K A P A K K O N U S U - HUKUK İNGİLİZCESİ...agreement, a hire purchase agreement, a hire contract, or a service contract, etc. The principles of contract law will determine whether

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Sözleşmeler - 1KAPAK KONUSU

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HUKUK JARGONUNDAN ÖZEL BİR

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Kapak Konusu - Sözleşmeler 1

Forming a contract 1

A. Basic principles The basic principles of contract law in the legal system arise from established custom and rules and are fundamental to all areas of law in practice. Reference is made to these principles in drafting and interpreting the provisions of any legal agreement, such as a lease, a loan agreement, a sales agreement, a consultancy agreement, a hire purchase agreement, a hire contract, or a service contract, etc. The principles of contract law will determine whether and at what point a binding agreement has been made between the parties concerned.

Note: The words contract and agreement are interchangeable in the examples above. For example, a loan agreement / loan contract.

B. Formation of a contract Formation of a contract requires the presence of four essential elements: 1. Offer The contract must contain the basic terms of the agreement and be capable of acceptance without further negotiation. This does not mean that the initial communication between parties will in itself constitute an offer. For example, in an auction situation, the seller, known as the vendor, may make an invitation to treat - invite an offer - by setting out the conditions of sale (for example when payment will be made) with the exception of the price. The offer is submitted by the purchaser, who offers to purchase at a specified price and will usually incorporate the terms of the invitation to treat into his/her offer. 2. Acceptance There must be an unqualified agreement to proceed on the basis set out in the offer and it must be communicated to the offeror - the person making the offer - in order to be effective. If the offeree - the person receiving the offer - states that he or she accepts the offer subject to contract, that is, some variation of the

terms, then no contract is formed. This would be a qualified acceptance, which constitutes a counter offer. Issues may arise as to whether the acceptance has been communicated. Two rules determine this:

> The reception rule applies to instantaneous forms of communication, for example telephone calls. The contract is said to be formed when the acceptance is received by the offeror. > The postal acceptance rule, where there is a delay between the communication being sent and received, for example by post. The contract is formed when the acceptance is sent by the offeree.

To avoid uncertainty, the offeror may specify the method and timing of acceptance. Agreement on essential terms, for example price and delivery, must be certain and not vague. 3. Consideration For a contract to be enforceable something of value must be given, for example a price, even if it is of nominal value, say £1. 4. Intention It is assumed that contracting parties intend to create legal relations, particularly in commercial circumstances. This is, however, a rebuttal presumption - an assumption that can be contradicted - if there is contrary evidence.⚖

hi ! Hukuk İngilizcesi ve Kültürü Dergisi 1


Forming a contract 2

A. Form of contract

A binding contract must be:

> in the form required by the law; > between parties with the capacity to contract - that is, legally capable to contract - or made by agents or representatives of the contracting parties with the authority to act.

It should be: > enforceable in the event that one of the contracting parties fails to perform the contract.

It may be:

> made in writing; > made orally; > implied from conduct, that is, by the behaviour of the contracting parties.

However, the law does require that some agreements are made in writing. This is usually because registration is required for the agreement to be effective and the relevant registry requires a written agreement. Examples of agreements to be made in writing include:

> contracts for the sale of land; > contracts of guarantee; > contracts for transfer of shares; > contracts which must be made by deed, for example a lease for more than three years.

A simple contract requires consideration - the price in exchange for a promise to do something - and becomes effective on execution, generally when it is signed. In contrast, a contract by deed does not require consideration. A deed has different formal execution requirements depending on the contracting parties. For example, a deed may need to be affixed with a seal - a printed company stamp - if one party is a limited company. Common law requires that a deed is delivered. This determines the date from which the parties are bound. It must be clear on the face of a deed that it is executed by the parties as a deed. Deeds may contain standard wording about execution, for example:

This document is executed as a deed and is delivered and has effect at the date written at the beginning of it.

B. Void or voidable or unenforceable contracts Sometimes a contract may be defective and may consequently be void or voidable or unenforceable. A contract may be void - that is, no contract exists - if one, or both, of the parties is not recognised in law as having legal capacity to consent to a contract, for example minors - young people under 18 - or persons with certified mental incapacity. A contract is voidable, that is, it may be avoided, or cancelled, by one of the parties if there is some defect in its formation. For example, if the contract for the sale of land is not in writing, the parties can either ignore the defect and treat the contract as fully binding, or one of the parties can use the defect as a means for setting the contract aside. Some contracts may be neither void nor voidable but cannot be enforced in a court of law, for example payment of a gambling debt. Lapse of time may render a contract unenforceable. The limitation period for a legal action brought under a deed is usually 12 years from the date of occurrence of the cause of action. An action on a simple contract is barred from being raised after six years.⚖



Express and implied terms

A. Express terms

Express terms are set out and stipulated expressly in the contract. For example:

The Seller will within a period of 6 months from the date of delivery of Goods, where Goods which are proved to the reasonable satisfaction of both parties to be damaged or defective or not to comply with the agreed specification due to defects in materials or workmanship or to faulty design, repair, or at its sole discretion replace, such Goods, subject to the following conditions:

A condition is an essential term of the contract. If a condition is not performed, it may constitute a substantial breach of contract and allow the other party to repudiate the contract, that is, treat the contract as discharged or terminated. It may also give rise to a claim for damages. If all the conditions are performed, the contract is performed. A warranty is a term which is secondary to the main purpose of the contract. A breach of warranty does not in itself permit the other party to treat the contract as discharged, although it may allow the party to sue for damages in the event that loss is suffered. When deciding whether a party is entitled to repudiate a contract, courts may try to determine the intentions of the parties with regard to the terms. For example, the courts might look at the commercial importance of a term in relation to a particular trade, and examine the seriousness of the consequences of a breach. If statements made by parties before a contract is made are not intended to be legally binding, for example the stated age of an object offered for sale, they are usually known as representations. If a representation later turns out to be false, this cannot give rise to breach of contract but instead to a possible action for misrepresentation.

B. Implied terms

Implied terms are not made express within the contract but may be implied into the contract in the following ways:

> by custom - a term can only be implied into a contract by custom if there is no express term to the contrary. These may be terms which are customary in the market in which the contract is made or have been in previous dealings between the parties. > by statute - various statutes imply terms into different specific contracts. For example, the condition that employment contracts will be automatically transferred is implied under statute in the contract for the sale of a business. In a sale of goods contract there are implied conditions that the seller has the right to sell, that the goods correspond with the description, are reasonably fit for the purpose, and are of satisfactory quality. A contract for the lease of a furnished flat automatically contains a specific implied term that the flat be reasonably fit for habitation. >by law - by the intention of the parties, if it is a term which is necessary to make the contract work.⚖



Exclusion, limitation and standard clauses

A. Exclusion and limitation clauses

Commercial contracts may seek to exclude liability for specific categories of damage and to limit liability for breach of contract. For example:

10.2.5 The Company will be under no liability for any defect arising or introduced by a Buyer in the course of storage or handling of the products where that Buyer acts as agent or distributor of the Company's products. 10.3 The Company shall not be liable whatsoever for any consequential or indirect loss suffered by the Buyer whether this loss arises from breach of duty in contract or tort or in any other way (including loss arising from the Company's negligence). Non-exhaustive illustrations of consequential or indirect loss would be: loss of profits; loss of contracts; loss of goodwill; damage to property of the Buyer or anyone else, and personal injury to the Buyer or anyone else (except so far as such injury is attributable to the Company's negligence).

Parties assume that the terms of an exclusion clause will be binding if they are contained within a signed written contract. However, legislation imposes limits on the use of unfair contract terms. One of the two parties may have greater bargaining power than the other or may try to bring conditions into the contract whose significance is not realised by the other party. Disputes arise around clauses which purport to, that is, intend to, limit or exclude obligations attaching to parties to the contract. Courts are generally called upon to construe, or interpret, the meaning of such clauses.

Note: damage - harm done to objects and property; damages - money claimed in compensation for harm done; non-exhaustive illustrations - an incomplete list of examples B. Standard clauses

Standard clauses, also known as boilerplate clauses, are generally towards the end of most agreements and frequently include the following:

> A force majeure clause, which aims to release parties from liability for named risks outside their reasonable control. Non-exhaustive examples are: acts of God, fire, flood, earthquake, war, riot, explosion, breakdown of machinery, strikes, and lockouts.

> A time of the essence clause, which makes it clear whether or not the time limits contained in a contract are essential conditions. An assignment clause, which sets out the parties' rights to transfer or assign contractual rights to third parties and any need for prior written consent.

> A severance clause, which provides that the other parts of an agreement continue to be in force in the event that some of the provisions are held illegal or unenforceable.

> A choice of governing law and jurisdiction clause, which specifies the jurisdiction and law which will govern and construe the contract in the event of a dispute.

> A language clause, which specifies the language which will prevail if the contract is translated.⚖



Exercises for Contracts

A. Contracts 1. accepted 2. agreement 3. breach 4. consideration 5. contractual liability 6. damages 7. express 8. implied 9. intention 10. obligations

11. offer 12. reward 13. signed 14. stated 15. sue 16. terms 17. under seal 18. verbally 19. voided 20. writing

A contract can be defined as 'an …………………... between two or more parties to create legal …………………... between them'. Some contracts are made '…………………...': in other words, they are …………………... and sealed (stamped) by the parties involved. Most contracts are made …………………... or in …………………... . The essential elements of a contract are: (a) that an …………………... made by one party should be …………………... by the other; (b) …………………... (the price in money, goods or some other …………………... , paid by one party in exchange for another party agreeing to do something); (c) the …………………... to create legal relations. The …………………... of a contract may be …………………... (clearly stated) or …………………... (not clearly …………………... in the contract, but generally understood). A …………………... of contract by one party of their …………………... entitles the other party to …………………... for …………………... or, in some cases, to seek specific performance. In such circumstances, the contract may be …………………... (in other words, it becomes invalid). B. Forming a contract 2

Complete the sentences with words from the box.

1. barred 2. brought 3. delivered 4. executed 5. performed 6. rendered 7. required

8. treated 9. bound 10. consented 11. enforced 12. implied 13. recognised 14. set aside

1- The contract was …………………... unenforceable after 12 years.

2- The contract was technically voidable but the parties …………………...it as binding.

3- Because of the limitation period, you are …………………...from bringing an action.

4- The other party has …………………...to the terms of the contract.

5- The contract was …………………... by the court because it was defective.

6- Although there was no written agreement, the court decided the conduct of the parties …………………… a contract.

7- Registration of the transfer of land is …………………... by the law.


C. Express and implied terms

Replace the underlined words and phrases in the written contract term below with alternative words and phrases. Use each word or phrase only once. There is more than one possibility for one of the answers.

8.1 (1) In the situation that the Goods have been manufactured by the Seller and are found to be (2) broken or imperfect, the Seller shall (3) mend, or (4) if it chooses to do so, (5) substitute defective Goods free of charge (6) in less than 2 years from the (7) time the goods are received. (8) depending on the following (9) terms: 8.1.1 the Buyer notifying the Seller in writing immediately upon the (10) faults becoming apparent; 8.1.2 the defect being (11) because of the (12) incorrect design, materials or workmanship of the Seller;

D. Exclusion, limitation and standard clauses

Replace the underlined words and phrases in the exclusion clause below with alternative words and phrases. There is more than one possibility for one of the answers.

9.4 Except as provided in Condition 8.3, the Seller will (1) not bear responsibility to the Buyer (2) at all (whether in contract, tort (including (3) carelessness), breach of statutory (4) obligation or otherwise) for any (5) harm or for any direct, indirect or (6) resulting loss (all three of which terms include, but are not limited to, pure economic loss, loss of profits, loss of business, loss of (7) good reputation and like loss) (8) caused by or in connection with: 9.4.1 any (9) failure of any of the express or implied terms of the Contract by the Seller;


AVRUPA İNSAN HAKLARI MAHKEMESİ KARARLARINDAN

İKİNCİ BÖLÜM KABUL EDİLEBİLİRLİK HAKKINDA KARAR M. D. / TÜRKİYE Başvuru no. 28582/05 Yukarıda belirtilen 3 Ağustos 2005 tarihinde yapılan başvuruyu göz önünde bulundurarak, Davalı hükümetin sunduğu gözlemleri ve bu gözlemlere karşılık başvuranın sunduğu gözlemleri göz önünde bulundurarak, Yapılan müzakereler sonucunda aşağıdaki kararı vermiştir: OLAYLAR 1. Türk vatandaşı olan M. D. 1961 doğumlu olup, İzmir’de ikamet etmektedir. Başvuran İzmir Barosuna bağlı Avukat S. Cengiz tarafından temsil edilmiştir. 2. Türk Hükümeti (“Hükümet”) ise kendi görevlisi tarafından temsil edilmiştir. A. Davanın Koşulları 3. Davanın koşulları, taraflarca ibraz edildiği şekilde aşağıdaki gibi özetlenebilir. 4. Olayların meydana geldiği zamanda, başvuran Cumhuriyet savcısı olarak görev yapmaktaydı. Başvuran 1991 yılında Diyarbakır’ın bir ilçesi olan Silvan’a atanmıştır. Başvuran 1993 yılında depresyondan muzdarip olduğunu gösteren iki tıbbi rapor almıştır. Başvuran daha sonra Trabzon’a oradan da Ordu’ya atanmıştır. Başvuran 16 Haziran 1993 ve 14 Ocak 1994 tarihlerinde Adli Tıp Kurumu doktorlarınca ayrıca muayene edilmiştir. Doktorlar başvuranın paranoid sendromdan muzdarip olduğu sonucuna varmışlardır. Adli Tıp Kurumu 19 Ocak 1994 tarihli raporunda başvuranın çalışmaya elverişli olmadığını ifade etmiştir. Sonuç olarak 21 Kasım 1994 tarihinde başvuran görevinden alınmıştır. 5. Başvuran 9 Aralık 1999 tarihinde İzmir Üniversitesinin psikiyatri servisi tarafından bir kez daha muayene edilmiştir. Raporda başvuranın hala çalışmaya elverişli olmadığı belirtilmiştir. 6. 28 Aralık 1999 tarihinde başvuran Emekli Sandığı’na başvurmuş ve maluliyet maaşı almayı talep etmiştir. Bu bağlamda, başvuran Cumhuriyet savcısı olarak görev yaptığı Silvan bölgesinde gerçekleşen terör olayları nedeniyle

SECOND SECTION DECISION M. D. against Turkey Application no. 28582/05 Having regard to the above application lodged on 3 August 2005, Having regard to the observations submitted by the respondent Government and the observations in reply submitted by the applicant, Having deliberated, decides as follows: THE FACTS 1. The applicant, Mr M. D., is a Turkish national, who was born in 1961 and lives in Izmir. He was represented before the Court by Mr S. Cengiz, a lawyer practising in İzmir. 2. The Turkish Government (“the Government”) were represented by their Agent. A. The circumstances of the case 3. The facts of the case, as submitted by the parties, may be summarised as follows. 4. At the time of the events, the applicant was a public prosecutor. In 1991, he was appointed to Silvan, a district of Diyarbakır. In 1993, he obtained two medical reports, indicating that he was suffering from depression. The applicant was then appointed to Trabzon and later to Ordu. On 16 June 1993 and 14 January 1994, the applicant was further examined by doctors at the Forensic Medicine Institute. The doctors concluded that the applicant suffered from a paranoid syndrome. In a report dated 19 January 1994, the Forensic Medicine Institute issued a report stating that the applicant was unfit to work. Consequently, on 21 November 1994 the applicant was dismissed from his post. 5. On 9 December 1999 the applicant was once again examined by the psychiatry service of the İzmir University Hospital. The report indicated that the applicant was still unfit to work. 6. On 28 December 1999 the applicant applied to the Retirement Fund and asked to benefit from a disability pension. In this respect, he alleged that he was suffering from a mental disorder as a result of the terror incidents in the Silvan area,


zihinsel bir hastalık yaşadığını ileri sürmüştür. 7. 13 Nisan 2000 tarihinde, Emekli Sandığı başvuranın talebini kendisinin iddialarının asılsız olduğu gerekçesiyle reddetmiştir. Bu bağlamda, Emekli Sandığı başvuranın atıf yaptığı terör olaylarının gerçekleşmediğini ve kendisinin suç uydurduğunu belirten ve başvuranın ifadeleriyle çelişen polis raporlarına dayanmıştır. 8. Başvuran 14 Haziran 2000 tarihinde Ankara İdare Mahkemesi nezdinde Emekli Sandığı’nın 13 Nisan 2000 tarihli kararının iptali istemiyle dava açmıştır. 9. Ankara İdare Mahkemesi 28 Şubat 2001 tarihinde başvuranın talebini reddetmiştir. Söz konusu mahkeme, kararında tıbbi raporları ve polis raporlarını göz önünde bulundurarak, başvuranın zihinsel rahatsızlığının maluliyet maaşı almak için gerekli bir koşul olmak üzere iş kaynaklı olmadığının sabit olduğuna karar vermiştir. Dolayısıyla, Mahkeme başvuranın maluliyet maaşı almaya hakkının olmadığına karar vermiştir. 10. 6 Ekim 2004 tarihinde Danıştay, Ankara İdare Mahkemesi’nin gerekçesini ve delil üzerinde yaptığı değerlendirmesini onayarak başvuranın temyiz talebini reddetmiştir. Temyiz sürecinde, Danıştay Cumhuriyet Başsavcısı dava hakkında yeni bir sav ortaya sürmeden konu hakkında yazılı mütalaa vermiştir. Cumhuriyet Başsavcısı basit bir şekilde mahkemeyi ihtilaf konusu kararı onamaya davet etmiştir. Söz konusu mütalaa başvurana tebliğ edilmemiştir. 11. Söz konusu nihai karar başvurana 8 Şubat 2005 tarihinde tebliğ edilmiştir. ŞİKÂYETLER 13. Başvuran Sözleşme’nin 6. maddesine dayanarak, yargılamaların uzunluğundan ve Danıştay nezdindeki temyiz incelemesi esnasında Cumhuriyet başsavcısının yazılı mütalaasının kendisine tebliğ edilmemesinden “şikâyetçi olmuştur. 15. Başvuran ayrıca Sözleşme’nin 13. maddesi uyarınca şikâyetleriyle ilgili olarak etkin hukuk yollarının bulunmadığını ifade etmiştir. 16. Son olarak, başvuran yetkililerin kendisine maluliyet maaşı vermeyi reddetmesinin kendisinin Sözleşme’ye Ek 1.No.lu Protokol’ün 1. maddesi kapsamındaki haklarını ihlal ettiğini ifade etmiştir. HUKUKİ DEĞERLENDİRME A. Yargılamaların uzunluğu 17. Başvuran yargılamaların uzunluğunun Sözleşme’nin 6 § 1 maddesinde öngörülen “makul süre” koşuluna uymadığından şikâyetçi olmuştur.

where he had worked as a public prosecutor. 7. On 13 April 2000 the Retirement Fund rejected the applicant’s request, indicating that the applicant’s allegations were baseless. In this connection, they relied on police reports which contradicted the applicant’s submissions by stating that the terror incidents referred to by the applicant had not taken place and that he was making false accusations. 8. On 14 June 2000 the applicant initiated proceedings before the Ankara Administrative Court to obtain the annulment of the Fund’s decision dated 13 April 2000. 9. On 28 February 2001 the Ankara Administrative Court dismissed the applicant’s request. In its decision, taking into account the medical reports and the police report, the court found it established that the applicant’s mental condition was not work-related, which was a condition to benefit from a disability pension. The court therefore concluded that the applicant was not entitled to receive a disability pension. 10. On 6 October 2004 the Supreme Administrative Court, upholding the Ankara Administrative Court’s reasoning and assessment of the evidence, dismissed the applicant’s appeal. During the appeal proceedings, the Chief Public Prosecutor at the Supreme Administrative Court filed a written opinion on the case without putting forward any new arguments. He simply invited the court to uphold the impugned decision. This opinion was not communicated to the applicant. 11. This final decision was served on the applicant on 8 February 2005. COMPLAINTS 13. The applicant complained under Article 6 of the Convention about the excessive length of the proceedings and the non-communication of the Chief Public Prosecutor’s written opinion during the appeal proceedings before the Supreme Administrative Court. 15. The applicant further stated under Article 13 of the Convention that he had no effective remedy in respect of his complaints. 16. Finally, the applicant stated that the refusal of the authorities to grant him a disability benefit had breached his rights under Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to the Convention. THE LAW A. Length of proceedings 17. The applicant complained that the length of the proceedings had not been compatible with the “reasonable time” requirement laid down in


18. Hükümet, 6384 sayılı Kanun uyarınca, yargılamaların uzunluğu ve kararların icra edilmemesine ilişkin başvuruları incelemek üzere Tazminat Komisyonunun kurulması suretiyle yeni bir hukuk yolunun oluşturulduğunu beyan etmiştir. Hükümet, başvuranın söz konusu Tazminat Komisyonuna başvuruda bulunmamış olması nedeniyle iç hukuk yollarının tüketilmediğini ileri sürmüştür: bu gerekçe, Mahkeme’nin Müdür Turgut ve Diğerleri ((k.k.), no. 4860/09, 26 Mart 2013) kararında da kabul edilmiştir. 19. Mahkeme, Hükümet tarafından belirtildiği üzere, Ümmühan Kaplan/Türkiye (no. 24240/07, 20 Mart 2012) davasında pilot karar usulünün uygulanmasının ardından, Türkiye’de yeni bir iç hukuk yolunun oluşturulduğunu gözlemlemektedir. Mahkeme, sonrasında, Müdür Turgut ve Diğerleri (yukarıda anılan) davasında verdiği kararda, başvuranların iç hukuk yollarını, başka bir deyişle yeni oluşturulmuş olan bu hukuk yolunu tüketmedikleri gerekçesiyle, başvurunun kabul edilemez olduğuna karar vermiştir. Mahkeme, bu kararı verirken, özellikle, söz konusu yeni hukuk yolunun, yargılamaların uzunluğuna ilişkin şikâyetler bakımından, ilk bakışta erişilebilir ve makul bir çözüm sunacak nitelikte olduğu kanısına vardığını belirtmiştir. 21. Ancak, Mahkeme, Hükümetin başvuranın 6384 sayılı Kanun ile tesis edilmiş olan yeni iç hukuk yoluna başvurmamış olmasına ilişkin ilk itirazını göz önünde bulundurarak, Turgut ve Diğerleri (yukarıda anılan) davasında varmış olduğu sonucu yinelemektedir. Mahkeme bu nedenle, hukuk yargılamalarının aşırı uzun olduğuna ilişkin şikâyetin, iç hukuk yollarının tüketilmediği gerekçesiyle Sözleşme’nin 35 §§ 1 ve 4 hükümleri uyarınca reddedilmesi gerektiği sonucuna varmaktadır. B. Cumhuriyet Başsavcısının Yazılı Mütalaasının Tebliğ Edilmemesi 22. Başvuran Danıştay nezdinde gerçekleştirilen temyiz incelemesi sırasında Cumhuriyet Başsavcısının yazılı mütalaasının kendisine tebliğ edilmemesinin, çekişmeli adil yargılanma hakkını ihlal ettiğinden şikâyetçi olmuştur. Bu bakımdan, başvuran Sözleşme’nin 6 § 1 maddesine dayanmıştır. 24. Özellikle, Danıştay nezdindeki temyiz incelemesi esnasında Cumhuriyet Başsavcısının vermiş olduğu yazılı mütalaanın içeriğini göz önünde bulunduran Mahkeme, yukarıda anılan davada varmış olduğu sonuçlardan ayrılmasını gerektiren herhangi bir özel durum olmadığı kanaatindedir. Bu gerekçelerle, Mahkeme oy birliğiyle, Başvurunun kabul edilemez olduğuna karar verir..⚖

Article 6 § 1 of the Convention. 18. The Government noted that pursuant to Law no. 6384 a Compensation Commission had been established to deal with applications concerning the length of proceedings and the non-execution of judgments. They maintained that the applicant had not exhausted domestic remedies, as they had not made any application to the Compensation Commission: this ground had also been recognised by the Court in its decision in the case of Turgut and Others v. Turkey ((dec.), no. 4860/09, 26 March 2013). 19. The Court observes that, as pointed out by the Government, a new domestic remedy has been established in Turkey following the application of the pilot judgment procedure in the case of Ümmühan Kaplan v. Turkey (no. 24240/07, 20 March 2012). Subsequently, in its decision in the case of Turgut and Others, cited above, the Court declared a new application inadmissible on the ground that the applicants had failed to exhaust domestic remedies, that is to say the new remedy. In so doing, the Court considered in particular that this new remedy was a priori accessible and capable of offering a reasonable prospect of redress for complaints concerning the length of proceedings. 21. However, taking account of the Government’s preliminary objection with regard to the applicant’s failure to make use of the new domestic remedy established by Law no. 6384, the Court reiterates its conclusion in the case of Turgut and Others (cited above). It therefore concludes that the complaint of the excessive length of the civil proceedings must be rejected under Article 35 §§ 1 and 4 of the Convention for non-exhaustion of domestic remedies. B. Non-communication of the Chief Public Prosecutor’s written opinion 22. The applicant complained that the non-communication of the Chief Public Prosecutor’s written opinion during the appeal proceedings before the Supreme Administrative Court had violated his right to an adversarial and fair hearing. In this respect, he relied on Article 6 § 1 of the Convention. 24. Having in particular regard to the content of the written opinion filed by the Chief Public Prosecutor in the proceedings before the Supreme Administrative Court, the Court finds no particular reasons in the present case which would require it to depart from its findings in the aforementioned case. For these reasons, the Court, unanimously, Declares the application inadmissible..⚖


HUKUK JARGONUNDAN ÖZEL KELİMELER

“ Force Majeure ”

It is curious that modern English-speaking lawyers should adopt French legal terms, especially when most readers find them incomprehensible, and when many judges "regret the introduction of foreign words into English Statues and Orders without any definition".

Force majeure literally means a "superior force".

Force majeure clauses aim to protect one or both parties from being sued for not performing a contract because of circumstances beyond their control.

They differ from exclusion clauses which aim to protect a party even when the circumstances may be within their control.

Force majeure clauses are often found in contracts for construction, transport, insurance, or the regular supply of goods or services. They usually list "various catastrophes", then follow with a catch-all provision to cover any other circumstances beyond the control of both parties. They may also extend the time for performing or terminating the contract if force majeure event arises.

Origin

The phrase force majeure was used (but not defined) in article 1148 of the French Code Napoleon. It is the Law French equivalent of the Latin vis majors (irresistible violence), and can be been traced back to Roman contract law. The phrase only became common in English contracts in the 1900s, with the first case discussing it in 1904.

Meaning

Force majeure is an established technical term in French law. In common law it is not, and has undergone much judicial construction. It is difficult to define the elements of aþrce majeure event. Some essential elements are that:

> it may occur with or without human intervention > it cannot reasonably be foreseen by the parties > it is completely beyond the parties' control and they cannot prevent its consequences.

Parties cannot invoke force majeure clause if they rely on their own acts or omissions. Force majeure must be a legal or physical restraint, not merely an economic one.

Plain language

The meaning of force majeure is too vague for lawyers to argue that it is a technical term. We recommend using a broad clause like "I am not bound to perform this contract if it is impossible to perform because of events beyond my control, and that I could not have reasonably foreseen". If you use the phrase, explain what it means. Perhaps attach a list of examples of situations that the parties agree would excuse immediate performance but, remembering Ambatielos, add "without limiting the generality of these''.⚖


YABANCI ÜLKE KANUNLARINDAN MADDELER

Obligation and Contract

FRENCH CIVIL CODE

Chapter I - Preliminary Dispositions

Article 1101 - A contract is an agreement by which one or several persons obligate themselves to one or several others to give, to do, or not to do something. Article 1102 - A contract is synallagmatic or bilateral when the parties obligate themselves to each other reciprocally. Article 1103 - A contract is unilateral when one or more persons are obligated to one or several others who are not obligated to the former in return.

CIVIL CODE OF HUNGARY

Section 6:1 [Obligation]

(1) An obligation means a commitment to perform a service and an entitlement to demand performance of a service. (2) An obligation may pertain to the provision of something, an activity, abstaining from an activity, or some other conduct. (3) The parties may depart from the common provisions relating to the right and obligations of the parties upon mutual consent, provided it is not prohibited by this Act.

FEDERAL ACT ON THE AMENDMENT OF THE SWISS CIVIL CODE

(Part Five: The Code of Obligations)

A. Conclusion of the contract / I. Mutual expression of intent / 1. In general

Article 1

1 The conclusion of a contract requires a mutual expression of intent by the parties. 2 The expression of intent may be express or implied.

RUSSIAN CIVIL CODE

Article 420. The Concept of the Contract

1. The contract shall be recognized as the agreement, concluded by two or by several persons on the institution, modification or termination of the civil rights and duties. 2. Toward the contracts shall be applied the rules on bilateral and multilateral deals, stipulated by Chapter 9 of the present Code. 3. Toward the obligations, arising from the contract, shall be applied the general provisions on obligations (Articles 307-419), unless otherwise stipulated by the rules of the present Chapter and the rules on the individual kinds of contracts, contained in the present Code. 4. Toward the contracts, concluded by more than two parties, the general provisions on the contract shall be applied, unless this contradicts the multilateral nature of such contracts.⚖


Documents

K A P A K K O N U S U - HUKUK İNGİLİZCESİ...agreement, a hire purchase agreement, a hire contract, or a service contract, etc. The principles of contract law will determine whether