P5 P F 57 7 7' � � ������JGH�VPR�LVNRULVWLOL�MHGQDþLQX�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD��9��9� �7��7����SUHPD�WRPH�SURPHQDHQWURSLMH�MH���OQS 76 PF 7' ������ãWR�MH�LGHQWLþNL�MHGQDNR�VD�UHãHQMHP�GRELMHQLP�SUHGKRGQLP�SRVWXSNRP�UDþXQMDQMD�

,,�SULPHU,]UDþXQDMPR�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�SR�NLORJUDPX�KHOLMXPD�NRML�VH�UHYHU]LELOQR�]DJUHYD�QDNRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�RG�����>3D@��VD�WHPSHUDWXUH�RG����>�&@�GR�WHPSHUDWXUH�RG���>�&@�XRWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPH�VD�NRQVWDQWQLP�SURWRNRP��VWHDG\�IORZ��5HãHQMH�

S S

Y Y

[�� � �

Page 65: index termodinamika.pdf

(QWURSLMD�MH�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��=D�RELþQX�VXEVWDQFX��HQWURSLMD�MH�IXQNFLMD�GUXJLK�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�.DNR�VX�X�RYRP�SULPHUX�SRþHWQL�SULWLVDN��SRþHWQD�WHPSHUDWXUD�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD�L�NUDMQMLSULWLVDN�L�NUDMQMD�WHPSHUDWXUD�NUDMQMHJ�VWDQMD�MHGQDNL�NDR�X�SUHGKRGQRP�SULPHUDX�SURPHQDHQWURSLMH�SR�MHGLQLFL�PDVH�PRUD�ELWL�LVWD��2GQRVQR�þLQMHQLFD�GD�MH�KHOLMXP�X�SUYRP�VOXþDMX�X]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�RGQRVQR�X�GUXJRP�VOXþDMX�MH�X�RWYRUHQRP��VWHDG\�IORZ��VLVWHPX�QHSUDYLUD]OLNX�$NR�EL�]DQHPDULOL�SUHGKRGQR�QDYHGHQX�þLQMHQLFX�L�SRNXãDOL�GD�L]UDþXQDPR�SURPHQXHQWURSLMH�]D�]DGDWL�VLVWHP��SRãOL�EL�RG�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�WHUPRGLQDPLNH�NRML�MH�N ST GK GH GH ZG G � � � ������=D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�VWDFLRQDUQRJ�LVWLFDQMD��VWHG\�IORZ��

N SZ YG3 GH GHG � � � ������VWRJD�MH�MHGQDþLQD������� REOLND�N S N ST GK GH GH YG3 GH GHG � � � � � ������.DNR�MH�GDWR��XVOXYRP�]DGDWND��GD�VH�SURFHV�REDYOMD�QD�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�G3 ���VOHGL�GDMH� T GKG ������=D�VLVWHP�VD�VWDFLRQDUQLP�LVWLFDQMHP�MH�G6V ���L�GP� �GP� SD�MH�MHGQDþLQD�SURPHQHHQWURSLMH�]D�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�

� � � ��UHYTG6 V P V P7V V

G G G§ · � �¨ ¸© ¹ ������VRE]LURP�QD�SUHWKRGQH�]DNOMXþNH�LPDPR�� ��� � �UHY

T6 V V P7V VGG G§ · � �¨ ¸© ¹ ������RGQRVQR� � � �� � � � � SUHYT GKV V F G77 7G� ³ ³ ³ ������

2EUDWLWL�SDåQMX�GD�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH��NRMX�VPR�XSUDYR�L]UDþXQDOL��QLMH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMHVLVWHPD�YHü�VDPR�PDWHULMH�NRMD�SURWLþH�NUR]�VLVWHP��3RWVHWLPR�VH�GD�MH�SR�GHILQLFLML'6VLVWHPD ���]D�VWDFLRQDUQR�LVWLFDQMH��VWHDG\�IORZ��,,,�SULPHU�9D]GXK�HNVSDQGLUD�LUHYHU]LELOQR�VD����>N3D@�����>�&@��GR����>N3D@�L����>�&@�,]UDþXQDWL�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH��SUHWSRVWDYOMDMXüL�GD�VX�FS L�FY NRQVWDQWQH�QD�GDWRP�RSVHJXWHPSHUDWXUD�L�L]QRVH�������>N-�NJ��&@�L�������>N-�NJ��&@�UHVSHNWLYQR�5HãHQMH�1D�VDPRP�SRþHWNX�SULPHüXMHPR�GD�X�]DGDWNX�QLMH�GDWR�GDOL�MH�VLVWHP�RWYRUHQ�LOL]DWYRUHQ��RYDM�QHGRVWDWDN�SRGDWDND�QLMH�ELWDQ�MHU�MH�HQWURSLMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�L�RQD�VH�]D�RELþQXVXSVWDQFX�PRåH�RGUHGLWL�L]�ELOR�NRMH�GYH�QH]DYLVQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��QDPD�VX�SL]QDWL�L�3 L�7 XNUDMQMHP�VWDQMX��7DNRÿH�SULPHüXMHPR�GD�QLMH�]DGDWD�SXWDQMD�L]PHÿX�GYD�NUDMQMD�VWDQMD�3RQRYR�QHGRVWDWDN�LQIRUPDFLMD��NRML�SRNULYDPR�]QDMXüL�GD�MH�HQWURSLMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�L�RQD]DYLVL�VDPR�RG�NUDMQMLK�VWDQMD�D�QH�L�RG�SURPHQH�VWDQMD�3URPHQX�HQWURSLMH�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV��UHYHU]LELOQL�LOL�LUHYHU]LELOQL��PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWLLQWHJUDFLMRP�L]UD]D� T7G³ GXå�ELOR�NRMH�UHYHU]LELOQH�SXWDQMH�NRMD�VSDMD�GYD�NUDMQMD�VWDQMD��7ULPRJXüH�UHYHU]LELOQH�SXWDQMH��VOLND�����L]PHÿX�VWDQMD���L���VX�SULND]DQH�L�RQH�SUROD]H�NUR]

Page 66: index termodinamika.pdf

VWDQMD�D��E��[ X�3Y�GLMDJUDPX��NDNR�EL�VNLFLUDOL�3Y�GLMDJUDP�WUHED�GD�LPDPR�X�YLGX��Y��Y� 3�7��3�7� �������YE�Y� ��3��3����N ��������

VOLND���3XWDQMD���± D�±����-H�UHYHU]LELOQL�L]RKRUVNL�SURFHV�SUDüHQ�UHYHU]LELOQLP�L]REDUVNLPSURFHVRP� � � �� � �� � �

� � �OQ OQ OQ OQ��������OQ �����OQ���� ������>N-�NJ .@���

D D SYD D DUHY UHY UHYDY S Y SD

F G7F G7T T TV 7 7 7 7 77 7 3 YF F F F7 7 3 YG G G�' � �

� �� �

³ ³ ³ ³ ³3XWDQMD���±�D ±����5HYHU]LELOQL�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV�SUDüHQ�UHYHU]LELOQLP�L]REDUQLP�SURFHVRP�� � �� �

� � � ��

��OQ OQ OQ ����������OQ ������>N-�NJ .@�����

E SE E EUHY UHY UHYS S SD E E

F G7T T TV 7 7 7 77 Y Y YF F F7 Y Y YG G G�' � �

³ ³ ³ ³3XWDQMD���±�[ ±����5HYHU]LELOQL�L]RWHUPQL�SURFHV�SUDüHQ�UHYHU]LELOQLP�L]REDUQLP�SURFHVRP�� � � �� � � �� �

� � ��� � �� �� �

� � OQOQ OQ OQ

��� ���OQ OQ ����� OQ �����OQ ������>N-�NJ .@��� ���

[ [ [S S[ [ [UHY UHY UHY [[ [S S[S

F G7T T T 7V Z 3G9 F7 7 7 7 7 7 7Y57 GY 7 7F 5 F7 Y 7 Y 73 75 F3 7

G G G G�' � � �� �

� � �

³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³³����(17523,-$�.$2�.225',1$7$

'HILQLFLMD�HQWURSLMH� LOLUHY UHY4 46 G67 7G G§ ·' { ¨ ¸© ¹³ ������PRåH�ELWL�SUHWVWDYOHQD�X�REOLNX�

7

V

�D �E [

7 �FRQVWSYN �FRQVW

Page 67: index termodinamika.pdf

LOLUHY UHY4 7G6 4 7G6G ³ ������GD�EL�VH�SRND]DOR�GD�VH�UD]PHQMHQD�WRSORWD�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD�PRåH�SUHWVWDYLWL�NDRSRYUãLQD�X�76 ±�GLMDJUDPX��VOLND����� UHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD������3RYUãLQD�LVSRG�NULYHMH �� 7G6³ ��SD�WDGD�LQWHJUDO�SUHWVWDYOMD�UD]PHQMHQX�WRSORWX�VLVWHPD�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�UHYHU]LELOQRJSURFHVD�

VOLND���$NR�SURFHV�WHþH�REUQXWR�WM��RG���ND���WDGD�MH�UD]PHQMHQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�VLVWHPD���UHY4 7G6 ³ ������=D�LVWX�SXWDQMX�L]UD]L �

� 7G6³ L� ��7G6³ VX�LVWL�SR�YUHGQRVWL�DOL�VH�UD]OLNXMX�SR�]QDNX�7HPSHUDWXUD�±�(QWURSLMD��76��GLMDJUDP�VH�þHVWR�NRULVWL�]D�DQDOL]X�SURFHVD�MHU�]D�UH]HUYLELOQHSURFHVH�SRYUãLQD�LVSRG�NULYH�SUHWVWDYOMD�UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�'UXJL�þHVWR�NRULãüHQL�GLMDJUDP�MH�(QWDOSLMD�±�(QWURSLMD��+6��GLMDJUDP��3RYUãLQD�X�KV�GLMDJUDPX�QHPD�]QDþHQMD��DOL�MH�HQWURSLMD�L�GDOMH�NRULVQD�NRRUGLQDWD�MHU�LGHDOQL�SURFHVL�NRMHþHVWR�åHOLPR�GD�DSURNVLPLUDPR�X�DNWXHOQLP�PDãLQDPD�MH�UHYHU]LELOQL�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV�.DNR�DGLMDEDWVNL�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�PRUD�LPDWL�NRQVWDQWQX�HQWURSLMX�L]HQWURSVNL�SURFHV�WDNDY�SURFHV�üH�ELWL�SUHWVWDYOMHQ�YHUWLNDOQRP�OLQLMRP�X�VYDNRP�GLMDJUDPX�X�NRMHP�MH�HQWURSLMDDSFLVD��(QWDOSLMD�MH�]JRGQD�NRRUGLQDWD�MHU�X�YHüLQL�SURFHVD�X�VWHG\�IORZ�VLVWHPLPD�SURPHQDHQWDOSLMH�MH�MHGQDND�REDYOMHQRP�UDGX��UD]PHQMHQRM�WRSORWL��LOL�SURPHQL�NRQHWLþNH�HQHUJLMH�3RJOHGDMPR�GLMDJUDP�NRML�SULND]XMH�GYH�ID]H�QHNH�VXSVWDQFH��VOLND�����/LQLMD�]DVLüHQMD�NRMRP�MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQR�VD�OHYH�VWUDQH�VWUDQH�NULWLþQRJ�VWDQMD�]DVLüHQMH�WHþQH�ID]D�D�VD�GHVQHVWUDQH�NULWLþQRJ�VWDQMD��]D]LüHQMH�JDVRYLWH�ID]H��PRåH�ELWL�QDFUWDQD�L]�WDEHOD�SRGDWDND�]D�VI LVJ��1DUDYQR��X�UHJLRQX�JGH�PRJX�SRVWRMDWL�GYH�ID]H��QD�SULPHU�WHFQR±JDVRYLWD�ID]D��L]REDUH�VHSRNODSDMX�VD�L]RWHUPDPD��0RåH�ELWL�SRND]DQR�GD�X�ELOR�NRMRM�WDþNL��X�UHJLRQX�JGH�MH�PRJXüDVDPR�MHGQD�ID]D�VXSVWDQFH��L]RKRUH�VX�VWUPLMH�RG�L]REDUD�X�WRM�LVWRM�WDþNL�

5HYHU]LELOQLSURFHV ��

S

G6$UHD� �7G6

Page 68: index termodinamika.pdf

VOLND���&DUQRW�RY�FLNOXV�VH�VDVWRML�RG�GYH�UHYHU]LELOQH�DGLMDEDWVNH�SURPHQH�VWDQMD�L�GYH�L]RWHUPQHSURPHQH�VWDQMD��SD�RQ�X�76�GLMDJUDPX�XYHN�SUHWVWDYOMHQ�X�REOLNX�SUDYRXJDRQLND��1D�VOLFLSURFHV�D�±�E MH�L]RWHUPQL�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+ SUL�NRMHP�VH�VLVWHPX�SUHGDMHWRSORWD��3RYUãLQD�F ±�G�±�H�±�I�± F LVSRG�OLQLMH�D ±�E SUHWVWDYOMD�GRGDWX�WRSORWX4+��.DNR�MHE ±�F UHYHU]LELOQL�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV��SRYUãLQD�LVSRG�OLQLMH�E ±�F PRUD�ELWL�MHGQDND�QXOL��3URFHVF ±�G MH�UHYHU]LELOQL�L]RWHUPQL�SURFHV�SUHGDYDQMD�WRSORWH�HQHUJLMVNRP�UH]HUYRDUX�4/ QDWHPSHUDWXUL�7/��4/ MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�SRYUãLQRP�F ±�G�±�H�±�I�± F��&LNOXV�VH�]DYUãDYDUHYHU]LELOQRP�DGLMDEDWVNRP�SURPHQRP�VWDQMD�G ±�D NRMD�YUDüD�VLVWHP�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH�3RYUãLQD�LVSRG�SXWDQMH�QHNRJ�LUHYHU]LELOQRJ�SURFHVD�QHPD�]QDþHQMH��3UHFL]QLMH�RQD�QHSUHWVWDYOMD�UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH�MHU�MH�LUHY4 7G6z ³ ������VLVWHP�QHPRUD�ELWL�X�VWDQMX�UDYQRWHåH�VYH�YUHPH�REDYOMDQMD�SURFHVD�

VOLND���

:4/7/7+D E

FGH I

S

V

�����

������

��

����

��

�����

2EODVWSUHJUHMDQHSDUH

/LQLMD]DVLFHQHSDUH

2EODVW&RPSUHVVHGWHFQH�ID]H/LQLMD]DVLFHQHWHFQH�ID]H 2EODVWYOD]QHSDUH 7 �FRQVW

3 FRQVW

Y FRQVW

.ULWLFQRVWDQMH5HYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNL

(QWULSLMD��V

$SVROXWQD�W

HPSHUDWXUD�

� 7

Page 69: index termodinamika.pdf

3ULPHUL����6XYD�]DVLüHQD�SDUD�QD������03D�REDYOMD�UHYHU]LELOQX�L]RWHUPQX��HNVSDQ]LMX�X�]DWYRUHQRPVLVWHPX�GR�SULWLVND�RG������03D��,]UDþXQDWL�REDYOMHQL�UDG�SR�NLORNUDPX�YRGHQH�SDUH�$QDOL]D��1DFUWDMPR�7V GLMDJUDP�6D�GLMDJUDPD�YLGLPR�GD�ãUDILUDQD�SRYUãLQD�SUHWVWDYOMD�UD]PHQMHQX�NROLþLQX�WRSORWH��MHU�MHSURHFHV�UHYHUWLELODQ���/LQLMD�NRMD�SUHWVWDYOMD�SHRFHV�MH�KRUR]RQWDOQD��L]RWHUPD���.DNR�QDV]DQLPD�YUHGQRV�UDGD�VLVWHPD�SULPHQLPR�SUYL�]DNRQ�

� �Z X X T � � ������6WDQMH���MH�VSHFLILFLUDPR�X�SRVWDYFL�]DGDWND�=D�VWDQMH���]QDPR�SULWLVDN�3� L�WHPSHUDWXUX7� �7� �7����03D��9LGLPR�GD�LPDPRGRYROMQR�SRGDWDND�GD�RGUHGLPR�HQHUJLMHVWDQMD���L�VWDQMD����=D�UHYHU]LELOQL�L]RWHUPQLSURFHV� � �� � ��T 7GV 7 V V �³ ��NDNR�VX�QDPRED�VWDQMD�VSHFLILFLUDQD�PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWLWRSORWX�

5HãHQMH�,]�WDEHOD�]D�VXYX�SDUX�LPDPR�6WDQMH�� 6WDQMH��7� �����. 7� �����.X� �XJ ��������N-�NJ X� �XJ ��������N-�NJV� �VJ ��������N-�NJÂ. V� �VJ ��������N-�NJÂ.3UYL�]DNRQ�MH�� �Z X X T � � ������3RãWR�VH�UDGL�R�UHYHU]LELOQRP�L]RWHUPVNRP�SURFHVX�LPDPR�GD�MH�� �� ��� � � � � �������� ������ ��� ������ ����������� N-�NJ

Z X X 7GV X X 7 V V � � � � � � � � ³ ������

���$PRQLMDN�VH�NRPSULPXMH�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNL�VD�NRQVWDQWQLP�SURWRNRP�RG���,EP�PLQVD����SVLD�QD�����SRVWR�RQDM�VWHSHQ�VXYRüH������SVLD��2GUHGLWL�SRWUHEQX�VQDJX�]D�RYDM�SURFHV�$QDOL]D�=D�SURFHV�VWDFLRQDUQRJ�VWUXMDQMD�MH�: PZ � � ��5DG�PRåH�ELWL�QDÿHQ�L]�ELODQVD�HQHUJLMH�]DRWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�LOL�L]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�

� �LQ N SZ K K H H T � � ' � ' � ������NDNR�MHSURFHV�DGLMDEDWDQ�L�DNR�]DQHPDULPR�NLQHWLþNX�L�SRWHQFLMDOQX�HQHUJLMX�LPDPR�GD�MH�UDGMHGQDN�SURPHQL�HQWDOSLMH�� �LQZ K K � ������

����.7

V

� �����03D

����03D

T

Page 70: index termodinamika.pdf

(QWURSLMX�K��PRåHPR�QDüL�L]�L]UD]D�K� �KI� ±�[KJ���8]�SULWLVDN�QD�L]OD]X�L]�VLVWHPD�3� ]QDPRMRã�GD�MH�V� �V� MHU�MH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ�L�DGLMDEDWVNL��7V GLMDJUDP�QDP�SRPDåH�GD�YLGLPRGDOL�MH�V� YHüH�RG�VJ QD�����SVLD��DNR�MHVWH�RQGD�MH�DPRQLMDN�QD�L]OD]X�SUHJUHMDQ��SUHJUHMDQDSDUD���DOL�DNR�MH�V� PDQMH�RG�VJ QD�����SVLD�DPRQLMDN�QD�L]OD]X�MH�YODåDQ��$NR�MH�DPRQLMDN�QDL]OD]X�SUHJUHMDQ�L]�WDEHOH�PRåHPR�X]HWL�YUHGQRVW�]D�K���DOL�DNR�MH�YODåDQ�K� PRåHPR�GRELWL�L]UHODFLMH��� � � � �L II IJ IJV VK K [ K [ V� � ������

,]�WDEHOD�]D�DPRQLMDN�LPDPR�� � � �� � � � �

���� ���� ����� �����%�,EP������ ���� ���� ������%�,EPÂ5I IJI IJ

K K [ KV V V [ V � � � � � � ������9UHGQRVW�V� MH�PDQMD�RG�VJ SD�MH�VWRJD�DPRQLMDN�QD�L]OD]X�YODåDQ�

��� � � �

������ ������ ���������������� ����� ����� �����%�,EPI

IJI IJ

V V[ VK K [ K� �

� � � ������3UYL�]DNRQ��]D�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV��T ����L�SRG�SUHWSRVWDYNRP�GD�MH�'HN ��'HS ����JODVL�

� � ����� ����� ����%�,EPLQZ K K � � ������WDNR�GD�MH�SRWUHEQD�VQDJD� ����� ����KS�NRQMD�����LQ LQ: PZ � � � ����������.25,61(�9(=(�0(�8�9(/,ý,1$0$�67$1-$

(QWURSLMD�MH�GHILQLVDQD�NDR�UHY T6 7G' { ³ ������,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�]D�ELOR�NRML�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�NRML�SUROD]L�NUR]�VWDQMH�UDYQRWHåH�L�MHGLQL�UDGNRML�PRåH�ELWL�REDYOMHQ�UHYHU]LELOQR�MH�GRELMHQ�NDR� 3GY³ �� UHYT GX 3GYG � ]ERJ�þHJD�MH�GX 3GYV 7�' ³ ������RGQRVQR�

7 7

V V

3�"3�" ��"�"� �$QDOL]D 5HVHQMH

��� SVLD

�� SVLD

Page 71: index termodinamika.pdf

GX 3GYGV 7� ������$NR�MH�SR]QDWD�YH]D�L]PHÿX�3�Y L�7 L�X LQWHJUDOMHQMHP�L]UD]D������� GRELMDPR�SURPHQXHQWURSLMH�VLVWHPD�L]PHÿX�GYD�UDYQRWHåQD�VWDQMD��.DNR�MH�HQWURSLMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�YUGQRVWQMHQH�SURPHQH�PRUD�ELWL�LVWD�L�]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�L�]D�LUHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�L]PHÿX�GYD�]DGDWDVWDQMD�VLVWHPD��7DNRÿ�YDåL�LVWR�L�]D�VOXþDM�NDGD�VH�UDGL�R�RWYRUHQRP�LOL�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�7UHED�SRQRYLWL�GD�LQWHJUDFLMD�GHVQH�VWUDQH�MHGQDþLQH������� PRUD�ELWL�REDYOMHQD�SRUHYHU]LELOQR�SXWDQML�L]PHÿX�GYD�NUDMQMD�VWDQMD��0HÿXWLP��]D�LQIHQWL]LPDOQL�GHR�ELOR�NRMHSXWDQMH����GX ��3GY��MH�MHGQDNR�GT ]D�UHYHU]LELOQH�SURFHVH�GXå�GHOD�SXWDQMH��=ERJ�WRJDGX 3GYGV 7� YDåL�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV��NRML�VH�RGYLMD�L]PHÿX�GYD�UDYQRWHåQD�VWDQMD�ýLQMHQLFD�MH�GD�MHGQDþLQX�PRåHPR�SULPHQLWL�NDR�]D�UHYHU]LELOQH�WDNR�L�]D�LUHYHU]LELOQHSURFHVH��.DNR�MH�HQWURSLMD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�L�QH�]DYLVL�RG�SXWDQMH�LQWHJUDFLMH��SRLQW�IXQFWLRQ��SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�PRUD�ELWL�LVWD�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�NRML�VH�RGYLMD�L]PHÿX�GYD�UDYQRWHåQDVWDQMD��-HGQDþLQD GX SGYGV 7� GDMH�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�L]PHÿX�GYD�UDYQRWHåQD�VWDQMD�2YD�MHGQDþLQD�PRå�ELWL�QDSLVDQD�NDR�7GV GX 3GY GK YG3 � � ������YLGHüHPR�GD�MH�RYR�]JRGDQ�REOLN��=DNOMXþDN��-HGQDþLQD7GV GX 3GY7GV GK YG3 � � ������YDåL�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH��-HGLQD�UHVWULNFLMD�MH�GD�VH�LQWHJUDFLMD�PRUD�YUãLWLL]PHÿX�GYD�UDYQRWHåQD�VWDQMD�6OHGHÿH�þHWLUL�MHGQDüLQH�VH�PRJX�NRULVWLWL����GT �GX ��GZ ±�3UYL�]DNRQ�]D�ELOR�NRML�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP����GT �GX ��3GY ±�3UYL�]DNRQ�]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD����7GV �GX ��GZ ±�-HGQDþLQD�SRYH]XMH�SUYL�L�GUXJL�]DNRQ�L�SULPHQOMLYD�MH�VDPR�QDUHYHU]LELOQH�SURFHVH�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD����7GV �GX ��3GY ±�9DåL�]D�VYH�SURFHVH�L]PHÿX�GYD�UDYQRWHåQD�VWDQMD3ULPHUL����*DV�HNVSDQGLUD�LUHYHU]LELOQR�VD�����N3D�L������&�GR�����N3D�L������&��,]UDþXQDWL�SURPHQXHQWURSLMH�SRG�SUHWSRVWDYNRP�GD�VX�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�NRQVWDQWQH�QD�GDWRP�RVSHJXWHPSHUDWXUD�L�GD�L]QRVH�FY �������N-�NJÂ.�L�FS �������N-�NJÂ.�5HãHQMH�3UHWSRVWDYOMDMXüL�GD�VH�YD]GXK�X�GDWRP�RSVHJX�SRQDãD�NDR�LGHDOQL�JDV�LPDPR�

Y7GV GX 3GY7GV F G7 3GY � � ������GDOMH�MH� � � �� � �Y G7 GYV GV F 57 Y' �³ ³ ³ ������1DNRQ�LQWHJUDFLMH�GRELMDPR�GD�MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�

Page 72: index termodinamika.pdf

� � � � �� � � � �OQ OQ OQ OQ

��� ��� �������� OQ ����� OQ ������N-�NJÂ.��� ��� ���Y Y7 Y 7 37V F 5 F 57 Y 7 37§ · § · § · § ·' � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹�§ · § · � � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸�© ¹ © ¹

������$OWHUQDWLYQR�UHãHQMH�8]LPDMXüL�MHGQDþLQX�X�GUXJRP�REOLNX� 7GV GK YG3 � ������SD�UD]YLMDQMHP�GRELMDPR� � � � � �� � � � �OQ OQ

��� �������� OQ ����� OQ ������N-�NJÂ.��� ���S SG7 G3 7 3V GV F 5 F 57 3 7 3§ · § ·' � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹§ · § · � � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

³ ³ ³ ���������2GUHGLWL�VIJ DPRQLMDND�QD�����)�DNR�MH�KIJ �������%�,EP�5HãHQMH�=D�L]UDþXQDYDQMH�HQWURSLMH�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX��ãWR�MH�XVWYDUL�VIJ��LPDPR�7GV GK YG37GV GK � ������NDNR�MH�VIJ SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�L�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�

����� �����%�,EPÂ5�����IJIJ

KV 7KV 7''

���������2GUHGLWL�]D�LGHDOQL�JDV��D��QDJLE�L]REDUH�L��E��QDJLE�L]RKRUH�X�7V GLMDJUDPX�

5HãHQMH�=D�LGHDOQL�JDV�7V MHGQDþLQD�MH� 7GV GK YG37GV GX 3GY � � ������LOLSY

7GV F G7 YG37GV F G7 3GY � � ������=D�L]REDUVNL�SURFHV�SRVOHGQML�þODQ�X�SUYRM�MHGQDþLQL�MH�MHGQDN�QXOL�L�]D�L]RKRUVNL�SURFHVSRVOHGQML�þODQ�X�GUXJRM�MHGQDþLQL�MH�MHGQDN�QXOL��1DJLEL�OLQLMD�VH�PRJX�SLVDWL�NDR�

7

VY �FRQVW

3 �FRQVW

Page 73: index termodinamika.pdf

3 FRQVW SY FRQVW Y

7 71DJLE L]REDUH V F7 71DJLE L]RKRUH V F

w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹.DNR�MH�FS !�FY QDJLE�L]REDUH�MH�MH�PDQML�RG�QDJLED�L]RKRUH�QD�MHGQDNLP�WHPSHUDWXUDPD��ãWRMH�L�SULND]DQR�QD�7V GLMDJUDPX�

����35,1&,3�35,5$â7$-$�(17523,-((QWURSLMD�þHVWR�VOXåL�GD�EL�VH�RGUHGLOR�GDOL�MH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ��LUHYHU]LELODQ�LOL�GDOL�MHXRSãWH�PRJXü��3ULQFLS�SULUDãWDMD�HQWURSLMH�NDåH��HQWURSLMD�QHNRJ�L]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD�XYHNUDVWH�LOL��X�JUDQLþQRP�VOXþDMX�NDGD�MH�X�SLWDQMX�UHYHU]LELODQ�SURFHV��RVWDMH�NRQRQVWDQWQDWRNRP�YUHPHQD�0DWLPDWLþNL�LVND]DQ�SULQFLSD�SULUDãWDMD�HQWURSLMH MH��L]RORYDQRJ VLWHUPD

G6GW§ · t¨ ¸© ¹ ������LOL�DNR�VH�]QD�GDMH�YUHPH�QH]DYLVQD�SURPHQOMLYD� �L]RORYDQRJ VLVWHPD6' t ������1HMHGQDNRVW�YDåL�]D�LUHYHU]LELOQH�SURFHVH��GRN�MHGQDNRVW�YDåL�]D�UHYHU]LELOQH�6LVWHP�PRåH�XYHN�ELWL�WDNR�QDSUDYOMHQ�GD�SUROD]HüL�L]�MHGQRJ�VWDQMD�X�GUXJR�SUROD]L�NUR]�QL]UHYHU]LELOQLK�L]RWHUPDOQLK�L�DGLMDEDWVNLK�SURFHVD��=DSUDYR�GYD�VWDQMD�VLVWHPD�XYHN�PRJX�ELWLSRYH]DQD�MHGQLP�UHYHU]LELOQLP�DGLMDEDWVNLP�SURFHVRP�L�MHGQLP�UHYHU]LELOQLP�L]RWHUPQLPSURFHVRP��3RVPDWUDMPR�ELOR�NDNDY�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�NRML�SUHOD]L�L]�VWDQMD���X�VWDQMH��DGLMDEDWVNL�VOLND�������6DGD�VLVWHP�PRåH�ELWL�YUDüHQ�X�VWDQMH���QD�VOHGHüL�QDþLQ�3URFHV���±�D�±�5HYHU]LELOQL�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV�NRML�YUDüD�VLVWHP�QD�SRþHWQX�WHPSHUDWXUX�WHPSHUDWXUD�RGJRYDUD�VWDQMX���3URFHV�D�± ��±�5HYHU]LELOQL�L]RWHPQL�SURFHV�NRML�YUDüD�VLVWHP�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH�

VOLND���6LVWHP�MH�]DYUãLR�FLNOXV��2EDYOMDMXüL�FLNOXV�VLVWHP�MH�PRJDR�UD]PHQLWL�WRSORWX�VD�RNUXåHQMHPVDPR�SUL�UHYHU]LELOQRM�L]RWHUPQRM�SURPHQL�VWDQMD��5D]PHQD�WRSORWH�MH�PRJOD�ELWL�VD�QHNLP

5HYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNL�

D

$GLMDEDWVNL

5HYHU]LELOQLL]RWHUPQL

9HOLFLQD�VWDQMD�[

9HOLFLQD�VWD

QMD�\

Page 74: index termodinamika.pdf

HQHUJLMVNLP�UH]HUYRDUDP�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��6DJODVQR�VD�GUXJLP�]DNRQRP�QHPDREDYOMHQRJ�UDGD�RG�VWUDQH�VLVHPD��WM� �:G d³v ��,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�GRELMDPR�4 :G G ³ ³v v ������SLPHüXMHPR�GD�MH� �4G d³v ��ELOR�GD�MH�����WRSORWD�RGYHGHQD�RG�VLVWHPD�SUL�REDYOMDQMXSURFHVD�D ±����LOL�����FLNOXV�ELR�SRWSXQR�DGLMDEDWVNL�SD�MH�VWDQMH�D LGHQWLþNL�MHGQDNR�VD�VWDQMHP��3UHPD�WRPH�� �D6 6� d ������SUL�þHPX�VH�QHMHGQDNRVW�X]LPD�DNR�VH�VLVWHP�YUDWLR�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH�UHYHU]LELOQLPDGLMDEDWVNLP�SURFHVRP���±�D L�VWDQDM���L�D VX�SULWRP�LGHQWLþQD��2YR�MH�PRJXüH�VDPR�DNR�MHRUJLQDOQL�SURFHV���±���HYHU]LELOQL�DGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV��=D�SURFHV���±�D MH�

� �D6 6� ������=D�FLNOXV�LPDPR� � � � � � �� � � �D D D6 6 6 6 6 6 6' � � � � � ������8SRUHÿXMXüL�MHGQDþLQH�������������� L������� ]DNOMXþXMHPR�GD�MH�� � �6 6� t ������JGH�VH�MHGQDNRVW�PRåH�SRMDYLWL��QD�PHVWX�QHMHGQDNRVWL��VDPR�DNR�VLVWHP�YUãL�UHYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNL�SURFHV�SUL�SUHOD]X�L]�VWDQMD���X�VWDQMH���.DNR�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�REDYOMD�DGLMDEDWVNX�SURPHQX�VWDQMD�]QDPR�GD�MH�]D�ELOR�NDNDY�]DWYRUHQVLVWHP� �DGLMDEDWQL ]DWYRUHQL VLVWHP6' t ������2YR�MH�MHGQD�RG�IRUPXODFLMD�SULQFLSD�SULUDãWDMD�HQWURSLMH��(QWURSLMD�QHNRJ�DGLMDEDWQRJ]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�XYHN�UDVWH�LOL��X�NRQDþQRP�EURMX�UHYHU]LELOQLK�SURFHVD�RVWDMH�NRQVWDQWQD�,]RORYDQL�VLVWHP��QD�SRþHWNX�MH�GHILQLVDQ�NDR�VLVWHP�NRML�QHPD�QLNDNYH�LQWHUDNFLMH�VDRNROLQRP��,]�WRJ�UD]ORJD��VYDNL�L]RORYDQL�VLVWHP�MH��QDMPDQMH��DGLMDEDWVNL�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�LQD�RVQRYX�RYRJD�PRåHPR�UHüL�GD�MH� �L]RORYDQRJ VLVWHPD6' t ������-Rã�MHGQD�IRUPXODFLMD�SULQFLSD�SULUDãWDMD�HQWURSLMH�EL�ELOD��(QWRSLMD�L]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD�XYHNUDVWH�LOL��X�JUQLþQRP�EURMX�UHYHU]LELOQLK�SURFHVD��RVWDMH�NRQVWDQWQD�1D�RVQRYX�SUHGKRGQRJ�PRåHPR�VDGD�SRQRYR�GHILQLVDWL�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV��XVWYDUL��DNRHQWURSLMD�]DWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�RVWDMH�NRQVWDQWQD�SUL�REDYOMDQMX�QHNRJ�SURFHVD�WDGD�MH�WDM�SURFHVUHYHU]LELODQ�D�DNR�HQWURSLMD�VLVWHPD�UDVWH�WDGD�MH�SURFHV�LUHYHU]LELODQ��7DNRÿH�HQWURSLMDL]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD�QH�PRåH�GD�RSDGD�

3RVPDWUDMPR�]DJUHYDQMH�þHOLþQRJ�EORND�VD�WHPSHUDWXUH�7� QD�WHPSHUDWXUX�7���7RSORWD�VHGRVWDYOMD�L]�HQHUJLMVNRJ�UH]HUYRDUD�NRML�MH�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�7+��7+ MH�YHüD�RG�7��%ORN�L�UH]HUYRDU�]DMHGQR�REUD]XMX�L]RORYDQL�VLVWHP��.DNR�MH�UD]PHQD�WRSORWH�L]PHÿX�EORND�LUH]HUYRDUD�QD�NRQDþQRM�WHSHUDWXUQRM�UD]OLFL�LUHYHU]LEOQD��HQWURSLMD�L]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD�UDVWH�3RUDVW�HQWURSLMH�EORND�MH�SR�YUHGQRVWL�YHüL�RG�SDGD�HQWURSLMH�UH]HUYRDUD��RYR�VH�YLGL�QD�76GLMDJUDPX�VOLND�������.DNR�VX�]DJUHYDQMH�EORND�L�KODÿHQMH�UH]HUYRDUD�XQXWUDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQLSURFHVL��NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�NRMD�MH�UD]PHQMHQD�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�MH�SRYUãLQRP�LVSRG�NULYH�X�76�GLMDJUDPX��'YH�SRYUãLQH�PRUDMX�ELWL�MHGQDNH��QLåD�WHPSHUDWXUD

Page 75: index termodinamika.pdf

VOLND���EORND�]DKWHYD�GD�MH� EORND UH]HUYRDUD6 6' ! ' SD�MH�WDGD� �L]RORYDQRJ VLVWHPD6' ! �=DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�PRåH�ELWL�VDþLQMHQ�WDNR�GD�XNOMXþXMH�ELOR�NDNDY�VLVWHP�L�QMHJRYR�RNUXåHQMHVD�MHGQRP�JUDQLFRP��3RQHNDG�RUJLQDOQL�VLVWHP��NRML�MH�VDPR�GHR�L]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD��VHQD]LYD�VXEVLVWHP��.DNR�VLVWHP�L�QMHJRYR�RNUXåHQMH�XNOMXþXMX��SR�GHILQLFLML��VYH�ãWR�LPDXWLFDMD�QD�SURFHV��WDNYD�NRPELQDFLMD�VH�SRQHNDG�QD]LYD�XQLYHUVH �VYHPLU���SD�MH�SULQFLSSRUDVWD�HQWURSLMH�REOLND� �XQLYHUVH6' t ������SUL�þHPX�MH�XQLYHUVH VLVWHPD RNROLQH6 6 6' ' � ' ������1H]QDP�þHPX�RYDM�SUHRGKRGQL�GHR�

3RNDåLPR�NDNR�PRåHPR�SULPHQLWL�SULQFLS�SRUDVWD�HQWURSLMH�QD�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP��1HNLL]RORYDQL�VLVWHP�PRåH�XYHN�ELWL�VDVWDYOMHQ�RG�RWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPD�L�QMHJRYRJ�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�VHNDR�WDNYL�QDOD]H�X�JUDQLFDPD�L]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD��2EHOHåLPR�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�RWYRUHQRJ�VLVWHPVD�LQGHNVRP�V��SD�MH�SULWRP�L]RORYDQRJ VLVWHPD RNX]HQMDG6 G6 G6V � ������2GQRVQR�]D�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�VPR�GHILQLVDOL�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�NDR�

� � � ��UHY4G6 V P V P7V V

G G G§ · � �¨ ¸© ¹ ������SUL�þHPX�MH�GP� PDVD�NRMD�VH�GRYRGL�VLVWHPX�D�GP� PDVD�NRMD�VH�RGYRGL�RG�VLVWHPD�6OLþQR�RWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�]D�RNUXåHQMH�LPDPR�GD�MH�

� � � ��RNROLQH UHY RNROLQH4G6 V P V P7G G G§ · � �¨ ¸© ¹ ������SULPHWLPR�GD�MH�L�RNUXåHQMH�VLVWHPD�MHGDQ�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�NRPH�VH�RGYHGH�RQD�NROLþLQD�PDVHNRMD�VH�GRYHGH�VLVWHPX�V��D�GRYRGLPX�VH�NROLþLQD�PDVH�NRMD�VH�RGYRGL�VLVWHPX�V��2NUXåHQMHVH�PRåH�SRGHOLWL�QD�GYD�GHOD�L�WR�MHGDQ�GHR�MH�RQDM�GHR�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�UD]PHQMXMH�PDVX�VDVLVWHPRP�V��D�GUXJL�GHR�MH�RVWDWDN�RNROLQH��2ELþQR�RQDM�GHR�RNROLQH�NRML�UD]PHQMXMH�PDVXQHUD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�LOL�UDG��VDGD�PRåHPR�RGUHGLWL�GYD�GHOD�RNROLQH�L�WR�����GHR�RNROLQH�NRMLNRML�UD]PHQMXMH�PDVX�VD�VLVWHPRP�L�����GHR�NRML�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�L��LOL��UDG�VD�VLVWHPRP�3RVWRMH�L]X]HFL�RYH�SRGHOH��DOL�]ERJ�MHGQRVWDYQRVWL�SRVPDWUDMPR�EDã�WDNDY�VOXþDM�SRGHOH

7RSORWQL�UH]HUYRDUQD�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL&HOLFQLEORN

�$� %

&HOLN 5H]HUYRDU7 7

6 6

*UDQLFD�L]RORYDQRJ�VLVWHPD

Page 76: index termodinamika.pdf

RNUXåHQMD��6WRJD�MH��G4�7�UHY�RNROLQH G6 GHOD�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�QH�UD]PHQMXMH�PDVX�VD�RWYRUHQLPVLVWHPRP��]ERJ�WRJD�MHGQDþLQD������� SRVWDMH�� � � �RNROLQH RNROLQD NRMD QHUD]PHQMXMHPDVX VD VLVWHPRPG6 G6 V P V PG G � � ������GHR�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�QH�UD]PHQMXMH�PDVX�VD�VLVWHPRP�PRåH�UD]PHQMLYDWL�UDG�L�WRSORWX�VDVLVWHPRP��'HR�RNUXåHQMD�NRML�PRåH�GD�UD]PHQMXMH�UDG�VD�VLVWHPRP�UHYHU]LELOQR�L�DGLMDEDWVNLLPD�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�MHGQDNX�QXOL��3UHPD�WRPH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�GHOD�NRML�QH�UD]PHQMXMHPDVX�VD�VLVWHPRP�MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSMH�NRMD�VH�GHVL�SUL�UD]PHQL�WRSORWH�VD�VLVWHPRP�LMHGQDþLQD������� üH�ELWL�� � � �RNROLQH GHODRNROLQHNRML UD]PHQMXHWRSORWX VDVLVWHPRPG6 G6 V P V PG G � � ������=DPHQMXMXü�MHGQDþLQH������� L������� X�MHGQDþLQX������� LPDPR�GD�MH�]D�VYDNL�RWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�

� �GHRRNROLQHNRML UD]PHQMXMHWRSORWX VD VLVWHPRPUHY4 G67 V

G§ · � t¨ ¸© ¹ ������=D�VWDFLRQDUQR�LVWLFDQMH��VWHDG\±IORZ��EL�ELOR�G6V ���SD�MHGQDþLQD������� GRELMD�REOLN�

� � � � �GHR RNUX]HQMD NRML UD]PHQMXMH WRSORWX VD VLVWHPRPG6 V P V PG G� � t ������ýHVWR�VUHWDQ�SURFHV�X�LQåLQMHUVNRM�SUDNVL�MH�SURFHV�DGLMDEDWVNRJ�VWDFLRQDUQRJ�LVWLFDQMD�3ULQFLS�SRUDVWD�HQWURSLMH�SRND]XMH�GD�MH� �PDWHULMH NRMD SUROD]L NUR] VWHDG\ IORZ VLVWHP6 �' t ������3ULPHU����9D]GXK�XOD]L�X�WXUELQX�QD�����N3D�L������&��D�QDSXãWD�MH�QD�����N3D�L����&��7RSORWDRGYHGHQD�RG�YD]GXKD�SUL�SURODVNXNUR]�WXUELQX�MH����N-�NJ��0DVHQL�SURWRN�MH������NJ�K��'DOLMH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ"

5HãHQMH�6PDWUDüHPR�GD�MH�QDã�6WHG\�IORZ�VLVWHP�WXUELQD�VD�QMHQLP�LVSXVWLPD�3D�MH�� � �YD]GXKD NRML SUROD]L NUR] VLV RNUX]HQMD NRMHUD]PDQMXMHWRSORWX VD VLV6 6' � ' t$NR�GRELMHPR�GD�MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�MHGQDND�QXOL�VOHGL�GD�MH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ��D�DNRGRELMHPR�GD�MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�YHüD�RG�QXOH�SURFHV�MH�LUHYHU]LELODQ�3URPHQD�HQWURSLMH�YD]GXKD�MH� � � � �

� � � �SGK YG3 G7 G3V F 57 7 7 3' � �³ ³ ³ ³ ������$NR�MH�VSHFLILþQD�L]RKRUVND�WRSORWD�NRQVWDQWQD�]D�GDWL�RSVHJ�WHPSHUDWXUD�L]�WDOLFD�LPDPR�GDMH�FS� ������-�NJÂ.��SD�MH�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�YD]GXKD�� �� �

��� ���OQ OQ ���� OQ ����� OQ ����N-�NJÂ.��� ���S 7 3V F 57 3§ · § · § · § ·' � � � � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹© ¹ © ¹ ������

7

V

1HSRYUDWQL�SURFHVVD�RGYRGMHQMHPWRSORWH

3RYUDWQL�SURFHVVD�RGYRGMHQMHPWRSORWH

�� ���

Page 77: index termodinamika.pdf

7RSORWD�NRMD�MH�RGYHGHQD�RG�YD]GXKD�SUL�SURODVNX�NUR]�WXUELQX�SUHGDMH�VH�RNUXåHQMX�SDHQWURSLMD�RNUXåHQMD�UDVWH�WDNR�GD�MH� ����N-�NJÂ.YD]GXKD NRML SUROD]L NUR] VLVWHPV' L �RNUX]HQMD NRMHUD]PHQMXMHWRSORWX VD VLVWHPRPV' !1D�NUDMX�PRåHPR�]DNOMXþLWL�GD�MH�SURFHV�LUHYHU]LELODQ�MHU�MH�QMHJRYD�SURPHQD�HQWURSLMH�YHüDRG�QXOH����.RMD�MH�PLQLPDOQD�NUDMQMD�WHPSHUDWXUD�DGLMDEDWVNH�NRPSUHVLMH�DPRQLMDND�VD����SVLD�����TXDOLW\��QD�����SVLD"5HãHQMH�3UL�DGLMDEDWVNRM�HNVSDQ]LML�HQWRSLMD�DPRQLMDND�üH�UDVWL�DNR�MH�SURFHV�LUHYHU]LELODQ��LOL�üH�RVWDWLNRQVWDQWQD�DNR�MH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ�'D�EL�YLGHOL�NRMD�MH�PLQLPDOQD�WHPSHUDWXUD�VNLFLUDMPR7V GLMDJUDP�L�QD�QMHPX�RULNDåLPR�UHYHU]LELOQL�L�LUHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�

6D�VNLFHYLGLPR�GD�MH�PLQLPDOQD�WHPSHUDWXUD�SUL�UHYHU]LELOQRP�DGLMDEDWVNRP�SUFHVX��3UHPDWRPH�SRWUHEQR�MH�GD�RGUHGLPR�NUDMQMX�WHPSHUDWXUX�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�L]HQWURSVNRJ�SURFHVD�� � ������ ���� ������ ������%�,EPÂ5I IJV V V [V � � � .DNR�MH�V� YHüH�RG�VI QD�����SVLD��SD�X�NUDMQMHP�VWDQMX���LPDPR�SUHJUHMDQX�SDUX�DPRQLMDND�,]�WDEOLFD�]D�SUHJUHMQX�SDUX�DPRQLMDND�QD�SULWLVNX�RG�����SVLD�L�YUHGQRVW�HQWURSLMH�V� �������%�,EPÂ5��LPDPR�GD�MH�PLQLPDOQD�WHPSHUDWXUD������)�

���'D�OL�MH�PRJXüD�DGLMDEDWVND�HNVSDQ]LMD�YD]GXKD�VD����SVLD�L������)�QD����SVLD�L�����)"5HãHQMH�=D�VYH�PRJXüH�DGLMDEDWVNH�HNVSDQ]LMH�HQWURSLMD�üH�ELWL�X�SRUDVWX�LOL�X�JUDQLþQRP�VOXþDMX�üHRDVWDWL�NRQVWDQWQD�]D�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�DGLMDEDWVNH�HNVSDQ]LMH�

� � � � �� � � � �OQ OQSGK YG3 7 3V GV F 57 7 7 3§ · § ·' � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹³ ³ ³.DGD�]DPHQLPR�YUHGQRVWL�LPDPR�GD�MH�� �� �

��� ���� ��OQ OQ ���� OQ OQ ������%�,EPÂ5��� ��� ��S 7 3V F 57 3§ · § · § · § ·' � � � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹© ¹ © ¹

7

V

���

�5HYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNL

,UHYHU]LELOQLDGLMDEDWVNL

Page 78: index termodinamika.pdf

����.25,61,�,�1(.25,61,�'(/29,�35('$7(�723/27(2YDM�GHR�X�GRPüRM�OLWHUDWXUL�VH�QD]LYD�³GHJUDGDFLMRP´�WRSORWH�&LOM�RYH�VHNFLMH�MH�GD�RGJRYRUL�QD�GYD�SLWDQMD��3UYR�SRVPDWUDMPR�UH]HUYRDU�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�RG�����.�NRML�VDGUåL������N-�WRSORWH��$NR�MH�RUXåHQMH�DWPRVIHUD��NRMD�SUHWVWDYOMD�KODGQLMLHQHUJLMVNL�UH]HUYRDU��NRML�LPD�WHPSHUDWXUX�RG������.��SRVWDYOMD�VH�SLWDQMH�NROLNR�VH�RG�RYHNROLþLQH�WRSORWH�PRåH�GRELWL�UDGD�VD�QDSUDYDPD�NRMH�üH�UDGLWL�FLNOLþQR��2GJRYRULüHPR�QD�RYRSLWDQMH�GD�PDNVLPDODQ�UDG�VH�PRåH�GRELWL�DNR�VH�NRULVWH�QHNH�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQH�PDãLQHNRMH�LPDMX�QDMYHüL�VWHSHQ�LVNRULãWHQMD��&DUQRW��6WLUOLQJ��LOL�(ULFVVRQ���'UXJR�SLWDQMH�MH�DNR�MH�����N-�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�RG�����.�SUHEDþHQR�X�UH]HUYRDU�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�RG�����.��1DNRQRYRJ�SURFHVD�WRSORWD�MH�SURL]YHGHQD�D�WHPSHUDXUD�RNROLQH�MH�MRã�XYHN�����.��3LWDQMH�MHNROLNR�VH�PRåH�GRELWL�PDNVLPDOQR�UDGD�VD�FLNOLþQLP�PDãLQDPD�'RVWXSQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�GRGDWD�LOL�RGX]HWD�VLVWHPX�MH�RQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�NRMD�VH�PRåHSUHWYRULWL�X�UDG�VD�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQLP�PDãLQDPD�'HR�WRSORWH�NRML�MH�GRGDW�LOL�RGX]HW�VLVWHPX�L�NRML�VH�QHPRåH�SUHWYRULWL�X�UDG�þDN�QL�VSOMDãQMHUHYHU]LELOQLP�PDãLQDPD�QD]LYD�VH�QHGRVWXSQL�GHR�WRSORWH�'DNOH�XNXSQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�MH�

DY XQDY4 4 4 � ������.RULãüHQMHP�RYLK�GHILQLFLMD�PRåHPR�RGUHGLWL�GRVWXSQL�L�QHGRVWXSQL�GHR�WRSORWH�GRGDWH�LOLRGX]HWH�VLVWHPX�SUL�SURPHQL�REOLND�HQHUJLMH�SXWHP�MHGQH�LOL�YLãH�VSROMDãQMH�UHYHU]LELOQLKPDãLQD�NRMH�SUHGDMX�HQHUJLMX�RNUXåHQMX�NRMH�MH�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�7� D�]DWLP�RGUHGLWL�XNXSDQ�UDGGRELMHQ�RG�WLK�PDãLQD�LOL�WRSORWX�NRMD�MH�SUHGDWD�RNROLQL�=D�&DUQRW�RYX�PDãLQX�NRMD�SULPL�WRSORWX�4+ QD�7+ L�SUHGD�WRSORWX�QD�7���QLåD�WHPSHUDWXUDRNUXåHQMD��GRVWXSQL�L�QHGRVWXSQL�GHORYL�4+ VX�MHGQDNL�UDGX�NRML�MH�REDYOMHQ�L�SUHGDWRM�WRSORWL�7���MH�WHPSHUDWXUD�DWPRVIHUH��NRMX�QD]LYDPR�WHPSHUDWXURP�SRQRUD�$NR�MH�WRSORWD�SUHGDWD�VLVWHPXUHYHU]LELOQLP�SURFHVRP�NDNDY�MH�SURFHV�±��VOLND���PRåHPR�RGUHGLWL�GRVWXSDQ�LQHGRVWXSDQ�GHR�WRSORWH�DNR�]DPLVOLPR�GDMH�PDOL�GHOLü�WRSORWH�G4 GRGDW�XQXWDU&DUQRW�RYRJ�PRWRUD�QD�QHNRM�WHPSHUDWXUL7��7 YDULUD�L]PHÿX�7� L�7���DOL�VYDNL&DUQRW�RY�PRWRU�SULPL�WROLNR�PDOXNROLþLQX�WRSORWH�GD�RQ�SUDNWLþQR�UDGL�XNRQVWDQWQL�WHPSHUDWXUQLP�JUDQLFDPDL]PHÿX�7 L�7���'RVWXSQL�L�QHGRVWXSQL�GHRWRSORWH�MH�SUHWVWDYOMHQ�SRYUãLQDPD��7 ±�7���G6 L�7�G6 QD�VOLFL���

'RVWXSQL�L�QHGRVWXSQL�GHORYL�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�4 VX�VXPD�G4DY L�G4XQDY ]D�VYH�&DUQRW�RYHPRWRUH�

��

G6 7�G4 7 7 G6DY � �� �±� ��

G4 7 G6XQDY � �4XQDY

7

6

Page 79: index termodinamika.pdf

� �� � � ���� � � � � � ��� � ��� � � � � �� � �

XQDYDY XQDY

4 7 G6 7 6 6 7 64 7 7 G6 7G6 7 6 6 7G6 4�

� � '

� � � �³³ ³ ³ ������=DãWR��NDNR�L�RVWDOR�RVWDYOMDPR�]D�&+$37(5�7(1�1XPHULþND�LOXVWUDFLMD��3RVPDWUDMPR�WUDQVIHU�RG������N-�WRSORWH�RG�UH]HUYRDUD�QD������.�WRSORWD�VH�SUHGDMH���NJ�JDVD�NRML�MH�QD�����N3D�L�����.�L�QDOD]L�VH�X�]DWYRUHPRM�SRVXGL��1HNDMH�]D�JDV�FY �������N-�NJÂ.��1DMQLåD�WHPSHUDWXUD�RNROLQH�MH�����.��2GUHGLPR�NROLNR�MHGRVWXSQH��L�QHGRVWXRSQH�WRSORWH�SUHGDWR�JDVX�

1D�VOLFL�VX�SULND]DQL��]DMHGQR��7V GLMDJUDPL�UH]HUYRDUD�L�JDVD��NDNR�]D�VYDNL�VLVWHPH�SURFHVPRåH�ELWL�XQXWUDãQMH�UHYHU]LELODQ�SRYUãLQD�LVSRG�SXWDQMD��U±�U L��J±�J SUHWVWDYOMD�UD]PHQMHQXNROLþLQX�WRSORWH�L�SULWRP�MH�MHGQDND�]D�UH]HUYRDU�L�]D�JDV��MHU�X�VYDNRP�VOXþDMX�SRYUãLQDSUHWVWDYOMD������N-�WRSORWH��1DNRQ�ãWR�VPR�RGUHGLOL�WHPSHUDWXUX�7J���D�MHVPR�L�WRRYDNR�PHWRGRP��NDG�JRG�QH]QDã�ãWDüHã�XGUL�SR�SUYRP�]DNRQX��� � � �� � ��

� � ����� ������� ��� ���.� �����Y J J J

J

4 8 : 84 8 PF 7 7 77 ' � ' � ' � � � � �

������6DGD�PRåHPR�GD�QDÿHPR�'6J L�'6U�� � � �� � � ���

���OQ � ����� OQ ����N-�.������� �����N-�.����JYJ YUHY J

U UHY U

7PF G74 G86 PF7 7 7 74 46 7 7GG

' � � �' �

³ ³ ³³ ������3D�MH�

� �� �� �

� �

��� ���� ���N-���� ��� ���N-��� � ������ ���N-���� � ���� ���N-XQDY J JDY J XQY JXQDY U UDY U XQDY U

4 7 64 4 44 7 64 4 4 ' � � � ' � � � � � � � �

������3RVOHGQMH�GYH�YUHGQRVWL�VX�QHJDWLYQH�MHU�MH�WR�RGYHGHQD�NROLþLQD�WRSORWH�RG�UH]HUYRDUD��'DNOH�DNR�MH������N-�WRSORWH�SUHGDWR�RG�UH]HUYRDUD�QD������.�PRåH�VH�GRELWL�VDPR�����N-�UDGD�DNRNRQYHU]LMX�YUãL�QHND�UHYHU]LELOQD�PDãLQD��DOL�NDNR�JDV�DSVRUEXMH�WRSORWX�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�NRMDYDULUD�L]PHÿX�����.�L�����.��VDPR�����N-�PRåH�ELWL�SUHWYRUHQR�X�UDG�

�U�J�J

�U7

6

�����.

����.����.

4DY�U±����N-4DY�J����N-

4XQDY�U±����N- 4XQDY�J����N-�

Page 80: index termodinamika.pdf

3ULPHUL�6XYD�YRGHQD�SDUD�QD������03D�REDYOMD�UHYHU]LELOQX�L]RWHUPVNX�HNVSDQ]LMX�X�]DWYRUHQRVLVWHPX�VYH�GR�SULWLVND������03D��1DMQLåD�WHPSHUDWXUD�X�RNUXåHQMX�MH�±����&��2GUHGLWLGRVWXSDQ�GHR�SUHGDWH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�VYH�MH�SRWSXQR�LVWR�NDR�X�SULPHUX���VHNFLMD(17523,-$�.$2�.225',1$7$��

5HãHQMH�.DNR�MH�SURFHV�UHYHU]LELODQ� ��T 7GV ³ ������VRE]LURP�GD�VH�UDGL�R�]LRWHUPQRP�SURFHVX�� � � �� � ��� ������ ������ �����N-�NJÂ.T 7 V V � � � ������1HGRVWXSQL�GHR�RYH�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH�MH�GDW��NDR�L�XYHN�VD�TXQY �7�GV�� � � �� � � ��� ������ ������ ����N-�NJÂ.XQDYT 7 V V � � ������3D�MH�NRULVWDQ�GHR�NROLþLQH�WRSORWH� ����� ���� ����N-DY XQDYT T T � � ���������=DWYRUHQL�WHUPLþNL�L]RORYDQ�UH]HUYRDU�VDGUåL������NJ�YD]GXKD�QD�����N3D�L����&��VWDQMH����1DMQLåD�WHPSHUDWXUD�X�RNROLQL�MH���&��0HãDþ�NRML�SRJRQL�PRWRU�PHãD�YD]GXK�GRN�QH�GRVWLJQHWHPSHUDWXUX�RG����&��VWDQMH�����.ROLNR��QD�NUDMX�SURFHVD��GRGDWH�HQHUJLMH�PRåH�ELWLSUHWYRUHQR�X�UDG"

5HãHQMH�'D�EL�VH�UDG�SUHWYRULR�X�HQHUJLMX��HQHUJLMD�PRUD�ELWL�RGYHGHQD�RG�VLVWHPD��6YD�HQHUJLMD�NRMD�MHGRGDWD�VLVWHPX�SUHNR�PHãDþD�üH�ELWL�RGYHGHQD�RG�VLVWHPD�DNR�VH�XNORQL�L]RODFLMD�L�SULWRP�VH

����.7

V

� �����03D

����03D

TXQDY����.

� �� �

77�

6

3

94XQDY��±�

Page 81: index termodinamika.pdf

VLVWHP�YUDWL�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH������N3D�L���&���2YR�PRåH�ELWL�REDYOMHQR�XNODQMDQMHP�L]RODFLMHL�RGYRÿHQMHP�WRSORWH�RG�VLVWPD��7RSORWD�NRMD�VH�PRåH�RGYHVWL�RG�VLVWHPD�L�SUHWYRULWL�MH��

DY XQDYXQDY4 4 44 7 6 � ' ������7UHED�SULPHWLWL�GD�SURFHV�KODÿHQMD�WHþH�RG�VWDQMD���ND�VWDQMX����SD�MH�SULWRP�'8� �8��±�8��L'6� �6��±�6���,]�SUYRJ�]DNRQD��SRG�SUHWSRVWDYNRP�GD�VH�YD]GXK�SRQDãD�NDR�LGHDOQL�JDV�VDL]RKRUVNRP�VSHFLILþQRP�WRSORWRP�FY �������N-�NJÂ.��LPDPR�GD�MH�� � � �� � � � ���� ����� � �� ����N-Y4 8 8 PF 7 7 � � � � � � ������,QWHJUDFLMRP�7GV MHGQDþLQH�LPDPR�

� � � � �� � � � � � �� OQ �������� ����� OQ �����N-�.���

Y Y4 G8 3G9 G7 76 6 6 PF PF7 7 7 7 7G § ·' � � � �¨ ¸© ¹ � � �³ ³ ³ ³ ������

� �� ��� ����� ����N-���� ���� ��� N-XQDYDY XQDY

4 7 64 4 4 ' � � � � � � � ������2G������N-�GRYHGHQH�HQHUJLMH�VLVWHPX�X�YLGX�UDGD�VDPR�����N-�VH�PRåH�SRQRYR�SUHWYRULWL�XUDG�GRN������N-�HQHUJLMH�RGOD]L�X�QHSRYUDW����ýHWYUW�NLOH�YD]GXKD�X�]DWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�SUROD]L�NUR]�FLNOXV�VDVWDYOMHQ�RG�þHWLUL�SURFHVD�SURFHV �±��MH�L]HQWURSVND�NRPSUHVLMD�YD]GXKD�VD�����N3D�����&�QD�MHGQX�SHWLQX�SRþHWQH]DSUHPLQH��SURFHV �±��]DJUHYDQMH�QD�NRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�GR�WHPSHUDWXUH�7� ������&�SURFHV �±��MH�L]HQWURSVND�HNVSDQ]LMD�QD�SRþHWQX�]DSUHPLQX��L�SURFHV �±��MH�KODÿHQMH�QDNRQVWDQWQRM�]DSUHPLQL�GR�SRþHWQRJ�VWDQMD��1DMQLåD�WHPSHUDWXUD�X�RNUXåHQMX�MH���&�VSHFLILþQH�]DSUHPLQH�LPDMX�NRQVWDQWQH�YUHGQRVWL�QD���&��=D�FLNOXV�X�FHOLQL�QDSUDYLWL��ELODQVWUDQVIHUD�HQHUJLMH�L�GRVWXSQH�GHORYH�HQHUJLMH�WRJ�WUDQVIHUD�$QDOL]D�3UYR�VNLFLUDPR�39�L�76�GLMDJUDPH��$QDOL]RP�SUREOHPD�GROD]LPR�GR�]DNOMXþND�GD�PRUDPR]QDWL�WHPSHUDWXUH�GDWD�þHWLUL�VWDQMD��'YH�WHPSHUDWXUH�NRMH�VX�QDP�QHSR]QDWH�PRåHPR�GRELWL�L]MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD� � ���� ��� � � � � ���� �� �� � �� �

��� � ���.���� ���.�

97 7 99 97 7 79 9

N

N N

� �� � �

§ · � ¨ ¸© ¹§ · § · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹© ¹ © ¹������

.DNR�WRSORWD�X�RYRP�FLNOXVX�PRåH�ELWL�GRGDWD�VDPR�SUL�SURFHVLPD��±��L��±��QDSLãLPR�SUYL]DNRQ�]D�RYH�SURFHVH� � � � �� � � �� � � � � � � �� � � � � � � �

� ���� ����� ��� ��� ����N-� ���� ����� ��� ��� ����N-YY

4 8 8 : PF 7 74 8 8 : PF 7 7� �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ������

3D�MH�XNXSDQ�UDG�FLNOXVD�GDW�SUHNR�SUYRJ�]DNRQD�� � � � ���� ���� ����N-: : 4 4 4G G � � � � ³ ³v v ������2G�WRSORWH�NRMD�MH�GRGDWD�X�SURFHVX��±���NRULVQL�L�QHNRULVQL�GHR�MH�� � �� �� � � � � � � � �

���OQ ���� ����� ��� OQ ����N-���XQDY Y 74 7 6 7 6 6 PF 7 7� � ' � � � � ������

Page 82: index termodinamika.pdf

� �� � � � � ���� ���� ����N-DY4 4 4� � � � � ������3RãWR�VH�VLVWHP�YHüD�X�SRþHWQR�VWDQMH��6� ±�6��� ��6� ±�6����SD�MH�]DWR�QHNRULVQL�GHR�WRSORWHSURFHVD��±��MHGQDN�SR�DSVROXWQRM�YUHGQRVWL�QHNRULVQRP�GHOX�L]�SURFHVD��±��4�±��XQDY �4�±��XQDY��� �� � � � �� ���� � ����� ���N-DY XQDY4 4 4� � � � � � � � ������

����+(/0+2/7=��$��,�*,%%6��*��)81.&,-((QWDOSLMD�MH�ELOD�SUHWVWDYOMHQD�NDR�L]YHGHQD�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��L�GHILQLVDQD�MH�NDR�]ELU�8 L�39�0QRJH�GUXJH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�PRJX�ELWL�GHILQLVDQH�VORERGQLP�L]ERURP�NRPELQDFLMH�GUXJLKYHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��DOL�VDPR�MH�SDU�QMLK�NRULVQR��'YH�L]YHGHQD�NDUDNWHULVWLNH�VX�+HPKROW]�RYDIXQNFLMD�$��L�*LEEV�RYD�IXQNFLMD�*��NRMH�VX�GHILQLVDQH�NDR�$ 8 76 LOL D X 7V* + 76 LOL J K 7V{ � { �{ � { � ������'LIHUHQFLMDO�+HOPKROW]�RYH�IXQNFLMH�MH�G$ G8 7G6 6G7 � � ������NRML�]DPHQRP�7G6 �G8 ��3G9��SRVWDMH�G$ 3G9 6G7 � ������=D�L]RWHUPDOQL�SURFHV�MHGQDþLQD������� JODVL� �� � �G$ 3G9 LOL $ $ 3G9 � � ³ �������3UHPD�WRPH�VPDQMHQMH�$ MH�MHGQDNR�XNXSQRP�UDGX�NRML�VH�GRELMD�RG�VLVWHPD�NRML�REDYOMDL]RWHUPDOQL�UHYHU]LELOQL�SURFHV�3RVPDWUDMPR�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�NRML�X�SRþHWQRP�VWDQMX�LPD�LVWX�WHPSHUDWXUX�NDR�L�X�NUDMQMHP�LQHND�MH�WR�WHPSHUDWXUD�DWPRVIHUH�7� RNR�VLVWHPD�L�QHND�VLVWHP�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VDDWPRVIHURP��0RåH�ELWL�SRND]DQR�GD�MH�PDNVLPDOQD�WRSORWD�NRMD�VH�PRåH�SUHGDWL�VLVWHPX7��6� ±�6���SD�MH�WDGD�PDNVLPDODQ�UDG�VLVWHPD� � �� �PD[ � � PD[ � � � � �

� � � � � � � �: 8 8 4 8 8 7 6 68 7 6 8 7 6 $ $ � � � � � � � � � �������

]DNOMXþDN�MH��DNR�]DWYRUHQ�VLVWHP�SUROD]L�L]�MHGQRJ�VWDQMD�X�GUXJR�NRMH�MH�QD�LVWRM�WHPSHUDWXULSUL�þHPX�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VDPR�VD�RNROQRP�DWPRVIHURP�QD�WRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��7� �7� �7���PDNVLPDOQL�UDG�NRML�VH�PRåH�GRELWL�MH�MHGQDN�RSDGDQMX�$�VLVWHPD�'HR�UDGD�GRELMHPRJ�RG�VLVWHPD�PRåH�ELWL�YUDüHQ�X�DWPRVIHUX�SUL�HNVSDQ]LML�VLVWHPD��7DM�GHRUDGD�L]QRVL�3� �9� ±�9����JGH�MH�3� DWPRVIHUVNL�SULWLVDN�D�9� L�9� VX�SRþHWQD�L�NUDMQMD]DSUHPLQD�VLVWHPD��SD�MH�NRULVWDQ�UDG� � �NRULVWDQ � � �: : 3 9 9 � � �������SD�MH�PDNVLPDOQ�NRULVWDQ�UDG�VLVWHPD�NRML�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VDPR�VD�RNROLQRP�QDWHPSHUDWXUL�7�� � � � �� �PD[ NRULWDQ � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � �

: 8 8 7 6 6 3 9 98 39 7 6 8 39 7 6 � � � � � � � � � � �������L��DNR�MH�3� �3� �3� L�7� �7� �7� LPDPR�GD�MH�

Page 83: index termodinamika.pdf

� �PD[ NRULVWDQ � � � � � � � �: + 7 6 + 7 6 * * � � � � �������=DNOMXþDN��$NR�]DWYRUHQL�VLVWHP�SUROD]L�NUR]�GYD�VWDQMD��X�NRMLPD�MH�MHGQDN�SULWLVDN�LWHPSHUDWXUD�NDR�L�RNROQH�DWPRVIHUH��L�UD\PHQMXMXüL�WRSORWX�VDPR�VD�DWPRVIHURP��PDNVLPDOQLPRJXüL�UDG��WR�MH�UDG�REDYOMHQ�RG�VLVWHPD�UD]OLþLW�QHJR�UDG�REDYOMHQ�QD�DWPRVIHUL��SURL]YHGHQSUL�REDYOMDQMX�SURFHVD�MHGQDN�MH�SDGX�X�*�'LIHUHQFLMDO�*LEEV�RYH�IXQNFLMH�MH�G* G+ 7G6 6G7 9G3 6G7 � � � �������=D�SURFHV�SUL�NRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL� �� � �LOLG* 9G3 * * 9G3 � � �³ �������3UHPD�WRPH��SURPHQD�X�*�MH�MHGQDND�UDGX�REDYOMHQRP�X�RWYRUHQRP�VLVWHPX�SUL�VWDFLRQDUQRPVWUXMDQMX�WRNRP�REDYOMDQMD�UHYHU]LELOQRJ�L]RWHUPQRJ�SURFHVD�X�NRPH�MH�]DQHPDUHQD�SURPHQDNLQHWLþNH�L�SRWHQFLMDOQH�HQHUJLMH��2SãWLML�]DNOMXþDN�PRåH�ELWL�GRQHVHQ�DNR�SRVPDWUDPRRWYRUHQL�VLVWHP��6WHDG\�IORZ��X�NRPH�MH�]DQHPDUHQD�SURPHQD�NLQHWLþNH�L�SRWHQFLMDOQHHQHUJLMH�7� �7� 7���6LVWHP�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VDPR�VD�RNROQRP�DWPRVIHURP�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL7���0DNVLPDOQL�GRELMHQL�NRULVWDQ�UDG�MH� � �� �PD[ � � PD[ � � � � �

� � � � � � � �: + + 4 + + 7 6 6+ 7 6 + 7 6 * * � � � � � � � � � �������

=DNOMXþDN��DNR�VXSVWDQFD�GROD]L�L�QDSXãWD�VWHG\�IORZ�VLVWHP�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�RNROQH�DWPRVIHUHL�UD]PHQMXMH�WRSORWX�VDPR�VD�DWPRVIHURP��PDNVLPDOQL�UDG�NRML�PRåH�SULWRP�ELWL�SURL]YHGHQMHGQDN�MH�UD]OLFL�IXQNFLMD�*�

Page 84: index termodinamika.pdf

&+$37(5�1,1(),=,ý.(�.$5$.7(5,67,.(

����0$;:(//�RYD�-('1$ý,1$,]�VYHJD�SUHGKRGQRJ�]QDPR�GD�]D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�YDåL�GX 7GV 3GYGK 7GV YG3GD 3GY VG7GJ YG3 VG7

� � � � ������

.DNR�VX�X��K��D L�J YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�QMLKRYL�GLIHUHQFLMDOL�VX�GX��GK��GD L�GJ�7DNR�MH�V Y

7 7Y Vw w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����V 3

7 73 Vw w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����Y 7

3 V7 Yw w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����3 7

Y V7 3w w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����2YH�þHWLUL�MHGQDþLQH�VX�SR]QDWH�SRG�QD]LYRP�0D[ZHOO�RYH�MHGQDþLQH��2QH�VX�YDåQH�]DSRYH]LYDQMH�YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�MHU�RQH�GDMX�YH]X�L]PHÿX�HQWURSLMH�L�YHOLþLQDVWDQMD�NRMH�VH�PRJX�PHULWL�NDR�ãWR�VX�SULWLVDN��VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�L�WHPSHUDWXUD�0QRJH�GUXJH�UHODFLMH�PHÿX�YHOLþLQDPD�VWDQMD�PRJX�ELWL�L]YHGHQH�L]�MHGQDþLQD��������QDSULPHU�DNR�X]PHPR�MHGQDþLQH������ ����������L�DNR�NDåHPR�GD�MH�X IXQNFLMD�Y L�V��LPDüHPR�

Y VX XGX GV GYV Yw w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����XSRUHÿXMXüL�NRHILFLMHQWH��NRHILFLMHQWH�VPHPR�GD�L]MHGQDþLPR�XNROLNR�VX�RQL�X]�QH]DYLVQHSURPHQOMLYH��D�X�RYRP�VOXþDMX�MHVX´0DWKHPDWLFV´��X]�GV L�GY L]�MHGQDþLQH������ ����LPDPR�GDMH�

Y VX X7 L 3V Yw w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����$NR�SRGYUJQHPR�VOLþQRP�WUHWPDQX�L]UD]H�]D�GK��GD L�GJ GRELMDPR�

3 VK K7 YV 3w w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����7 Y

D D3 VY 7w w§ · § · � �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ �����7 3

J JY V3 7w w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ ������SRG�³VOLþQLP�WUHWPDQRP´�VH�SRGUD]XPHYD�GD�VYDND�]DYLVQR�SURPHQOMLYD�LPDPD�GUXJDþLMHQH]DYLVQH�SURPHQOMLYH�

Page 85: index termodinamika.pdf

0QRJH�GUXJH�YH]H�L]PHÿX�RVDP YHOLþLQD�VWDQMD��Y �3 �7��V��K��X��D��J��PRJX�VH�L]YHVWL�L]MHGQDþLQD������ GR��������1HNL�LQWHUHVDQWQL�]DNOMXþFL�VH�PRJX�GRQHWL�QD�RVQRYX�0D[ZHOO�RYH�MHGQDþLQH�L�MHGQDþLQD����� GR���������1D�SULPHU��L]�GUXGRJ�L]UD]D�X�MHGQDþLQL������ NRML�MH�V

K Y3w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������PRåHPR�]DNOMXþLWL��NDNR�MH�Y XYHN�SR]LWLYQR��X�ELOR�NDNYRP�L]HQWURSVNRP�SURFHVX�HQWDOSLMDRSDGD�DNR�SULWLVDN�RSDGD��7DNRÿH�MH�]D�L]HQWURSVNL�SURFHV�ELOR�NRJ�VLVWHPD�� �VDPRDNR MH FRQVWK YG3 V' ³ ������9DåQD�þLQMHQLFD�GD�VX�VYH�RYH�UDODFLMH�L]YHGHQH�QH]DYLVQR�RG�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�3RJOHGDMPR�MRã�MHGDQ�SULPHU�]DNOMXþLYDQMD�L]�0D[ZHOO�RYH�MHGQDþLQH�*XVWLQD�YRGH�QD�SULWLVNX�RG���DWP�MH�PDNVLPDOQD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�RNR���&��'UXJLP�UHþLPD�VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD�MH�PLQLPDOQD�X�WRM�WDþNL��SD�MH�VWRJD� �3

Y7w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ � ýHWYUWD�0D[ZHOO�RYDMHGQDþLQD��MHGQDþLQD���������SRND]XMH�GD�MH� �7

V3w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ ��2GQRVQR��QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�PDNVLPDOQHJXVWLQH�YRGH�HQWURSLMD�QH�]DYLVL�RG�SULWLVND��7R�]QDþL�GD�VH�L]REDUH��X�REODVWL�WHþQH�ID]H�QD7V±GLMDJUDPX�YRGH�X�EOL]LQL���DWP��PHÿXVREQR�SRNODSDMX�L�SUHOD]H�OLQLMX�]DVLüHQDM�QDWHPSHUDWXUL�RG���&��ãWR�MH�SULND]DQR�QD�VOLFL�;;/�

VOLND;;/7DþND�0 QD�VOLFL�ELOR�NRML�FRPSUHVVHG�WHþQX�ID]X�QD����N3D�LOL�PDãDYLQX�YRGH�L�YRGHQH�SDUHVD�PDOLP�VWHSHQRP�VXYRüH��YODåQD�SDUD�VD�[±PDOR��QD�QHNRP�SULWLVNX�NRML�MH�PDQML�QHJRSULWLVDN�]DVLüHQMD�QD�WHPSHUDWXUL�RG���&�3UYD�RG�MHGQDþLQD��������PRåH�ELWL�QDSLVDQD�NDR�Y Y

X 7 77 Vw w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ ������SR]LYDMXüL�VH�QDGHILQLFLMX�L]RKRUQH�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�FY LPDPR�GD�MH�Y Y

Y Y

7F 7V7 7V Fw§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹

������.DNR�MH�QDJLE�L]RKRUQLK�OLQLMD�X�7V±GLMDJUDPX�MHGQDN�7�FY ]D�VYH�RELþQH�VXSVWDQFH��2YR�MHELOR�SRND]DQR�X�MHGQRP�RG�SULPHUD�]D�LGHDOQL�JDV��VDGD�YLGLPR�GD�VPR�GR�LVWRJ�]DNOMXþNDGRãOL�EH]�XSRWUHEH�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�

7

V0

/LQLMD�]DVLFHQMD

3 ����N3D3 �����N3D��&

Page 86: index termodinamika.pdf

0D[ZHOO�RYH�MHGQDþLQH��YUOR�MHGQRVWDYQR��GRND]XMX�GD�VX�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�LGHDOQRJ�JDVDIXQNFLMH�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH��7UHüD�0D[ZHOO�RYD�MHGQDþLQD�MH�7 Y

V 3Y 7w w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹D�XSUDYR�VPR�SRND]DOL�GD�MH�Y

YFVY 7w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������

6YH�GRN�MH�V QHSUHNLGQD�IQNFLMD�WHPSHUDWXUH�7 L�VSHFLILþQH�]DSUHPLQH�Y��L�DNR�MHGLIHUHQFLMDELOQD��L]YRGL�VX�JODWNL��L�PHãRYWLW�þODQRYL�VX�MHGQDNL�Y 7 Y7

V VY 7 7 Yª º ª ºw w w w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸« » « »w w w w© ¹ © ¹¬ ¼¬ ¼ ������LOL � �V VY 7 7 Yw w w w w w ������=DPHQRP�MHGQDþLQH������ L������� X�MHGQDþLQX������� LPDPR�

��

YY7 Y

Y7 Y

F 3Y 7 7 7F 37Y 7ª ºª ºw w w§ · § · ¨ ¸¨ ¸ « »« »w w w© ¹© ¹¬ ¼ ¬ ¼§ ·w w§ · ¨ ¸¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹

������=D�LGHDOQL�JDV�MH�3Y �57 SD�MH� �

� �Y37§ ·w ¨ ¸w© ¹ ��SD�MH�SUHPD�WRPH�

�Y7

FYw§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������âWR�SRND]XMH�GD�MH�FY LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�IXQNFLMD�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH��WDNRÿH�QD�LVWL�QDþLQ�PRåH�VHSRND]DWL�GD�MH�WDNRÿH�L�FS LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�IXQNFLMD�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH�3RNDåLPR�NDNR�X]�SRPRü�0D[ZHOO�RYH�MHGQDþLQH�PRåHPR�L]UD]LWL�HQWURSLMX�SUHNR�GLUHNWQRPHUOMLYLK�YHOLþLQD�NDR�ãWR�VX�SULWLVDN��VSHFLILþQD�]DSUHPLQD��WHPSHUDWXUD�L�VSHFLILþQD�WRSORWD�=D�þLVWX�VXSVWDQFX�HQWURSLMD�MH�IXQNFLMD�ELOR�NRMH�GYH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD��3 L�Y��3 L�7��LOL�Y L�7��3RGYD�SDUFLMDOQD�L]YRGD�HQWURSLMH�V ]D�VYDNL�RG�WUL�SDUD�� � � � �Y 3 7 3 7 YV V V V V V3 Y 3 7 Y 7w w w w w w§ · § · § · § · § · § ·¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w w w w w© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹$NR�XVSHPR�GD�L]UD]LPR�VYDNL�RG�RYLK�L]YRGD�SUHNR�3��Y��7 LPDüHPR�SRWSXQX�LQIRUPDFLMX�RHQWURSLML���7UHüL�L�SHWL�L]YRG�PRJX�ELWL�L]YHGHQL�SUHNR�3Y7�SRGDWDND�L]�0D[ZHOO�RYLKMHGQDþLQD�

7 3 7 YV Y V 33 7 Y 7w w w w§ · § · § · § · � ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w w w© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹3RVOHGQML�L]YRG�VPR�L]YHOL�NDR�

YY

FV7 7w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹WDNRÿH�UHNOLVPR�GD�VH�QD�VOLþDQ�QDþLQ�SRND]XMH�GD�MH�

Page 87: index termodinamika.pdf

33

V F7 7w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹3UHRVWDOD�GYD�SDUFLMDOQD�L]YRGD�VH�PRJX�QDSLVDWL�NDR�Y

Y Y Y Y3

3 3 3 3

FV V 7 73 7 3 7 3V V 7 F 7Y 7 Y 7 Yw w w w§ · § · § · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w w w© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹w w w w§ · § · § · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w w w© ¹ © ¹ © ¹ © ¹'REROL�VPR�L]�0D[ZHOO�RYLK�MHGQDþLQD�NRPSOHQWQX�VOLNX�R�HQWURSLML�VXSVWDQFH�SUHNRSRGDWDND�3��Y��7��FY��FS�

����&/$3(<521�RYD�-('1$ý,1$.DR�SULPHU�XSRWUHEH�0D[ZHOO�RYLK�MHGQDþLQD�L]YHGLPR�&ODSH\URQ�RYX�MHGQDþLQX�NRMDSULND]XMH�SURPHQH�ID]H�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�=D�GYH�ID]H�þLVWH�VXSVWDQFH�NRMH�SRVWRMH�X�LVWRP�UDYQRWHåQRP�VWDQMX��SULWLVDN�L�WHPSHUDWXUD]DYLVH�VDPR�PHÿXVREQR��1D�RVQRYX�SUHGKRGQRJ�LPDPR�GD�MH��w3�wY�7 ����SD�WDNR�LPDPR�GDMH�WRWDOQL�GLIHUHQFLMDO�SULWLVND�3�7�Y��

Y 7G3 3 3 GYG7 7 Y G7w w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹LOL

YG3 3G7 7w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹1HND�VDGD�V¶ L�Y¶ SUHWVWDYOMDMX�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�MHGQD�ID]H��GRN�VX�V¶¶ L�Y¶¶ YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�QHNHGUXJH�ID]H��LPDüHPR�GD�MH�

7V V VY Y Ycc cw �§ · ¨ ¸ cc cw �© ¹.DNR�WUHüD�0D[ZHOO�RYD�MHGQDþLQD�JODVL�

Y 73 V7 Yw w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹LPDüHPR�GD�MH� G3 V VG7 Y Ycc c� cc c� ������ãWR�YDåL�]D�GYH�ID]H�QHNH�VXSVWDQFH�NRMH�SRVWRMH�X�MHGQRP�UDYQRWHåQRP�VWDQMX�-HGQDþLQD� 7GV GK YG3 �]D�VOXþDM�GD�LPDPR�GYH�ID]H�VXSVWDQFH��NRMD�MH�QD�NRQVWDQWQRP�SULWLVNX�L�QDUDYQR�QDNRQVWDQWQRM�WHPSHUDWXUL��ELüH�REOLND� � � � �7 V V K Kcc c cc c� � ������.DUDNWHULVWLND��K¶¶±�K¶���MH�ODWHQWQD�WRSORWD�ID]QH�WUDQVIRUPDFLMH�NRPELQRYDQMHP�MHGQDþLQD������ L������� GRELMDPR�GD�MH� � �G3 K KG7 7 Y Ycc c� cc c� ������

Page 88: index termodinamika.pdf

-HGQDþLQD������� MH�&ODSH\URQ�RYD�MHGQDþLQD��QMHQ�]QDþDM�MH�X�WRPH�MHU�SRYH]XMH�WUL�QDMþHãüHPHUHQH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQDM��QDJLE�OLQLMH�]DVLüHQMD�X�37±GLMDJUDPX�SULND]DQRP�QD�VOLFL;;/�ODWHQWQX�WRSORWX��L�SURPHQX�]DSUHPLQH�SUL�ID]QRM�WUDQVIRUPDFLML�

5DQLMH�MH�UHþHQR�GD�WHPSHUDWXUD�VPU]DYDQMD�YRGH�RSDGD�VD�SRUDVWRP�SULWLVND��7DNRÿH�VPRUHNOL�GD�MH�XRELþDMHQR�GD�YRGD�SUL�HNVSDQ]LML�PU]QH��6DGD�YLGLPR�GD�VX�RYH�GYH�NDUDNWHULVWLNHX�YH]L�VD�&ODSH\URQ�RYRP�MHGQDþLQRP��NRMD�]D�þYUVWX±WHþQX�ID]X�JODVL�� �I L LILII L

K K KG3G7 7Y7 Y Y� �.DNR�MH�KLI !���L�]D�YRGX�MH�YLI �����QDJLE�OLQLMH�IX]LMH�QD�ID]QRP��37��GLMDJUDPX�PRUD�ELWLQHJDWLYDQ�3ULPHUL���3RND]DWL�GD�OLQLMD�VXEOLPDFLMH�L�OLQLMD�LVSDUDYDQMD�QHPDMX�LVWL�QDJLE�X�WDþNL�WURVWUXNH�ID]H�QDID]QRP�GLMDJUDPX��37��]D�YRGX�5HãHQMH�7UHED�GD�GRNDåHPR�GD�VX�YUHGQRVWL�QDJLED��G3�G7��OLQLMD�E±D L�D±F UD]OLþLWL��ãWR�NRULVWHüL&ODSH\URQ�RYX�MHGQDþLQX�]D�WURVWUXNX�ID]X�PRåHPR�]DSLVDWL�NDR�

LJ IJE D D F LJ IJ

V VG3 G3G7 G7 Y Y� �§ · § ·� �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹8�WDþNL�WURVWUXNH�ID]H�LPDPR�GD�MH��VLJ �VLI ��VIJ��L�YLJ �YLI ��YIJ��SD�MH�UD]OLND�QDJLED�OLQLMD�� � � �� �� �

LI IJ IJ IJ LI IJE D D F IJ LI IJ

LI IJ IJ LIIJ LI IJ

V V Y V Y YG3 G3G7 G7 Y Y YV Y V YY Y Y� �

� � �§ · § ·� ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ �© ¹ © ¹ � �.DNR�MH�YLI SXQR�PDQMH�RG�YIJ��WDNRÿH�MH�L�VLI SXQR�PDQMH�RG�VIJ��]DQHPDUXMXüL�þODQRYH�YLãHJUHGD��LPDPR�LI

E D D F IJVG3 G3G7 G7 Y� �

§ · § ·� |¨ ¸ ¨ ¸© ¹ © ¹

3

77

FD

E

7HFQR

*DVRYLWR/LQLMD�VXEOLPDFLMH

/LQLMD LVSDUDYDQMD&YUVWR/LQ

LMDIX]LMH

Page 89: index termodinamika.pdf

2EH�YHOLþLQH�VWDQMD�QD�GHVQRM�VWUDQL�MHGQDNRVWL�VX�SR]LWLYQH��SD�VOHGL�L�GD�MH�UD]OLND�QD�OHYRMVWUDQL�MHGQDþLQH�SR]LWLYQD��LOL�QDJLE�OLQLMH�VXEOLPDFLMH�MH�YHüL�RG�QDJLED�OLQLMH�LVSDUDYDQDMD�XWDþNL�WURVWUXNH�ID]H�����23â7(�-('1$ý,1(�3520(1(�(17523,-(��81875$â1-(�(1(5*,-(�,(17$/3,-(�8�)81.&,-,�3��Y��7 ,�63(&,),ý1,+�723/27$(QWURSLMD�RELþQH�VXSVWDQFH�PRåH�ELWL�L]UDåHQD�NDR�IXQNFLMD�WHPSHUDWXUH�L�VSHFLILþQH]DSUHPLQH�SD�MH�

Y 7V VGV G7 GY7 Yw w§ · § · �¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹RG�UDQLMH�]QDPR�GD�MH�

YY

FV7 7w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������D�L]�WUHüH�0D[ZHOO�RYH�MHGQDþLQH�LPDPR�GD�MH�7 Y

V 3Y 7w w§ · § · ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸w w© ¹ © ¹ ������=DPHQMXMXüL�MHGQDþLQH������� L������ X�L]UD]�]D�HQWURSLMX�GRELMDPR�GD�MH�Y YG7 3GV F GY7 7w§ · � ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������1DVXSURW�RYRPH��PRåH�VH�SRND]DWL�GD�DNR�NUHQHPR�RG�SUHWSRVWDYNH�GD�MH�V �I�3�7���VOLþQDSURFHGXUD�QDV�GRYRGL�GR�L]UD]D�

S 3G7 YGV F G37 7w§ · � ¨ ¸w© ¹ ������-HGQDþLQH������� L������� VX�RSãWH�MHGQDþLQH�]D�SURPHQX�HQWURSLMH�RELþQH�VXSVWDQFH�

=D�ELOR�NRML�SURFHV�RELþQH�VXSVWDQFH�YDåL�GX 7GV 3GY � ������YLGLPR�GD�MH�RYGH�SUYL�]DNRQ�XPHãDR�SUVWH�=DPHQMXMXüL�MHGQDþLQX������� X������� LPDPR�GD�MH�Y Y

3GX F G7 7 3 GY7ª ºw§ · � �¨ ¸« »w© ¹¬ ¼ ������7DNRÿH�SURPHQD�HQWDOSLMH�PRåH�ELWL�LVND]DQD�L]UD]RP�GK 7GV YG3 � ������SD�DNR�]DPHQLPR������� X������� VOHGL�GD�MH�SURPHQD�HQWDOSLMH�

S 3YGK F G7 7 Y G37ª ºw§ · � �¨ ¸« »w© ¹¬ ¼ ������

-HGQDþLQH������� L������� VX�RSãWH�MHGQDþLQH�SURPHQH�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�L�HQWDOSLMH�]D�ELORNRMX�VXSVWDQFX�3ULPHUL����,]YHVWL�L]UD]D�]D�SURPHQX�HQWDOSLMH�QHNH�RELþQH�VXSVWDQFH�]D�NRMX�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�LGHDOQRJJDVD�

Page 90: index termodinamika.pdf

5HãHQMH�'LIHUHQFLMDO�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�MH�3

Y 57 3w§ · ¨ ¸w© ¹2SãWD�MHGQDþLQD�SURPHQH�HQWDOSLMH�MH�S 3

YGK F G7 7 Y G37ª ºw§ · � �¨ ¸« »w© ¹¬ ¼RGQRVQR� �S S57GK F G7 Y G3 F G73ª º � � �« »¬ ¼,QWHJUDYLMRP�GRELMDPR�SK F G7' ³DNR�SR]QDMHPR�YH]X�L]PHÿX�FS L�7 PRåHPR�L]UDþXQDWL�LQWHJUDO�

���,]YHVWL�L]UD]�]D�SURPHQX�XQWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH�JDVD�]D�NRML�YDåL�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD��57 D3 Y E Y ��5HãHQMH�'LIHUHQFLMDO�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�MH�

Y3 57 Y Ew§ · ¨ ¸w �© ¹NDGD�GRELMHQL�GLIHUHQFLMDO�]DPHQLPR�X�RSãWX�MHGQDþLQX�SURPHQH�XQXWUDãQMH�HQHUJLMH��LPDPRGD�MH�

� �Y YY Y

3GX F G7 7 3 GY757 57 D GYF G7 GY F G7 DY E Y E Y Yª ºw§ · � �¨ ¸« »w© ¹¬ ¼ª º � � � �« »� �¬ ¼QDNRQ�LQWHJUDFLMH�LPDPR�GD�MH�

� � � �� �YX X F G7 D Y Y§ ·� � �¨ ¸© ¹³

����'58*(�-('1$ý,1(�67$1-$/HWD�JRVSRGQMHJ������-�'�YDQ�GHU�:DDOV�SUH]HQWLUDR�MH�MHGQDþLQX�NRMD�NRPSHQ]XMHSUHWSRVWDYNH�NRMH�VX�QDþLQMHQH�SUL�L]YRÿHQMX�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�X�NLQHWLþNRMWHRULML�JDVRYD������=DSUHPLQD�VDPLK�PROHNXOD�MH�]DQHPDUOMLYD�X�SRUHÿHQMX�VD�]DSUHPLQRPNRMX�]DX]LPD�JDV������SULYODþQH�VLOH�PHÿX�PROHNXOLPD�VX�]DQHPDUOMLYD��-HGQDþLQD�VWDQMDJDVRYD�YHOLNH�JXVWLQH�QH�PRåH�ELWL�L]YHGHQD�QD�RVQRYX�RYLK�SUHWSRVWDYNL��VWRJD�MH�YDQ�GHU:DDOV�PRGLILNRYDR�MHGQDþLQX�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�XYRGHüL�NRQDþQX�YHOLþLQX�PROHNXOD�LSULYODþQH�VLOH�PHÿX�PROHNXOLPD��1MHJRYD�LGHMD�MH�ELOD�GD�VH�X�MHGQDþLQL�VWDQMD�LGHDOQRJ�JDVDXPHVWR�VSFLILþQH�]DSUHPLQH�XQHVH�]DSUHPLQD�SURVWRUD�PHÿX�PROHNXOLPD��$NR�MH�]DSUHPLQD

Page 91: index termodinamika.pdf

VDPLK�PROHNXOD�E WDGD�MH]DSUHPLQD�SURVWRUD�PHÿX�PROHNXOLPD��Y ±�E���.DNR�MH�E ]DSUHPLQDVDPLK�PROHNXOD�NDGD�VX�RQL�VDELMHQL�MHGDQ�GR�GUXJRJ��WR�MH�X�QHNRP�VPLVOX�VSHFLILþQD]DSUHPLQD�SR�YHOLþLQL�MHGQDND�VSHFLILþQRM�]DSUHPLQL�WHþQRVWL��0RGLILNRYDQD�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMDLGHDOQRJ�JDVD�MH�3�Y ±�E�� �57��9DQ�GHU�:DDOV�MH�GDOMH�SULPHWLR�GD�MH�SULWLVDN�UHDOQLK�JDVRYDPDQML�QHJR�SUWLVDN�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�QD�LVWRM�WHPSHUDWXUL�L�JLVWLQL�]ERJ�PHÿX�PROHNXOVNLK�VLOD��WRVPDQMHQMH�X�SULWLVNX�MH�SURSRUFLQDOQR�NYDGUDWX�JXVWLQH����Y����7DNR�GD�MH�YDQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYDMHGQDþLQD�X�PRODUQRM�IRUPL�X

1 15 7 D3 Y E Y �� ������LOL � �� 1 X1

D3 Y E 5 7Y§ ·� � ¨ ¸© ¹.RQVWDQWH�D L�E PRJX�ELWL�RGUHÿHQH�HNVSHULPHQWDOQLP�SXWHP��3RGDFL�VX�VD�PDOLP�UD]OLNDPDILWRYDQL�QD�UD]OLþLWLP�REODVWLPD�SULWLVND�L�WHPSHUDWXUH��VWRJD�MH�YDQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYD�MHGQDþLQDVDPR�DSURNVLPDFLMD�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD�]D�UHDOQH�JDVRYH�9DQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYD�MHGQDþLQD�GDMH�L]RWHUPH�X�3Y�GLMDJUDPX�NRMH�SULND]XMX�PDNVLPXP�LPLQLPXP��GUXJDþLMH�SRQDãDQMH�ELOR�NRJ�UHDOQRJ�JDVD��$NR�WHPSHUDWXUD�UDVWH��YUHGQRVW�Y1WHPSHUDWXUH�PDNVLPXPD�L�PLQLPXPD�VH�SULEOLåDYDMX�MHGQD�GUXJRM��QD�NUDMX�NDGD�VH�SRNORSHLPDPR�WDþNX�VD�WDQJHQWRP�NRMD�MH�OLQLMD�NRQVWDQWQRJ�SULWLVND�2YR�MH�NDUDNWHULVWLND�L]RWHUPHNDGD�SUROD]L�NUR]�NULWLþQR�VWDQMH�VXSVWDQFH��WDNR�GD�VH�YHOLþLQH�NULWLþQRJ�VWDQMD�PRJX�QD�RYDMQDþLQ�SRYH]DWL�VD�YDQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYLP�NRQVWDQWDPD� �� �� ��1F F F X

D DY E 3 7E 5 E 2YH�MHGQDþLQH�SRND]XMX�GD�NDGD�VX�SR]QDWH�NULWLþQD�WHPSHUDWXD�L�SULWLVDN�VXSVWDQFH��YDQ�GHU:DDOV�RYD�MHGQDþLQD�PRåH�ELWL�NRULãWHQD�NDR�DSURNVLPDFLMD�MHGQDþLQH�VWDQMD��9UHGQRVWL�D L�EGRELMHQH�L]�NULWLþQRJ�VWDQMD�PRåGD�QHüH�ELWL�WDþQH�DNR�SRVPDWUDQR�VWDQMH�QLMH�X�RNROLQLNULWLþQRJ�/HWD�JRVSRGQMHJ�������5HGOLFK�L�.ZHQJ�MHGQDþLQX�VWDQMD�VD�GYH�NRQVWDQWH�NRMD�MH�WDþQLMD�RGYDQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYH�MHGQDþLQH�QD�ãLUHP�RSVHJX�� � � � �� �X

1 1 15 7 D3 Y E Y Y E 7 �� � ������

�D L�E X�MHGQDþLQL�5HGOLFK±.ZRQJ�QLVX�LVWL�NDR�X�YDQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYRM�MHGQDþLQL���9UHGQRVWLRYH�GYH�HPSLULVNH�NRQVWDQWH�PRJX�ELWL�GRELMHQL�L]�SRGDWDND�R�NULWLþQRP�VWDQMX� �������� ������X F X FF F

5 7 5 7D L E3 3 .RHILFLMHQWL�X�RYLP�L]UD]LPD�VX�EH]GLPHQ]LMVNL�SD�PRJX�ELWL�NRULãWHQL�]D�ELOR�NRMH�MHGLQLFH�-Rã�MHGQD�GRVWD�NRULãWHQ�MHGQDþLQD�VWDQMD�SR]QDWD�SRG�QD]LYRP�%HDWWLH±%ULGJHPDQ�QRYDMHGQDþLQD�MH� � � � �� ��X 11 1

5 7 $3 Y %Y YH� � � ������JGH�MH�

Page 92: index termodinamika.pdf

��

�� 1

11

D$ $ YE% % YFY 7H

§ · �¨ ¸© ¹§ · �¨ ¸© ¹ 2YLK�SHW�NRQVWDQWL�VX�WDEHODUQH�YUHGQRVWL�3ULPHUL����2GUHGLWL�SULWLVDN�X�SRVXGL�þLMD�MH�]DSUHPLQD��������P� L�NRMD�VDGUåL������NJ�QLWURJHQD�QD�����&�X�VPLVOX���D��YDQ�GHU�:DDOV�RYRP�MHGQDþLQRP���E��5HGOLFK±.ZRQJ�RYRPMHGQDþLQRP�L��F��%HDWWLH±%ULGJHPDQ�RYRP�MHGQDþLQRP�

�����63(&,),ý1(�723/27(�5($/1,+�*$629$8�VHNFLML���SRHQWD�MH�ELOD�VX�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�LGHDOQRJ�JDVD�IXQNFLMH�VDPR�WHPSHUDWXUH�6SHFLILþQH�WHPSHUDWXUH�UHDOQRJ�JDVD�VX�IXQNFLMH�L�SULWLVND�L�WHPSHUDWXUH��.DNR�EL�QDXþLOL�NDGDMH�XWLFDM�SULWLVND�YHüL�SRVPDWUDMPR�VOLNX�;;/�QD�NRMRM�MH�SULND]DQ�K7�GLMDJUDP��2YDMGLMDJUDP�MH�FUWDQ�]D�YRGHQX�SDUX��DOL�]D�RSVWDOH�VXSVWDQFH�MH�VOLþDQ��.DNR�VPR�UHNOL�UDQLMH�GDMH�GHILQLFLMD�VSHFLILþQH�WRSORWH�FS�

S 3KF 7w§ ·{ ¨ ¸w© ¹WDNRÿH�VPR�YLGHOL�GD�MH�FS�QDJLE�L]REDUQLK�OLQLMD�X�K7�GLMDJUDPX��9LGLPR�GD�QD�GLMDJUDPX�XRNROLQL�NULWLþQRJ�VWDQMD�L]REDUH�QDJOR�PHQMDMX�QDJLE��WR�MH�MHU�VX�X�NULWLþQRP�VWDQMX�L]REDUHYHUWLNDOQH�X�K7�GLMDJUDPX��WM��FS MH�EHVNRQDþQR��7DNRÿH�FS LPD�GLVNRQWLQXLWHW�RNR�OLQLMH]DVLüHQMD��MHU�VH�L]REDUH�RNR�OLQLMH�]DVLüHQMD�QD�K7�GLMDJUDPX