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1. George W.Bush, UN General Assembly in New York City Address (Sept. 12,
2002), 38 WEEKLY COMP. PRES. DOC. 1529 (Sept. 16, 2002), (Sept. 12, 2002),
available at <[hereinafter Bush UN
Address(Sept.12,2002)].
2. SC Res. 1441(Nov.8,2002).
3. See SC Res.660 (Aug.2,1990).See also SC Res.661 (Aug. 6,1990) (establishing
oil embargo and sanctions regime against Iraq and Kuwait); SC Res. 662 ( Aug.9,1990)
( deciding etat
4. SC Res. 678 (Nov. 29,1990).
5. ld
6. SC Res . 687 (Apr. 3,1991).
7. Toward the end of the Gulf war, Iraq brutally suppressed kurdish insurrections in
Iraqi kurdistan, causing the flight of hundreds of thousands of civilians to Iran and
Turkey. In response, the Security Council adopted SC res.688 ( Apr.5,1991), which
condemned "the repression of the Iraqi civilian population" and found that the
consequences of such repression caused "a massive flow of refugees towards and across
international frontiers and cross... border- incursions" that threatened international
peace and security in the region. To aid the refugees who had fled northern Iraq, the
coalition established a no-fly zone prohibiting Iraqi military aircraft from flying north of
the 36 th parallal.Due to further repression of the civilian population in 1992, British,
French and U.S. coalition forces established an additional no-fly zone south of the 32 nd
parallel.
8. SC Res. 707 (Aug. 15,1991).
9. SC Res. 1060(June 12,1996).
10. SC Res. 1115 (June 21 ,1997).
11. SC Res.l137( Nov. l2, 1997).
12. SC Res. 1205( Nov.5,1998).
13. SC Res. 1284( Dec.17,1999).
\0\ ................................................................................................ Jl;: )~ ~' JL-.11~ J~
14. I have discussed the domestic legal authority for the war in Afghanistan
elsewhere. See Robert J. Delahunty & John C. Yoo, the president,s Constitutional
Authority to Conduct Military Operations Against Terrorist Organizations and the
Nations that Harbor or Support Them, 25 HARV. J.L. & PUB. POL,Y 487 (2002).
15. George W. Bush, State of the Union Address (Jan. 29,2002),38 WEEKLY
Comp. PRES. DOC.l25,135(Feb.4,2002), available at
< http:// www.whitehouse. gov/ news/ releases/2002/01/iraq/20020129-ll.html>.
16. Bush UN Address ( Sept.l2,2002),supra note I.
17. See SC Res. l441 , supra note 2. At I .
18. Id. At3.
19. ld. At5.
20. On february 28, 2003, UNMOVIC Chairman Dr. Hans Blix stated that the
declaration contained "little new significant information... relating to proscribed
weapons systems." Annex of the Twelfth Quarterly Report of the Executive Chairman
of the United Nations Monitoring, Verifcation and Inspection Commission in
accordance with paragraph 12 of Security Council resolution, para. 7, available at
<>.On
January 27, 2003, Dr. Blix stated that the Iraqi declaration did not contain "any
new evidence that would eliminate"the " many open disarmament issues." Update on
Inspection to the UN Security Council ( Jan.27,2003), at 3.0n march 7,2003, Dr. Blix
repeated his conclusion that, "It was a disappointment that Iraq,s declaration of 7
December did not bring new documentary evidence."Oral Introduction of the Twelfth
Quarterly Report ofUNMOVIC ,at 2.
21 . Iraq failed to provide access to all officals for interview by inspectors;
intimdated witnesses with threats; undertook massive efforts to deceive and defeat
inspectors, including cleanup and transshipment activities at nearly thirty sites; failed to
provide numerous documents requested by UNMOVIC ; failed to list any WMD
personnel beyond a period ending in 1991 or to include many of those identified
previously by UNSCOM ; and failed to account for seventeen empty chemical warheads
subsequently discovered by weapons inspectors,as well as over 2000pages of Iraq
documents regarding past uranium enrichment programs. The Bush administration,
,,. . ................................................................................................................. j,-.~lfloll"~~
more detailed description of Iraq,s refusal to comply with relevant Security Council
resolutions can be found in 149 CONG. REC. H1957-60(daiy ed. Mar. 19,2003)
(Report in Connection with Presidential Determination Under Public Law 107-243).
22. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell Addresses U.N. Security (Feb. 5, 2003) ,
available at http://www. whitehouse. gov/news/releases/2003/02/20030205-1 .htm.
23 . The Security Council: 27 January 2003:an update on inspection (as delivered)
by Executive Chairman of UNMOVIC Dr. Hans Blix, available at <
http://www.unmovic. org>.
24. See SC Res. 678,supra note 2, para.2.
25. See, e.g., SC Res.l031 (Dec.15,1995), at 3(Bosnia) (deciding that"the authority
to take certain measures conferred upon States by [various UN Security Council
resolutions) shall be terminated") ; SC Res.954(Nov.4,1994),at 3 (extending the
mandate for the U.N. Mission in Somalia (UNOSOM ?) for a "final period" until March
31 ,1995); SC Res.929(June22,1994),at 2(Rwanda ) ( specifying that "that mission of
Member States cooperating with the Secretary-General will be limited to a period of
two months following the adoption of present resolution, "if not earlier).
26. See, e.g., SC Res. 1031, supra note 25; SC Res.954,supra note 25.
27. See SC Res .940(July 31,1994) (Haiti) (deciding "that the multinational force
will terminate its mission . . . when a secure and atable environment has been
established. .. [as determined)by the Security Council, taking into account
recommendations from the Member States of the multinational force").
28. See SC Res.1441 ,supra note 2, para. 2.
29. Id., para. 1.
30. Id., para. 4.
31. Id., para. 13.
32. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 60(2)(b), opened for
signature May 23,1969,1155 UNTS 331[ hereinafter " Vienna Convention"). the United
States has engaged in the practice of suspending treaties or international agreements in
response to a material breach.
33. See id., Art.60(2)( c).
34. See SC Res.687,supra note 6, para.33
"' ................................................................................................ Jl,t= ;.:. ~' J.Lo.lf~ J,-..
35. See,e.g., Bush UN Address (Sept.l2,2002),supra note 1. Immediately after the
cease-flre,Iraq refused to coopreate with UNSCOM and the IAEA.On August
15,1991 ,after the adoption of SC Res.687 ,the Security Council stated thatlraq,s "serious
violation" of its disarmament obligations "constitutes a material breach of the relevant
provisions of [SC Res.687]which established a cease-frre and provided the conditions
essential to the restoration of peace and security in the region." SC Res.707,supra note
8. Over the next two years, the president of the Security Council issued six different
ststements reiterating that Iraq,s refusal to cooperate with UNSCOM and the IAEA
qualified as material breaches of SC Res.687. See the following: Note by the president
of the Security Council, UN Doc.S/25970(June 18, 1993); UN Doc.S/25091 (Jan. 11 ,
1993); UN Doc. S/25081 (Jan.8,1993); UN Doc. S/24240 (July 6,1992); UN Doc.
S./23663 (Feb.28,1992); UN Doc S/23609 (Feb.19,1992).
36. See Ruth Wedgwood,The Enforcement of Security Council Resolution 687:The
Threat of Force Against Iraq,s Weapons of Mass Destruction,92 AJIL
756,(1998)[hereinafter"Wedgwood"];cf. Vienna Convention, Art.60,supra note 32 (one
party may suspend a multiateral treaty with respect to itself).
37. See Wedgwood,supra note 36, at 726(Iraq,s of terms of the cease- fire in 1997-
1998"allowed the United States to deem the cease-fire in suspension and to resume
military operations to enforce its conditions").
38. Regulations annexed to the Hague Convention on the Law and Customs of War
on Land, Oct. 18, 1907, Art.36,36 Stat. 2277,2305[hereinafter "Hague Regulations"].
See also YORAM DINSTEIN,WAR, AGGRESSION AND SELF-DEFENCE 50(3d
ed.2001) ("A labelling of Resolution 687 as 'permanent cease-fire's is a contradiction in
terms:a cease- fire, by defmition, is a transition-period
[hereinafter"Dinstein").
arrangement.")
39. Hague Regulations, Art.40,supra note 38;see also U.S. Army Field Manual 493,
available at <(hostilities may be resumed only with "convincing proof of intentional and
serious violation of [the armistice's]terms by the other party"). The Hague Regulations
do not contain any explanation of what might qualify as ''urgency,"but the Department
of the Army's Field Manual sheds some light on the question. According to the Army
Field Manua, warning must be given to the other side, unless "the delay incident to
,,,. .................................................................................................................. j~ 15 ... 11"~,)
formal denunciation and warning seems likely to give the violator a substantial
advantage of any kind." Army Field Manual? 439;cf.See also 2 L.OPPENHEIM,
INTERNATIONAL LAW, A TREATISE; DISPUTES, WAR, AND NEUTRALITY
556 ( H. Lauterpacht ed., 7 th ed. 1952) (" since the terms 'serious violation' and
'urgency' lack precise defmition, the course to be taken is in practice left to the
discretion of the injured party'') [hereinafter "Oppenheim, Vol. 2"]. In addition to
permitting the resumption of hostilities in response to a serious violation of an
armistice, the laws of armed conflict permit the United States to resume hostilities at its
discretion- provided that warning is given to Iraq.Hague Regulations, Art. 36. If the
parties have not made any sitpulation regarding notice, it may be provided at any time,
and hostilities may recommence immediately after notification, See Army Field
Manual ? 487; Oppenheim, Vpl. 2, supra at 556; see also Howard S. Livie, The Nature
and Scope of the Armistice Agreement, 50 AJIL 880,893 (1956) ( although armistices
generally do specify the period of advance notice required, under customary
international law, "good faith requires that notice be given of the intenion to resume
hostilities") (internal quotations and citations omitted).
40. Dinstein, supra note 38, at 50-51. Whether or not required under international
law, warnings were given. See generally UN Doc. S/25091, supra note 35; UN
Doc.S/25081, supra note 35; Letter to Congressional Leaders Reporting on Iraq' s
Compliance With United Nations Security Council Resolutions (Jan 19, 1993), 2 PUB.
PAPERS of GEORGE BUSH 2269-70 (1993) [hereinafter "Bush Letter, Jan. 19,
1994"]; President's Radio Address (Dec. 19, 1998), 2 PUB. PAPERS of WILLIAM J.
CLINTON 2197 (1998) [hereinafter "Clinton Papers (1998)"].
41 . As noted, thd Hague Regulations provide either that Iraq must be warned or that
such a warning may be avoided because it would be likely to give Saddam Hussein a
substantial advantage. There is good argument that Iraq was warned of a resumption of
hostilities by SC Res. 1441. SC Res. 1441 cautions that Iraq's continued violation of its
international obligations will result in "serious has followed warmings by the Security
Council that Iraq's continued intransigence would result in serious consequences. On
January 8 and 11, 1993, the president of the Security Council warned Iraq that "serious
'"" ................................................................................................ Jlt= J.:J ~' J.Lo.lf~ J,a>
consequences" would follow if it failed to comply with its international obligations. See
UN Doc. S/25091, supra note 35; UN Doc. S/25081, supra note 35.
42. See, e.g., Letter to Congressional Leaders Reporting on Iraq's Compliance With
United Nations Security Council Resolutions (Sept. 16, 1991 ), 2 PUB. PAPERS of
GEORGE BUSH 1164-65 ( 1991) (explaining - after the adoption of SC Res. 687- that
thd United States was silling to take military action to implement SC Res. 678's call for
the restoration of international peace and security to the region); Legal Authority for the
Possible Use of Force Against Iraq, 92 ASIL PROC. 136, 142 [material] breaches
regardless of whether there is further [Security Council] authorization to respond.")
(Michael Matheson, Principal Deputy Legal Adviser, Department of State). SC Res. 687
itself explicitly reaffirmed SC Res. 678, as did UN Securitly Council resolutions 686
and 949. See SC Res. 949 (Oct. 15, 1994); SC Res. 686 (Mar. 2, 1991).
43. Barton Gellman & Ann Devroy, Military Action Against Iraq Signaled by
Administration, WASH. POST, Jan. 14, 1993, at AI (quoting President Bush); see also
Statement by Marlin Fitzwater. Government of Iraq should understand that continued
defiance of U.N. Security Council resolutions and related coalition demarches will no
be tolerated.")
44. See Bush Letter, Jan. 19, 1993, supra note 40.
45. See Letter to Congressional Leaders on the Military Strikes Against Irac
(Dec. 18, 1998), supra note 40, in Clinton Papers, supra note 40, at 2195 ( 1998).
46. Id. At 2195 - 96.
4 7. See UN Security Council Press Release, Security Council Meets to Discus
Military Strikes Against Iraq; Some Members Challenge Use of Force Without Counci
Consent (Dec. 16, 1998), UN Doc. SC/6611, at 1-2, 7. International support forth
1998 airstrikes was reflected by the offers of Argentina, Australia, Canada, the Czec
Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal
Spain, and thd United Kingdom to contribute facilities, equipment or forces to the U.S
military effort, and of Kuwait for the use of its airfacilities. Although Britain and Japru
spoke in favor of the strikes, the Russian Federation labeled them as ''violat [ing] th
principles of international law and the principle of the [UN] Charter." ld. At 4. Of th
Security Council members at the time, China, Costa Rica, Sweden, Brazil, Gambia
1"\1 .................................................................................................................. ..Jp 1,$~1t'.~!.l
Kenya, and Gabon also spoke against the 1998 strikes - some preferring the peaceful
settlement of disputes and criticizing the unilateral use of force. I d. At 5-l 0.
49. See, e.g., IAN BROWNLIE, INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE USE
OF FORCE BY STATES 275-80 (1963); LOUIS HENKIN, HOW NATIONS
BEHAVE: LAW AND FOREIGN POLICY 141 (2d ed. 1979).
50. See Myres S. McDougal, The Soviet - Cuban Quarantine and Self -
Defense, 57 AJIL 597, 599 (1963) ("There is not the slightest evidence that the framers
of the United Nations Charter, by inserting one provision which expressly reserves a
right of self- defense, had the intent of imposing by this provision new limitations upon
the traditional right of states."); Oscar Schachter, The Right of States to Use Armed
Force, 82 MICH. L. REV. 1620, 1634-35 (1984); Abraham D. Sofaer, International
Law and Kosove, 36 STAN. J. INT'LL. 1, 16 (2000); THOMAS M. FRANCK,
RECOURSE TO FORCE: STATE ACTION ABAINST THREATS AND MARMED
ATTACKS 97-9 (2002); see generally CHRISTINE GRAY, INTERNATIONAL LAW
AND THE USE OF FORCE 84-119 (2000).
51. Memorandum for the Attorney General, from Norbert A. Schlei, Assistant
Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, Re: Legality under International Law of
Remedial Action Against Use of Cuba as a Missile Base by the Soviet Union (Aug. 30,
1962), at 2, reprinted in 6 Green Bag 2d 195, 196 (2003).
52. Letter from Daniel Webster, U.S. Secretary of State, to Henry Fox, British
Minister in Washington, Apr. 24, 1841, reprinted in BRITISH AND FOREIGN STATE
PAPERS 1840-1841, VOL. XXIX 1138 (1857).
53. See Letter from Lord Ashburton to Daniel Webster, U.S. Secretary of
State, July 28, 1842, reprinted in BRITSH AND FOREIGN STATE PAPERS 1841-
1842, VOL. XXX 189-192 (1858), also available at<
54. See International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg)- Judgment and Sentences,
41 AJIL 172, 205 ( 194 7) ("preventive action in foreign territory is justified only in case
of ' an instant and overwhelming necessity for self - defense, leaving no choice of
means, and no moment fo rdeliberation'") (quoting the caroline case); see also D.W.
BOWETT, SELF - DEFENCE IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 142-43 ( 1958).
11o ................................................................................................ JI.J= J,) ~' JLo.ll~ J,a.>
55. See Dinstein, supra note 38, at 208-12, 219-20; see also McDougal, supra
note 50, at 597-8.
56. See WEBSTER'S THIRD NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY
(9nabridged) 1130 (1993).
57. See Case Concerning the Gab ikovo- Nagymaros Project (Hungary/
Slovakia), 1997 ICJ REP. 7 (Sept. 25).
58. See Legality of the Threat or Use ofNuclear Weapons (Advisory Opinion),
1996 ICJ REP. 95, at 36 (July 8).
59. See Proclamation 3504: Interdiction of the Delivery of Offensive Weapo
to Cuba (Oct. 23, 1962), PUB. PAPERS OF JOHN F. KENNEDY 809, 810 (1962)·
White House Statement on Soviet Proposals Relating to International Security (Oct, 27
1962), id., at 813.
60. See Radio and Television Report to the American People on the Sovie
Arms Buildup in Cuba (Oct. 21 , 1962), id. At 806-07. It should be noted that while th
Department of Justice may have believed the quarantine to be a lawful exercise of self
defense, the official justification offered diplomatically relied upon authorization by th
Organization of American States.
61. See Letter to the Speaker of the House of Representaives and the Presiden
Pro Tempore of the Senate on the United States Air Strike Against Libya (Apr. 16
1986), PUB. PAPERS OF RONALS REAGAN 478 (1986).
62. See UN Doc. S/PV. 2682 (Apr. 21, 1986).
63. See Letter to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the Presiden
Pro Tempore of the Senate on the United States Military Action in Panama (Dec. 21
1989), 2 PUB. PAPERS OF GEORGE BUSH 1734 (1989) (''The deployment ofU.S
Forces in an exercise of the right of self - defense revognized in Article 51 of th
United Nations Charter and was necessary to protect American lives in imminent dange
... ")
64. UN Doc. S/21048 (Dec. 22, 1989); UN Doc. S/PV. 2902 (Dec. 23, 1989).
65. See Letter to Congressional Leaders Reporting on Military Action Agains
Terroist Sites in Afghanistan and Sudan (Aug. 21 , 1998), in Clinton Papers, supra not
40, at 1964 (1998) (''These strikes were a necessary and proportionate response to th
1'1'1 ........................................ .......................................................................... j~I.S~II"~~
imminent threat of further terrorist attacks against U.S. personnel and facilities. These
strikes were intended to prevent and deter additional attacks by a clearly identified
terrorist threat.").
66. See Letter to Congressional Leaders on the Strike on Iraqi Headquarters
(June 28, 1993), 1 PUB. PAPERS OF Wll..LIAM J. CLINTON 940 (1993).
67. See Address to the Nation on the Strike on Iraqi Intelligence (June 26,
1993), id. At 938 (1993). Similarly, the January 17, 1993, strike on a nuclear facility in
Baghdad, while primarily designed to encourage Iraq to comply with its obligations
under UN Security Council resolutions, was undertaken in part to prevent the facility
from being used again to support Iraq' s nuclear weapons program. See Bush Letter, Jan.
19, 1993, supra note 40, at 2269-70.
68. See SC Res. 487 (June 19, 1981) (unanimously "condemn[ing]" the Israeli
strikes as a "clear violation of the Charter of the United Nations and the norms of
international conduct.").
69. George W. Bush, Commencement Address at the United States Military
Academy in West Point (June 1, 2002), 38 WEEKLY COMP. PRES. DOC. 944, 946
(June 10, 2002), available at
http://www. whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/06/2002060 1-3 .htrnl.
•visiting Fellow, American Enterprise Institute; Professor of Law, University of
California at Berkeley (Boalt Hall) School of Law; Deputy Assistant Attorney General,
Office of Legal Counsel, U.S. Department of Justice, 2001-2002. I thank Robert
Delahunty, Jack Goldsmith, and Caroline Krass for their helpful advice, and Gene
Hosey for his assistance. The views expressed here are those of the author alone.
